ε ([2016-01-09-1]) ˰³ơˤĤơμ礿ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥 (242) οޤȤΤǤꡤγƥפˤĤƤϻ䤬صŬʸƾΤƤä
I. II. Ľ
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b)
Ľ Ľ
ʵ̼ ʵ̼
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
#2341. ɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-24-1]) ʸ˿줿ɽʸ (ideogram) ɽʸ (logogram) ɽʸ (phonogram) äȡפʸ郎Ф#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) Ǥϳơñ˲⤷٤äϤ3ʸˤĤơ䤬ܲƤȤιͤϪϡʲοޤˤޤȤ롥ޤǤϤʤɤλĤޤǤϤΤʸΤȤƼ

ޤʸˤжˤˤ2ϡɽŪɽ (ideographic writing) ɽŪɽ (phonetic writing) Ǥ롥Ԥϰ̣ɽ路Ԥϲɽ魯Ū˸СԤϽ국 (signifié) Τߤɽ路Ԥǽ (signifiant) Τߤɽ魯ޤǤСˤĤжˤˤȤȤǤ롥
ɽʸɽʸϡǤʤ˴ؤƤ֤Ƥ롥ɽʸϡ̾ΥΡ뤤ϸ쳰γǰؤƤꡤɬľܤ˸ñ̤ȷӤĤƤʤΤФơɽʸϡ̾첻ɽ路Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤɽʸɬŪǤϤʤɽʸϸŪǤ롥
ξԤŪʰ֤ΤɽʸǤ롥ɽʸϸȤ餫˸Ūñ̤ؤƤΤǡǤϱü˰֤Ƥ뤬ļˤĤƤŪ뤤϶ͭŪǤ롥ȤϽ국ǽåȤˤʤäΤǤ뤫顤ɽ魯ɽʸ⡤ʤ국ǽɽ魯ȤǤ롥
ŪˤϡɽʸɽʸȯŸɽʸؤȿʤɽʸȤơʣȤ߹碌ɽ綠ȤƤñ̤ϡ䲻ǤǤϤʤǤ롥̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ⡤ˤʸϡɽ˿ԤΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥ɽϡּ꤫餷Ƥ⡤ǤХΤ褤ʸʤΤǤϤʤ
ʸμˤĤơ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) #1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1]) ʤɤǹͤƤʸŪʸǤ⡤ɸ˷Ǥɽʸ (ideogram) ɽʸ (logogram) ɬΤΡξԤΰ㤤ȤʤȡƤڤ줬ФξԤƱƱ뤵뤳Ȥ⤢褦ˡξԤΤˤʤ㤤ΤΤƤͤɬ¿ʤϤӤäƤ뤳ȤϡBloomfield (285) μλŦΤ롥ɽʸΤȤɽʸפƤ¿褦
Systems of writing which use a symbol for each word of the spoken utterance, are known by the misleading name of ideographic writing. The important thing about writing is precisely this, that the characters represent not features of the practical world ("ideas"), but features of the writers' language; a better name, accordingly, would be word-writing or logographic writing.
äɽʸȤΤ⤢뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥ºݡΩɽʸȤΤʤȤɽŪʸλѤϤ롥
ɽʸȤϡˤ1ʤ꾮Ǥξ⤢뤬ˤбʸǤ롥ŵŪʸ쵭1ĤǤ뤫顤ǽ (signifiant) Ƚ국 (signifié) ӤĤñ̤Ǥ롥ñ̤Ф1ʸбƤȤɽʸȹͤ롥<> ȤˤȤȡܸʸ̮ǤϡĿʪɽ魯ڡפȤ1ˤ줤бƤΤǡɽʸȤäƤ褤ˤǽȽ국ξޤޤƤΤǡɽ魯 <> ʸˤ⡤/ki/ Ȥɤߤȡڡפΰ̣ξޤޤƤ롥ƱȤϡŪˤʣʹ¤ <> δˤĤƤ⤤롥
<> δΤȤƤ <> ƱɽʸȤ뤬ǤϡǤȤƤФʬܤСʬ <> ȤΩξƱͤɽŪȤäƤ褤Фϡ켫Τǽ⤿¸θˤʷǤˤбʤΤ顤ɽŪȤΤϤդ路ʤڤ˴ؤ뤳ȡڤμפȤۤɤξϴˤäƤꡤθ¤ˤɽŪǤȤ롥ФΩʸǤϤʤΤǡɽʸȸڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤɽŪʵǽäƤȤȤϤ (cf. #1197. Ѹ겾̾ ([2012-08-06-1]))
ʸɽɽϡŪˤϤΤ褦˶̤Ƥɬפ롥ܤ̯ʥΤˤ롥Ѹˤ륢ӥͤƤߤ褦<2> ȤʸʿˤϡѸǤ two ȤбŵŪɽʸȹͤƤ褤<2nd> ɽϤɤ3ʸʤ <2nd> ȤֻΤȤƤϡñ second бƤꡤɽʸƤ褤1ʸܤ <2> ФơˤϲȤФ褤ξ <2> ϡ¸β餫αñˤбƤ餺̣ȤƤΡ2פɽ路ƤˤȤɤޤ롥äơ <2> ɽʸŪѤƤȤ٤ϡ<> ˤФˤˤƤ롥ʤߤˡ³ <nd> ɽʸȤƵǽƤ롥ñΤȤƤ <2> ɽʸФΤ褦˻ȤƤ <2nd> <2> ɽʸȤ롥顤<2> ɽʸǤפȰŪ˸ڤ뤳ȤϤǤ<2> Ϥˡ˱ơɽŪˤɽŪˤⵡǽΤǤ롥դ꤬
Edgerton (150) Ѹʸ̮Ǥ <2> ˤĤơ˶̣ʬϤäƤ롥<222> "two hundred twenty-two" ʤɤɤޤ뤬㤨 "hundred" ɤߤϤɤȯΤȡǽ <2> two hundred Ȥʸ̩ˤ2Ȥ߹碌ˤб2Ĥ <2> twenty ȤбǸ <2> two ȤбȤ褦ˡơɽʸȤƵǽƤΤβˤ̵褦˻פ롥ꤹ줿ͤϡʸˤ2פ˴Ϣ̣ʤ줾2100ܡ10ܡ1ܡˤɽ路ƤɽʸǤȤơºݤλѤ˺ݤƤϡȤ10ˡȷγǰŬѤΤȤƤɽ魯ɽʸȤʤ롥
ʸݤˤϡɽʸǤȤɽʸǤʤɤȥƥꥫϡʸѤ˱ɽŪˤʤ롤뤤ɽŪˤʤȤ褦뤳Ȥɬפʾ¿ΤǤϤʤ
Edgerton, William F. "Ideograms in English Writing." Journal of the Linguistic Society of America 17 (1941): 148--50.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
