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causation - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2014-04-17 Thu

#1816. drift ˬ [drift][gvs][germanic][synthesis_to_analysis][language_change][speed_of_change][unidirectionality][causation][functionalism]

Millar (111--13) ѸˤˤŤƿꡤdrift ʶήˤˬƤܥ֥δϢ뵭ϡcat:drift 򻲾ȡˡ
Sapir ξ drift ϡѸʤѸȤ1ˤˤѲΰؤΤä drift γǰϳĥ졤Ϣʣθ˶̤ƤߤѲĬήؤ褦ˤʤäˤäơѸ drift в졤ޥˤߤ drifts ӡȤ櫓 drifts ®٤ӤȤ褦ˤʤäMillar (112) ⡤ΥޥȤ顤Ѹˤˤ drift ˬƤ롥

A number of scholars . . . take Sapir's ideas further, suggesting that drift can be employed to explain why related languages continue to act in a similar manner after they have ceased to be part of a dialect continuum. Thus it is striking . . . that a very similar series of sound changes --- the Great Vowel Shift --- took place in almost all West Germanic varieties in the late medieval and early modern periods. While some of the details of these changes differ from language to language, the general tendency for lower vowels to rise and high vowels to diphthongise is found in a range of languages --- English, Dutch and German --- where immediate influence along a geographical continuum is unlikely. Some linguists would suggest that there was a 'weakness' in these languages which was inherited from the ancestral variety and which, at the right point, was triggered by societal forces --- in this case, the rise of a lower middle class as a major economic and eventually political force in urbanising societies.


񤤤Ƥ Millar ȤǸʸμ "Some linguists" Τʤ1ͤǤ롥Samuels ήεǽŪʴˡҲŪװͤ碌ơѸ drift θġθѲθõȤΩSapir drift = "mystical" ȤȤ館ऱǤ¤Ū褦ȤΩǤ⤢롥⤳Ω˻ǤꡤȤ櫓ҲŪװ "trigger" ǽ˴ؿ󤻤Ƥ롥Ϣơ#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޥӤȤˤĤƤϡMillar (113) ϡdrift οʹԤ٤ϼŪ˼ޤͿƤ롥ʲ˾Ѥޤ򼨤ʤä˰Ϥޤ줿ϡŤʳǤθɽ魯ˡ

Drift in the Germanic Languages


οޤϡ#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) Ǽ Lass ˤ륲ޥΡָŤ (archaism) οľ̤ηɽ路ΤȤǤ롥ξ硤drift οʹ٤ȸŪʡ֥󤵡פδطˤȤɤߤˤʤ롥
οޤǤϡEnglish Afrikaans ANALYTIC ζˤ˰֤Ƥ뤬 DRIFT λȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ⡤DRIFT η³򴶤ѲϿʹǤ롥

Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-05-02-1] [2020-05-01-1]

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2013-09-13 Fri

#1600. Samuels θѲǥ [language_change][causation]