19˸ؤȯŸäΤʤˤäɬ˸ؤ˹ť̻֤ȶ֤Ķ̸ۤؤȶŤȤƤɹκǽäWilhelm von Humboldt (1767--1835) Ǥ롥Humboldt θѤäǤꡤsapir-whorf_hypothesis Ȥʤ ѡ (Weltanschauung) ꡤŪ˴ŤŵŪ (cf. #522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1])) Ƥʤɤ
Humboldt θۤħŤΤ1Ĥˡ ergon (Werk; 줿) ǤϤʤ energeia (Tätigkeit; ʺƯ) ǤȤͤ롥Ṳ̄ϸˤºݤˤưŪʸݤǤȤ⤤Ǥ롥Ǥϡ줬ɤΤ褦ưŪʳưȤСĴѤۤɽ뤿˱ʵפ˷֤γưǤסʾϲۤp. 37ˡHumboldt ϡĴѤȻۤϢȤ櫓ĴƤꡤԤͭ¤ΤˤƸԤ̵¤оݤɽ뤫Ȥͤ³
ͭ¤̵¤뵡ȤС䤿 Chomsky ʸˡפ⤫٤ºݤΤȤ Humboldt θۤϡʸˡŪȯۤȤäƤ褤ʸˡǤǽ (competence) 䥽塼Υ (langue) ΤHumboldt (innere Sprachform) ȸƤˤϤ٤ƤθˤߤŪʬȸ줴Ȥ˸̤ˤߤʬȤ졤Ǥ Chomsky ʸˡѥιͤȶ롥ơ˶ŪʲȤήȡ줿ɽ롥
Humboldt's innere Sprachform is the semantic and grammatical structure of a language, embodying elements, patterns and rules imposed on the raw material of speech. (Robins 165)
Humboldt ˤȤäơȤϡʸˡ̣Ȥ˲ȤήळΰϢγưʤͥ륲ˤۤʤʤ
Humboldt θۤƱθؼԤˤۤɱƶͿ뤳ȤϤʤäθؤ礭ʤͤȤʤääƤʸˡ쿴ؤȤä礭μ19ƬˤǤ˼ƤȤˤʤ롥
Humboldt θۤˤĤƤϥå (31--33) ⻲ȡ
ϲ ͭӾ ɧ ˮɧԡˡ罤۱Ѹػŵ١罤۽Ź1983ǯ
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
ǯΤ˸ΤʤǰäƤǰ1Ĥˡּ (periphery) 롥μϳŪƤ褤ΤˤȯäξüʬȤȤ館Ƥȯäκü LP (left periphery)ü RP (right periphery) ȸƤФ졤ŪˤȤ櫓פʵǽ̤ݥȤ롥εǽȤϡŪˤϡñľΰտޤ롤ؤΥݥ饤ȥͥޤθžóϤʤɤι٤ޤޤʾ, p. 16ˡ
˸μ礿ؿǤɸ (discourse_marker) ϡΤ˼˸뤳Ȥ¿ɸŪˤϡȯä (bracket an utterance) ǽͭȤ뤬˸뤳ȤϡŪŬäƤȹͤ롥LP RP ξ¦鶴߹褦ˤơ֤פȤϡ줫ΤߤѤ뤳Ȥºݤˤ¿褦Ǥ롥
ǤϡLP ǤϤɤΤ褦ɸ¾ɽѤ뷹Τ뤤ϤɤΤ褦ʸŪǽ̤뤳Ȥ¿ΤޤRP ǤϤɤʤΤޤ̸Ūˤߤ硤"form-function-periphery mapping" ʾp. 17ˤδطˤĤƲ餫ϤޤܤƤʤޤǤθʬäƤȤϤĤ롥 (17--20) ꡤ3Ҳ𤷤褦
(1) LP ˤϡ³礿ʬ뤿ǧŪȤͿ֤䤹ηȤϡɸѸ if ⡤ɥĸ wenn ⡤ܱڥڥʬȥԥå--ȹ¤ΥȥԥåʬʤɤǤ롥ä꤬Ȥ˲餫ȤƤξȤȤ館롥
(2) LP RP ξý (turn-taking) ˴ؤäƤ롥äΤȤˤơȯäΥХȥäϡLP ˤýäȤꡤХȥϤȤˤ RP ˤý뤳Ȥ롥
(3) LP ˤϡ줫ԤüԤι٤Ǥ뤫Τ餻뵡ǽ롥СLP ֤ɸηϡäιٹ¤ (action structure) ʤ̤ɥĸüԤ줫Ҥ٤褦ȤȿаոΤ餻 obwohl 䡤ܸüԤäγϤ֤Ǥפʤɤ°롥
(1), (2), (3) Ϥ줾ϰۤʤ뤬ȯäפȤŪǽ̤Ƥ롥ǡ(1), (2), (3) ̸ĤθŪǽȤϡ줾줬ߤ˾Ϣ³ΤΤ褦ˤפ롥㤨СѸ Excuse me, but . . . ܸΡ֤ߤޤפ LP ˸졤(1) (3) ʤ (2) ⡩ˤεǽƱ˲̤ƤȹͤʤּפȤϡ⤷ǰƤ
ŵҡɸʸˡᤰȡּפȤͤס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ3--27ǡ
#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1]) ǰ褦ˡμ (borrowing) ϲǤꡤѸ (loanword) Ϸ̤Ǥ롥Weinreich Ūˤζ̤ĤԤϾʤäȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Roberts ȤԤζ̤ˤĤƤ롥Roberts (31--32) ϡܿβ "fusion" ȸƤӡ̤ȤƤξ֤ "mixture" ȸƤʬޤRoberts "fusion" "mixture" 줾ʬȤȤˡΤ褦ʲ̤ʳˤ2ѾΥפ2ĤʬΤȤƸܿȤ٤ΤƤ롥ʲRoberts (32) οƸ褦

ľʸɤߤʤˤȴ¿Ѹ줬Ω¤Ǥ뤬줾ŪʻȤδ֤ߤδطȤ館ˤΤBILINGUALISM FUSION MIXTURE ȤŪȸ2ν̤ɾǤȤƤ⡤ʳˤĤƤѸ줬äƤݤǤꡤƤɤδطƤRoberts (31--32) ˤΤޤäƤ餪
When a bilingual situation ends, the surviving language (that is, the language whose grammar prevails) is colored in greater or less degree by the perishing language (that is, the language whose grammar succumbs). The extent of this coloring depends upon the relationship of the two languages during the antecedent bilingualism. Subordinative bilingualism results in admixture; a portion of the weaker language is added to the stronger, which still retains both its grammatical and its lexical integrity. Co-ordinative bilingualism results in intermixture; virtually the entire vocabulary of the weaker language is swallowed up by the stronger, which thereby loses its lexical, though not its grammatical, integrity.
The words admixture and intermixture, as here used, denote accomplished situations, the results of processes. To designate the generative processes, the terms affusion and interfusion, corresponding respectively to admixture and intermixture, are proposed. Affusion has three modalities: infusion, suffusion, and superfusion. Interfusion has three stages or temporalities: diffusion, circumfusion, and retrofusion.
Affusion 鸫ƤȡInfusion ̾θμѤ롥Suffusion ϡظƶ (substratum_theory) ξظ줫θŪƶ롥Superfusion (loan_translation) 롥importation substitution ȤΩȡռŪʴĤ̵ռŪʴĤȤΩޤˤʤä褦ʬ
Interfusion ܤȡDiffusion äȼѸäѰ˴ؤʬؤƤ롥Ѹäˤ̤λع¤ʤɤˤߤФ褤 Interfusion ʳ餵˿ʤȡCircumfusion ʳȤʤ롥Ǥ㤨ƸϤ٤ƥեƥѸǤäƤ⡤괬ǽȤʤ褦ʾ߽Ф롥ˡRetrofusion ϥ줫ΰΡפβǤꡤեθˡαƶ house beautiful, knights templars, sufficient likelihood, nocturnal darkness ʤɤɽ߽Ф롥
Roberts 2 (bilingualism) δǤΩƤ褦ȤŪǤʸ褦ǰʤ餦ޤäƤ褦ˤϻפʤϤΤܿȤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Thomason and Kaufman ˤǥ뤬ǯǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
Ѥ˴ؤȷ̤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ⻲ȡޤϢơ#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) εȤĥä⻲Ȥ줿
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Roberts, Murat H. "The Problem of the Hybrid Language". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939): 23--41.
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ³ơűѸΥƥѸꡥűѸˤƥѸοϡˤ뤬ɴĤȤ롥Ȥ Miller (53) ϡο600--700ĤۤɤȸѤäƤ롥
Old English had some 600--700 loanwords from Latin, about 500 of which are common to Northwest Germanic . . ., and 287 of which are ultimately from Greek, seventy-nine via Christianity . . . .
ĿȤȤ˳ꤷΤϤ줾μѸμǯǤ롥[2013-04-03-1]εǤϡSerjeantson ˽äƼǯ (i) Φ塤(ii) c. 450--c. 650, (iii) c. 650--c. 1100 3ʬƼ¿ԤˤäƺѤƤŪʻʬǤ롥ȤۤܽŤʤ뤬4μѤȤäʲ4ʬƤƤ롥
(1) continental borrowings
(2) insular borrowings during the settlement phase [c. 450--600]
(3) borrowings [600+] from christianization
(4) learned borrowings that accompanied and followed the Benedictine Reform [c10e]
4ʬ˺٤ Dennis H. Green (Language and History in the Early Germanic World. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.) ˤʬ⤢ꡤMiller (54) Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥줾ħˤĤ Miller Ѥ˴ñդ
(1a) an early continental phase, when the Angles and Saxons were in Schleswig-Holstein (contact with merchants) and on the North Sea littoral as far as the mouth of the Ems (direct contact with the Romans)
ϾʤȤƾȸ줬¿ޤξʡƻʤɡwine ŵ㡥
(1b) a later continental period, when the Angles and Saxons had penetrated to the litus Saxonicum (Flanders and Normandy)
饤ϸǥͤȤľܿƼѤ줿Ȼפ street, tile ŵ㡥
(2a) an early phase, featuring possible borrowing via Celtic
λ°ȻפϡꥢäƤ¯ƥȲŪ˰פƤꡤ֥ƥǤμѤɤϵ路Ȥ⤤롥
(2b) a later phase, with loans from the continental Franks as part of their influence across the Channel, especially on Kent
(3) begins "with the coming of Augustine and his 40 companions in 597, and possibly even at an earlier date, with the arrival of Bishop Liudhard in the retinue of Queen Bertha of Kent in the 560s"
λμѸϸűѸβѲۤȤɼʤǡ¾λΤΤȰۤʤäƤ롥¿϶ƥѸǤ롥
(4) of a learned nature, culled from classical Latin texts, and differ little from the classical written form
ºݤˤϡޤǺ٤ȤꤷƤ⡤ѸȤˤϤ٤οäƷ褹뤳Ȥcontinental insular Ȥ绨ĤʬǤۣ early later 餤դȤȤ⾯ʤʤ
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
Ѹ濴Ȥƥ˴Ť츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ϡ#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) ˵ΤˤȤɤޤ餺ʤ餺롥θ츻ŪֻʬˡϤĤͤ뤬ֻƳ줿塤äȯȤδطɤʤäȤϡ3Ĥμʬह뤳ȤǤ롥ʲ (241--43) ˵äƼ
(1) ֻ˹碌ȯѤäΡʤֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ε#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿ԡ ([2014-08-22-1]) Ǥ Holofernes ŪʤΡ
| ME | Mod. E | Latin |
|---|---|---|
| savacioun | salvation | salvātiō |
| faute | fault | *fallitus |
| saume | psalm | psalmus |
| faucon | falcon | falcōn |
| caudroun | cauldron | caldārium |
| auter | alter | altāria |
| distrait | distracted | distractus |
| parfit | perfect | perfectus |
| descryve | describe | descrībere |
| suget, sugiet | subject | subjectus |
| egal | equal | aequālis |
| ME | ModE | Latin |
|---|---|---|
| det, dette | debt | debitum |
| dote, dute | doubt | dubitāre |
| sutil, satil | subtle | subtilis |
| receipt | receipt | recepta |
ꥹȶȥƥñμѤδطˤĤơ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤѤ˴ؤȤơ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) ʤɤεƤϡűѸΥƥѸֻȤ𤷤ơѤͻƤߤ
űѸˤϡꥹȶȤȤˡ¿νѸѸ줬ƥ줫ѸνդؤȤ⤿餵줿apostol (L apostulus), abbod (L abbadem), fenix (L phoenix), biscop (L episcopus) ʤɤǤ롥դ٤ϡѤκݤˡȯˤֻˤ衤ƥη֤ΤޤѤΤǤϤʤ¿ʬ˱Ѹ첽ƼǤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ȥ10˥ƥѤΤ⤦1ĤȤäȤˤϡƥñϱѸ첽줺ۤܤΤޤޤη֤ǼѤƤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸΥƥѤ2ĤȤδ֤ˤϡŪʺäȤˤʤ롥κHorobin (64--65) ϼΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
What is striking about these loanwords is that their pronunciation and spelling has been assimilated to Old English practices, so that the spelling-sound correspondences were not disturbed. Note, for instance, the spelling mynster, which shows the Old English front rounded vowel /y/, the <æ> in Old English mæsse, indicating the Old English front vowel. The Old English spelling of fenix with initial <f> shows that the word was pronounced the same way as in Latin, but that the spelling was changed to reflect Old English practices. While the spelling of Old English biscop appears similar to that of Latin episcopus, the pronunciation was altered to the /ʃ/ sound, still heard today in bishop, and so the <sc> spelling retained its Old English usage. This process of assimilation can be contrasted with the fate of the later loanword, episcopal, borrowed from the same Latin root in the fifteenth century but which has retained its Latin spelling and pronunciation. However, during the third state of Latin borrowing in the tenth century, a number of words from Classical Latin were borrowed which were not integrated into the native language in the same way. The foreign status of these technical words was emphasized by the preservation of their Latinate spellings and structure, as we can see from a comparison of the tenth-century Old English word magister (Latin magister), with the earlier loan mægester, derived from the same Latin word. Where the earlier borrowing has been respelled according to Old English practices, the later adoption has retained its classical Latin spelling.
ѤμȤƤϡƥη֤˴ŤƤȤ substitution ǤϤʤ importation Ǥ롥Ʊ importation ȤäƤ⡤ϥǥ뤫æֻˤϥǥ¤ֻˤǤꡤimportation ȤǤٺ롥 substitution ǤϤʤΤԤϸԤ substitution ˰ᤤ importation Ǥ롤ɽ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤäդǤȤСԤϥƥñѸŪȯǼ뤳ȤˡԤϸǤƥȯǼ뤳Ȥ롥äݤȤСñܸؼѤȤ˥ʽ뤫ѸƱ褦˥ե٥åȤ֤뤫ȤƱȤűѸǤϡˡ뤫ˤäưۤʤäƤȤΤ̣
ѸΥǥؤζ٤ȤݤˡƤŪ˼ѤͻݤˡֻκȤѥͿȤΤϡȯäϢơ줬ѤȤ importation Ǥ٤ȡѤ줿˽˼Ʊ٤Ȥζ̤Τˤɬפ뤫⤷ʤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#46. ѤϤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-13-1]) εǡä¾줫ѤͳͤΡ֤ʤפϵˤ䤤ǤꡤܳŪɵ椹ΤǤС¾4W1H䤤٤ƤʤФʤʤwhy ˡwhat, who, when, where, how 䤦ɬפȤȤ borrowing ε濴ˡܥ֥Ǥ͡ʥץΤäƤ
ѸΡ֤ʤפͤȤƤϡHans Käsmann (Studien zum kirchlichen Wortschatz des Mittelenglischen 1100--1350. Eng Beitrag zum Problem der Sprachmischung. Tübingen, 1961.) ˵ä Görlach (149--50) ΤΤΤǾҲ𤷤褦"causes and situations favouring the transfer" ȤơΤ褦ʬɽǤƤʸ "A11" ʤɤϡGörlach ΥƥȻȵˡ
(A) Gaps in the indigenous lexis
1. The word is taken over together with the new content and the new object: A11 myrre, D31 senep, F21 sabat, synagoge.
2. A well-known content has no word to designate it: D32 plant
3. Existing expressions are insufficient to render specific nuances ('misericordia', see blow).
(B) Previous weakening of the indigenous lexis
4. The content had been experimentally rendered by a number of unsatisfactory expressions: E15 leorningcniht||disciple.
5. The content had been rendered by a word weakened by homonymy, polysemy, or being part of an obsolescent type of word-formation: C24 hilid||covered; C25 hǣlan = heal, save; H11 hǣlend||sauyoure.
6. An expression which is connotationally loaded needs to be replaced by a neutral expression.
(C) Associative relations
7. A word is borrowed after a word of the same family has been adopted: D49 iust (after justice; cf. judge n., v., judgement).
8. The borrowing is supported by a native word of similar form: læccan catchen; the process was particularly important with adoptions from Scandinavian.
9. 'Corrections': an earlier loanword is adapted in form/replaced by a new loanword: F2 engel||aungel.
(D) Special extralinguistic conditions
10. Borrowing of words needed for rhymes and metre.
11. Adoptions not motivated by necessity but by fashion and prestige.
12. Words left untranslated because the translator was incompetent, lazy or anxious to stay close to his source: H10 euangelise EV.
There remain a large number of uncertain classifications, most of these somehow connected with 11), a category which is very difficult to define.
(A), (B), (C) ϤޤȤơ¸θηϤѤؤΰϤȤȤǤ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ǤߤݥȤ롥(D) Ϥ褽쳰ŪװȤ٤ΤǤ롥̾μѤˤˤϡ쳰Ūװܤ뤳Ȥ¿ʬŪˤΰ夤ΤħɤΤȤǸâƨǤäƤ褦ˡΤ褦ʬΩƤ뤳Ȥ˸³ΤFischer (105) ϡʬɽƤ롥
Like all attempts to "explain" language change, this one suffers from the fact that explanations can only be guessed at and that actual, verifiable proof is hard to come by. Any such typology, therefore, will remain tentative.
ƬǽҤ٤褦ˡޤϼѤ4W1H¤Ƥ椯ȤϤɬפ롥
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
Fischer, Andreas. "Lexical Borrowing and the History of English: A Typology of Typologies." Language Contact in the History of English. 2nd rev. ed. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky and Arthur Mettingers. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003. 97--115.
ε#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) Ⱥε#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ǡThomason and Kaufman ˵äơܿˤĤƤΰۤʤԤΰ Thomason ñȤ Language Contact ˤƤ⡤褽Ʊ֤Ƥ뤬ˤϤŪʸܿ˴ؤ륿ݥƤΤǼƤThomason ϸܿˤѲη "contact-induced language change" ȸƤǤ뤬(1) ͽ¬ɸ (predictors) (2) 줬˵ڤܤ¤Ūʱƶ (effects)(3) Υᥫ˥ (mechanisms) Ƥ (60) "contact-induced language change" ʳθܿ2Ĥη "extreme language mixture" "language death" ΥݥȤȤˡʲ˼
LANGUAGE CONTACT TYPOLOGIES: LINGUISTIC RESULTS AND PROCESSES
1. Contact-induced language change
A typology of predictors of kinds and degrees of change
Social factors
Intensity of contact
Presence vs absence of imperfect learning
Speakers' attitudes
Linguistic factors
Universal markedness
Degree to which features are integrated into the linguistic system
Typological distance between source and recipient languages
A typology of effects on the recipient-language structure
Loss of features
Addition of features
Replacement of features
A typology of mechanisms of contact-induced change
Code-switching
Code alternation
Passive familiarity
'Negotiation'
Second-language acquisition strategies
First-language acquisition effects
Deliberate decision
2. Extreme language mixture: a typology of contact languages
Pidgins
Creoles
Bilingual mixed languages
3. A typology of routes to language death
Attrition, the loss of linguistic material
Grammatical replacement
No loss of structure, not much borrowing
predictors ϡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ǵΤȤ˳ĥΤǤ롥effects γƹϡबȹͤŪʲǽƤȹͤФ褤mechanisms ȤϡѲƤ븽ˤơüԡʽġˤ˵äƤ뤳ȡ̣ǤοŪȿΤǤ롥
¤ˤϤۤɤ줤˼ޤʤܿ˴ؤ礭ʸޤȤƤϻͤˤʤ
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.
2֤θܿˤƤϡ뤤˸μѤ롥θܿȼѤζ٤ϡθäѤ٤ξʤΤ顤ʸˡƤʤɤι¤ŪǤѤ٤礭Τޤ͡ꤦ뤬źθܿλ㤫顤μ٤뤳Ȥϲǽ
ˤĤƤϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1]) ۤʬŪ˸ڤƤε#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ǰѤ Thomason and Kaufman (74--76) ˤѼ ("BORROWING SCALE") ߤΤȤǤܳŪʤΤԤϸܿ礭 borrowing shift-induced interference ʬƤ뤬Ǥμ٤ϤޤԤ˴ؤΤǤ롥5ʳ˶̤줿٥Ѥ롥
(1) Casual contact: lexical borrowing only
Lexicon:
Content words. For cultural and functional (rather than typological) reasons, non-basic vocabulary will be borrowed before basic vocabulary.
(2) Slightly more intense contact: slight structural borrowing
Lexicon:
Function words: conjunctions and various adverbial particles.
Structure:
Minor phonological, syntactic, and lexical semantic features. Phonological borrowing here is likely to be confined to the appearance of new phonemes with new phones, but only in loanwords. Syntactic features borrowed at this stage will probably be restricted to new functions (or functional restrictions) and new orderings that cause little or no typological disruption.
(3) More intense contact: slightly more structural borrowing
Lexicon:
Function words: adpositions (prepositions and postpositions). At this stage derivational affixes may be abstracted from borrowed words and added to native vocabulary; inflectional affixes may enter the borrowing language attached to, and will remain confined to, borrowed vocabulary items. Personal and demonstrative pronouns and low numerals, which belong to the basic vocabulary, are more likely to be borrowed at this stage than in more casual contact situations.
Structure:
Slightly less minor structural features than in category (2). In phonology, borrowing will probably include the phonemicization, even in native vocabulary, of previously allophonic alternations. This is especially true of those that exploit distinctive features already present in the borrowing language, and also easily borrowed prosodic and syllable-structure features, such as stress rules and the addition of syllable-final consonants (in loanwords only). In syntax, a complete change from, say, SOV to SVO syntax will not occur here, but a few aspects of such a switch may be found, as, for example, borrowed postpositions in an otherwise prepositional language (or vice versa).
(4) Strong cultural pressure: moderate structural borrowing
Structure:
Major structural features that cause relatively little typological change. Phonological borrowing at this stage includes introduction of new distinctive features in contrastive sets that are represented in native vocabulary, and perhaps loss of some contrasts; new syllable structure constraints, also in native vocabulary; and a few natural allophonic and automatic morphophonemic rules, such as palatalization or final obstruent devoicing. Fairly extensive word order changes will occur at this stage, as will other syntactic changes that cause little categorial alteration. In morphology, borrowed inflectional affixes and categories (e.g., new cases) will be added to native words, especially if there is a good typological fit in both category and ordering.
(5) Very strong cultural pressure: heavy structural borrowing
Structure:
Major structural features that cause significant typological disruption: added morphophonemic rules; phonetic changes (i.e., subphonemic changes in habits of articulation, including allophonic alternations); loss of phonemic contrasts and of morphophonemic rules; changes in word structure rules (e.g., adding prefixes in a language that was exclusively suf-fixing or a change from flexional toward agglutinative morphology); categorial as well as more extensive ordering changes in morphosyntax (e.g., development of ergative morphosyntax); and added concord rules, including bound pronominal elements.
Ѹ˾μפʸܿλƤϤȡűѸˤ륱ȸ졤űѸʹߤΥƥȤܿϥ٥1١ѸʹߤΥեȤܿϥ٥2١űѸθťΥɸȤܿϤ٥3٤Ǥ롥ѸŪ˸ܿ¿Ѥ줿ˤդƤȤŪʱѸʻˡ˴Ѥϡ켫ΤȤƸäƤ櫓ǤϤʤThomason and Kaufman ΥǤСȤϤʤˤϤäȷ㤷ܿФƤ줬¿¸ߤΤȤȤˤʤ롥̸Ū̸ߤ븫ѤƤߤƤ빥ǤϤʤ
ܸˤĤƤ⡤˻˸ꤹʴˤνפʱƶäΤΡBORROWING SCALE ǤСϤ٤˻ޤн줫ν٤ܿä⤷ʤˤäƤ borrowing Ȥ̼θܿǤꡤ嵭ΥδɳˤȤߤʤ shift-induced interference ͿƤǽ⤢롥
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) ǡThomason and Kaufman ̾˿줿 Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) ϡǯܿ (contact linguistics) 礭ʱƶڤܤǤ롥θ줫¿λ˴ŤܿθθνפʥեȤʤäƤ롥ѸˤȤδϢǤϡä˱ѸȸťΥɸȤܿ (Norsification) ˤĤλ䤭ĤġǤäťΥɸαѸؤοʱƶȤŪʤťΥɸαѸؤαƶϤФиƤۤǻǤϤʤܿˤѤζ٤ɽ魯5ʳΥ٥ΤΥ٥2?3˲ʤȷŤΤƤεɤȤˡQʤơܤڤפȤƤ롥˴ؤƤ Thomason and Kaufman ζŪʽ긫ϡ#1182. ťΥɸȤθܿϤǤϤʤ ([2012-07-22-1]) ǰѤ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤϤThomason and Kaufman ؤȽ⾯ʤʤȤդäƤ
Thomason and Kaufman ϡܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸȤơʲΤ褦ʼҲŪʹܤȸŪʹܤǧƤ롥
(1) (sociolinguistic) intensity of contact (46)
a) "long-term contact with widespread bilingualism among borrowing-language speakers" (67);
b) "A high level of bilingualism" (67);
c) consideration of population (72);
d) "sociopolitical dominance" and/or "other social settings" (72)
(2) (linguistic) markedness (49, 212--13)
(3) (linguistic) typological distance (49, 212--13)
Thomason and Kaufman ϡŪˤ (1) μҲŪʻɸŪ˽פǤ⤹롥ŪɸǤ (2), (3) ͿΤϡ촳Ĥ٤Ū㤤 ("light to moderate structural interference" (54)) ǤꡤŪˤϱƤȡ
. . . it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact. Purely linguistic considerations are relevant but strictly secondary overall. (35)
ξǡThomason and Kaufman ϡ(3) 2֤ŪʵΥˤĤƼΤ褦ʾQŪʸƤ롥
The more internal structure a grammatical subsystem has, the more intricately interconnected its categories will be . . . ; therefore, the less likely its elements will be to match closely, in the typological sense, the categories and combinations of a functionally analogous subsystem in another language. Conversely, less highly structured subsystems will have relatively independent elements, and the likelihood of a close typological fit with corresponding elements in another language will be greater. (72--73)
Thomason and Kaufman ϡ¾λɸȤüԡʽġˤμҲŪ "attitudinal factors" ˤ⤿ӤӸڤǤ뤬äͽ¬ΤɸǤ뤳Ȥ顤礿ˤȤ߹Ǥʤºݤˤϡ "attitudinal factors" ܿˤϺǤͿŪʤΤԤ褯褯ŤƤ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤ
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ߤγ´ʸߤƤǡFischer ˤѸ츦ΥݥˤĤƤʸɤѸˤޤˤѸäθϡ3ĤδʤƤȤ(1) morpho-etymological (or morphological), (2) lexico-semantic (or semantic), (3) socio-historical (or sociolinguistic) Ǥ롥
(1) ϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) 褦ˡmodel loan ȤŪˤʤطˤ뤫ȤǤ롥Ūʴطܤ˸Τ importationʤΡʤʤ̣Τߤμѡˤ importation Ǥ롥(2) ϡѤξˤꡤ¦ΰ̣ηϤȸηϤԤ줿ݤǤ롥(3) ϡμѤɤΤ褦ʼҲŪʾΤȤ˹Ԥ줿ξԤشط餫ˤ褦ȤǤ롥3ʬϸߤ˸Ȥ⤢뤷¤θȤ߹碌ɵ椵ʤФʤʤΤʬȻפ
Fischer ϡΤʤ (3) μҲŪʴϺǤⶽ̣뤬ܤ˸븦̤ϴԤǤʤŪǤ롥δŻ뤷 Thomason and Kaufman Ȥ⤯ɾʤ⡤Ѹ츦ˤϹʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Of the three types of typologies discussed here, the third, although the most attractive because of its sociolinguistic orientation, is possibly the least useful for a study of lexical borrowing: lexis is an unreliable indicator of the precise nature of a contact situation, and the socio-historical evidence necessary to reconstruct the latter is often not available. Morphological and semantic typologies on the other hand, though seemingly more traditional, can yield a great deal of new information if an attempt is made to study a whole semantic domain and if such studies are truly comparative, comparing different text types, different source languages or different periods. (110)
Fischer (1) (2) δѸ츦ˤƴ˾ΤƤǤȻ롥츫ȡѸˤ˸ꤷ硤2ĤδȤ櫓 (1) δϡ˸椬ʤƤΤǤϤʤȻפ뤬ƳȤǤʤ㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ɽ substitution μѸˤĤƤϡѤۤɤʤˤϡimportation Ф substitution ϰ̣ΤǸˤȡ٤ȤŪʤȤͳȤƵ롥
ˤƤ⡤ѤȤˡˤ importation ǡ̤ξˤ substitution ǼΤϤʤظˤɤΤ褦ƯƤΤ¦üԡʽġˤο䡤ŪŪʸȤäҲŪװˤĤƤϸڤ뤳Ȥ뤬嵭 (1) (2) θŪʴΥץϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤Fischer (100) ռ"why certain types of borrowing seem to be more frequent than others, depending on period, source language, text type, speech community or language policy, to name only the most obvious factors." ŪͤƤ롥伫Ȥ⡤Ʊͤռ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ʤɤǼƤ
ѸˤˤƥѸͤƤߤСűѸǤ importation ¤ substitution ¿äʤषԤΤۤ¿äȤˤѸʹߤ importation ήǤ롥Fischer (101) ǿƤ褦ˡStandard High German Swiss High German ˤޥϼѸǤϡԤ substitution ꡤԤ importation ηꥫѸǤ substitution fall ФƥꥹѸǤ importation autumn Ȥ̣⤢롥ܸؤθμѤ⡤ˤϴˤ substitution ήäˤ importation ŪȤʤäˤäơˤäơimportation substitution Ψư뤬ˤϼҲŪװȤ̤˲餫θŪװƯƤǽΤ
Fischer (105) ϡΤ褦ʿ¿פĤȤǤȤѸˤˤȤ3ĤƤ롥
How many of all Scandinavian borrowings have replaced native terms, how many have led to semantic differentiation?
How does French compare with Scandinavian in this respect?
How many borrowings from language x are importations, how many are substitutions, and what semantic domains do they belong to?
HTOED (Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary) Ǥ줿ߡ̣μѤǤ substitution ˴ؤ븦䤹ʤäƤѸѸ츦̤Ϥ줫뤽
Fischer, Andreas. "Lexical Borrowing and the History of English: A Typology of Typologies." Language Contact in the History of English. 2nd rev. ed. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky and Arthur Mettingers. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003. 97--115.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#1518. ([2013-06-23-1]) ˰³Ƥӥˤ˴ؤꡥϰˤѤƤμҲŪ°ҤŪˡϤꤦƹϰ衤ƸˤĤƷ§äҤ夲̤ʬह뤳ȤǡҲŪʸʤΤۤ뤳ȤϤǤΤ
ε٤Ferguson, Steward ʸ̤θܻؤ㤨Сѥ饰¿Ѿϡ"3L = 2L maj (So, Vg) + 0L min + 1L spec (Cr)" ʤɤɽ롥μ̣Ȥϡ̤Ǥ롥ѥ饰ˤ3줬롥2Ĥ¿ǡɸಽ줿ѸΥƥ̱äǤ륰ˡ줫ʤ롥ϤʤΥơˤŵ졤Ȥƥƥ줬ѤƤʥ, p. 33ˡ
Fasold ϸεǽȳ줿°Ȥǥ벽ߡ Chaudenson ϥѥȥơ˼ä2ץåȤοƤ㤨СFasold ˤ뵡ǽ°δط魯ɽϼ̤ʥp. 40ˡ
| ǽ | ҲŪ˳Ƥ° |
|---|---|
| Ū | 1. ɸಽ |
| 2. λ̱ѤƤ | |
| ̱²Ū | 1. ʤοˤȤäƤ̱²ǥƥƥξħ |
| 2. Υߥ˥ǹѤƤ | |
| 3. ǹ̤äƤ | |
| 4. ƱǽĽפظ줬ʤ | |
| 5. ξħȤƼƤ | |
| 6. ȴط | |
| Ū | 1. äǻѤƤ |
| 2. ¾ԤȤޤƱˡ¾Ԥȶ̤ΤüԤ˹ͤƤ | |
| Ū | 1. ʤȤξɤˤȤäơֳؽפȸʤƤ |
| Ū | 1. ŪݸפΥꥹȤ˺ܤäƤ |
| Ū | 1. ̤θƱʤʾɸಽԤʤƤ |
| Ū | 1. ŵŪ |
①Ūǡ --- ϤĤΤθˤɤΤ餤üԤΤ
②ˡŪǡ --- ¸ΥơϡˡǧƤ뤫ݤǥ䶵ʤɤǻѤƤ뤫ݤ
③ǽŪǡ --- Ψ¿ܹäƤĶȸ줫줫줫
④̻Ūǡ --- γ֤ãΨʤɡ
⑤ħŪǡ --- ¸ߤΰҸؤδ𡤥ߥ˥άʤɡ
⑥Ωǡ --- Ѥδطǽ䴰ʤɡ
⑤⑥ˤĤƤϡŬʷ̤λʤΤǤ롥 (51) ϡȤ櫓④̻ŪǡȤ߹ɬʤƤ롥
üԿãΨʤפħŪǡ˴ؤƤ䤨ѲƤΤǤ롥ȤǡηΩɾˤϡߤΤޤޤѲθɬפ롥顤괰ǸΨŪ¿οǥ뤬ȤС̤ΥץˤäƤǤȤСԥ塼줿ǥƤߤ褦Ͽǡ䤨ŪϤ졤ưŪɾľܤʤޤޡΤ
줬֤ȤȤˤμҲŪʰ֤ŤѲȤȤΤȤǤ롥ѸȤäƤ⡤μҲŪʥơŪưϿӤͭʼҲŪΩСѸˤ˿ˡɲä뤳Ȥˤʤ
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
ؤǤϡβλѤĤߤ³ƤĤƤθ줬ɤΤ褦ʻѤäΤϤɤΤ褦˴طƤθĤäƤˤϡľܤʳˤޤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤬ǤʤˤŪˡǿ¬ۤʤ
ޤǤ3ĤŪʼˡƤƤ(1) 19ȯŸӸ (comparative_linguistics) ˤƷ (reconstruction)(2) (linguistic area) ˤŪƱꡤ(3) Ū˴Ť¬Ǥ롥(1), (2), (3) νˡ̤뤳ȤǤȤ֤礭ʤäƤ椯Ūʴפϼ夤Aitchison (166) ꡤϢڤѤ褦
Comparing relatives --- comparing languages which are descended from a common 'parent' --- is the oldest and most reliable method, but it cannot go back very far: 10,000 years is usually considered its maximum useful range. Comparing areas --- comparing similar constructions across geographical space --- is a newer method which may potentially lead back 30,000 years or more. Comparing resemblances --- comparing words which resemble one another --- is a highly controversial new method: according to its advocates, it leads back to the origin of language.
ӸؤηǥǤɤ夭˸¤Ϥ1ǯȤ줹ɾ⤷ʤ²ǤСˤŤޤ̤餻 Renfrew [2012-05-18-1]ε#1117. ĸθϤ Anatolia פȡˤΤȤƤ⡤8500ǯ٤Nostratic ²ȤۤϤ뤬뤹¿nostratic εȡˡƷμˡϡŪ˸ޤƤ2ˤꡤ롥
2ܡιͤŪ˸֤Ȥ館ǤꡤܤμѤʬۤѤˡǤ롥㤨СɤνǤϡ²ޤǤ岻 (retroflex) ԤʤƤ롥ŪѤˤħħŪкߤƤˤϡꤹ뤳ȤŬäƤ롥ǥйȾǥ (wave_theory) ˴ŤȤäƤ褤
ǶᡤJohanna Nicholas "population typology" Ȥ̾ΤȤˡƤ롥ŪʿưϥեꥫȤƼؤΰưäȸƱ뤫Τ褦˰췲θܤˤħŪʬۤȤ狼äƤ㤨Сinclusive we exclusive we Ω̾ʣɸ¡ͭʪξϤβݤˤͭɽκۤʤɤϡعԤйԤۤɡγϹޤȤ⤷ Nicholas 褦ˡΰưθܤʬۤȤ˴ϢŤΤȤСΰưˤɤŨŤޤǸ̤뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥СǯȤäƤ롥ͽۤȤꡤϹƤ櫓ǤϤʤ礭ˤ̤뤿1ĤοǤϤ롥˴ؤ붽̣ȤƤϡAitchison (169--72) ȡ
3ܤϡޤäۤʤ֤˶ΰפ¿ȤˡʤȤϹˤǤ롥㤨СȤơֻءפ̣Ƥꤵ tik ȤǤ츫ȴϢΤʤ¿θ˸Ȥ¤ŦƤ롥ơε10ǯ̤ȤΤǤ롥ñʤȤդ٤Τǡ˸ؤȤƤϤۤȤɼƤʤ
ӸؤǺǤ褯椵Ƥ²ˤƤ顤ΤʺƷκȤϺȼpopulation typology ⡤ޤäȤƤ⡤θܤޤʺƷˤȤɤޤ餶ʤλǤϡ̤֤ϡܤ˸1ǯȤȤǤϤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλűѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸ϤΤʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդƤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ε#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط ([2012-09-24-1]) ǡѸɸಽ̵ռμʲǤȤ Hope θҲ𤷤Hope ϤƤθ̷⤹롤ѸɸಽˤޤĤԼƱ˻ŦƤ롥ɸಽβΤΤϿ͡ΡּפǡָŪפʱĤߤʤΤη̤ȤƤɸѸϸŪˤϺǤ⤢ꤽˤʤԼʡѼǤȤHope (52--53) ϡȤ4Ƥ롥
(1) 3ñ -s ݻŪˤϺǤݻˤåȤ˶ĤäƤ롥եɸʤɡ٤ŪʸǤ⤳ΥåȤǤ̵ɸѤ롥
(2) Զѹդʿ;̾ηϡʲɽȡˡѸ ([2009-10-25-1])Ѹ졤νǤϡ꤭줤ηϤߤ롥(cf. thou / you, you / youse, you / you-all; [2010-10-08-1]ε#529. ɸѼ2;ʣ̾פȡ)
| singular | I | she / he / it |
| singular / plural | you | |
| plural | we | they |
Thus, in each case, Standard English arrives at a typologically unusual structure, while non-standard English dialects follow the path of linguistic naturalness. One explanation for this might be that as speakers make the choices that will result in standardisation, they unconsciously tend towards more complex structures, because of their sense of the prestige and difference of formal written language. Standard English would then become a 'deliberately' difficult language, constructed, albeit unconsciously, from elements that go against linguistic naturalness, and which would not survive in a 'natural' linguistic environment.
͡ɸಽܻؤ̵ռβΤʤǡŪˤϤʤʡԼʸŪʤΤȤ̤Ȥơؤ֤Τ¦ˤȤäƤ϶ΤʶΤԹΤ褤˸ηϤǤꡤ顤ϤƳؤԤϰΤȤĬʤϼޤΤȤ
Τˡ˵줿ʸˡܤϡŪˤꤽˤʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ȿȤСɤθŪˤ䤹ʸˡܤФǹƤ櫓ǤϤʤġιܤߤʿѤΰæϤǤ⤢षΤ褦ʰæäƤϤȤͤޤϤȤƤ⡤Hope ΡֽŪ̵ռˤҤͤϴߤ롥ε[2012-09-24-1]Ǥɸಽȵϼν̤ĴºݤΤȤξԤδطȤǤ
Hope, Jonathan. "Rats, Bats, Sparrows and Dogs: Biology, Linguistics and the Nature of Standard English." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 49--56.
θˤɸʤǤϡ̣ǤΡǤѤɾǫɽؤˤʬ͡ˤʤƤ뤬ͥȥץˡˤ롤ɸмԷɸˤоʪɸǺɸˤ2ʬۤˤʬबpp. 34--36 ȡŵϡͥȥץˡJ. V. ηɸ---ɸܸΤΤǤϤʤ---סطɸֺ8ηɸ١ Ϻ ԡ1974ǯ) ϡܸΤ褯ȯãɸηϤ¾Ѹ졤ե졤ɥĸʤɤˤߤ T/V distinction ʤɤŪñʷɸηϡʼºݤλȤʬ̯ˤ̤Τˤ⡤٤ΩʬǤ롥

ܸϡ֡ää (A)֡ä㤤ޤ (B)֡ޤ (C) ˤϤΤ줫⳰줿֡褿פޤơǺɸмԷɸΤȤȤ߹碌ǽǤ롥
㤨иեǤϡTu es vené venu ʤޤ褿ˤ Vous êtes vené venu (ʤϤääˤȤäΩΤΡ T/V ΩϡʹФơмԡˡʹ꼫Ȥؤ2;ñ̾ǺˤѤˤʤVous Ǻɸ (A) ʤΤмԷɸ (C) ʤΤ뤤ξԤͤƤΤ (B) ȽȤʤȤ B ȤƤ⡤2;ñ̾˸¤ȤĤηɸɽˤʤ
ѸǤϡ#167. θ T/V distinction ([2009-10-11-1]) #185. Ѹˤȥɥĸˤˤ T/V distinction ([2009-10-29-1]) Ǹ褦ˡѸʹߡT/V distinction 鼺äƤꡤߤǤϤοޤ˴Ϳ餷ʤ[2010-07-11-1]ε#440. ˻ĤɾΤ youפǵ褦 Your Majesty Τ褦ʾιϷɸɽȤƻĤäƤ롥3;ñȤ Her Majesty ʤɤȤΤǡ A B °ǺɸΰȤ
ʤθϤȡA C Τ줫ηɸ쥿פ⤿ʤϤۤȤɤʤȤ
ͥȥץˡʬ夨ơ (37) ϡַɸŪɽΤΡ¿ѤθǤ⤽줬ϤäꤷȿäƤܸ췿θȡַɸŪɽΤѸǤʤäƤƤʤषŪʸǤˡ˰¸뤫뤤ɽѤܸ췿θȤ̤뤳ȤƤƤ롥
̸Ūʷɸǥ˾Ȥ餹ȡܸȱѸ줬ŪǤ뤳ȤϳΤ
ˡطɸ١ȽŹ1987ǯ
̤ th-sound ([θ], [ð]) ϸ첻ȤƤϤޤǤꡤ¿üԤˤȤäƽˤȸƤ롥ºݤ [θ] [t] [s] ѤüԤ¿θƹŪʹҶѸ Airspeak Ǥ three tree Ȥȯ뤳ȤˤʤäƤۤɤth-sound ϤΤ褦ǰ̾⤤ȯȤƤߤʤƤꡤѸ liability 1ĤȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
ºݤΤȤλϡѸΤۤˤ⥹ڥ䥮ꥷʤŪ褯Τ줿ˤⲻǤȤƸ롥ƱνβؼԤȡβˤޤʲʤΤȤäƤȤˡUPSID (The UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database) ʤ륵Ȥ¸ߤƤä451βηϤΥǡ١إǤ륵ȤǡSimple UPSID interface Υե̤ơ줴ȤβϿꡤʬȤŪ뤳ȤǤ롥
®ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤUPSID Segment Frequency ˤȡ0D ɽ [θ] ȡ6D ɽ [ð] Ͽ˴ޤϤ줾ʲΤȤǤ롥
[θ] or "0d" (voiceless dental fricative) occurs in 18 languages (3.99% of the 451 languages): Albanian, Amahuaca, Araucanian, Bashkir, Berta, Burmese, Chipewyan, Greek, Huasteco, Iai, Karen, Lakkia, Mursi, Rukai, Spanish, Tabi, Wintu, Yay.
[ð] or "6D" (voiced dental fricative) occurs in 22 languages (4.88% of the 451 languages): Albanian, Aleut, Burmese, Chipewyan, Cubeo, Dahalo, Fijian, Greek, Guarani, Iai, Koiari, Mari, Mazatec, Mixtec, Moro, Nenets, Nganasan, Quechua, Rukai, Spanish, Tabi, Tacana.
Ĵоݤ451줫줿ۤʤʬ919Ĥ뤬ٽ̤ȤƤ [θ] 126̡[ð] 113̤Ǥ롥̤ǹͤиۤɤޤʲǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ451Τ4--5%ۤɤˤʤǤȼСΤˤޤȸΤ⤷ʤ줿ۤʤ919ʬ8ʾ748ʬ10ĶˤϸʤȤͤȡ[θ], [ð] ϡθˤߤ¿Τޤʬ2Ĥˤʤ
ʤߤˡ̸Ū٤ι⤤ʬȥå10ϡ[m, k, i, a, j, p, u, w, b, h] νȤ
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