Ѳˤװǥ벽ߤ͡ˤʤƤŤߤθޤ򼨤Ƥ줿ΤȤơSamuels Υǥ (141) Ҳ𤷤ɮԤϡΥǥΤäȤ̤Τ褵ˡäΤǤ롥

Samuels's Interaction Model of Language Change

η (system) ϡʸˡ (grammar) (phonology) (lexis) 3礫ΩäƤꡤ줾ϸߤ˶ӤĤƤ롥 ¤ؤǤȤΡ"système où tout se tient" Ǥ롥ηϤϡ3ηˤ꤬äȤޤƤΤΡ̤̩Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤηϤϡפȤƸ¤߽Фȯ (spoken chain) Ȥ¤θѤˤꡤ켫ȤƤˤ餵Ƥ롥ȯäϤޤ̤θη (extrasystemic) ΰϤΰϤŪʸˡäؤηϤƤ롥ˡʸˤΤ褦ʼθ쳰Ū (extralinguistic) װˤꡤäŪˤǤϤ뤬θηϤ˱ƶڤܤ
Samuels ξοޤϡˤ餢οޤǤϤ뤬Ѳˤ1ĤλȤ٤ǥ󶡤Ƥ롥ˤϡʸˡꤵƤ component faculty ȤǰޤޤƤ뤷塼 langue parole system spoken chain ȤɽƤ롥ƱߤǺѤƤ intrasystemic װȳǺѤƤ extrasystemic װȤޤȿǤƤ뤷ʾΤ٤Ƥޤ᤿ intralinguistic ʼȡʳ extralinguistic ʼȤ̤Ƥ롥
οޤϡdynamic ǤϤ뤬 synchronic Ǥ롥diachronic ʼä褦ȤСοޤ̤ľ򤷤˿Ӥ塼֤Τ褦ʥ᡼ˤʤSamuels ̤ޤƧ߹ळȤϤƤʤ
ѲθװˤĤƤܥ֥ǤƤȤ櫓ŪȤƼ夲ؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤ

#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#1476. Fennell ˤѲθ ([2013-05-12-1])
#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])

#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])

Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.

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2013-08-28 Wed

#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) [causation][language_change]

[2010-07-14-1][2013-08-26-1]˰³ѲȤƤ endogeny exogeny (contact-based) 夲롥ϡendogeny ٻݼɤ exogeny ν⤯׿ɤδ֤Ƿ깭Ƥ롥Ԥ Lass ([2013-08-26-1]) Martinet (#1015. ҲѲȸѲΰ̴طɵǤ뤫 [2012-02-06-1]) ʤɤɽŪҤǤꡤԤˤ Milroy ([2013-08-26-1]) Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤҤ롥
exogeny ٻɤ¿ϡѲŪװˤäƤޤȤƤ⡤椨˳ŪװϴͿƤʤȷŤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȼĥ롥ޤ¿ξ硤ŪװȳŪװϰˤʤäƺѤƤȹͤɬפꡤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ٤⤯ޤϡThomason 3Ѥ褦

Many linguistic changes have two or more causes, both external and internal ones; it often happens that one of the several causes of a linguistic change arises out of a particular contact situation. (62)


It clearly is not justified, for instance, to assume that you can only argue successfully for a contact origin if you fail to find any plausible internal motivation for a particular change. One reason is that the goal is always to find the best historical explanation for a change, and a good solid contact explanation is preferable to a weak internal one; another reason is that the possibility of multiple causation should always be considered and, as we saw above, it often happens that an internal motivation combines with an external motivation to produce a change. (91)


Yet another unjustified assumption is that contact-induced change should not be proposed as an explanation if a similar or identical change happened elsewhere too, without any contact or at least without the same contact situation. (92)


ˡȸαѸؤαƶ Filppula ꡤƱݤΰѤ褦

Disagreements as to what weight each of the proposed methodological principles should be assigned in a given case are bound to remain part of the scholarly discourse, but certain things seem to me uncontroversial. First, as Lass (1997: 200--1) argues, apparent similarity, i.e. a mere formal parallel, cannot serve as proof of contact influence --- neither can it prove something to be of endogenous origin . . . . Before jumping to conclusions it is always necessary to examine the earlier history and the full syntactic, semantic and functional range of the features at issue, and also search for every possible kind of extra-linguistic evidence such as the extent of bilingualism in the speech communities involved, the chronological priority of rival sources, the geographical or areal distribution of the feature(s) at issue, demographic phenomena, etc. Secondly --- again in line with Lass's thinking (see, e.g., Lass 1997: 208) --- it is true to say that, from the point of view of the actual research, there is always a greater amount of homework in store for those who want to find conclusive evidence for contact influence than for those arguing for endogeny. On the other hand, even if endogeny is hard to rule out, as was shown by the examples discussed above, it does not follow that there would be no room for contact-based explanations or for those based on an interaction of factors. (171)


Ǹˡ Weinreich, Labov and Herzog ̾ʸѤ롥

Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior. (188)


Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.
Filppula, Markku. "Endogeny vs. Contact Revisited." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 161--73.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.

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2013-08-26 Mon

#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) [causation][language_change]

[2010-07-14-1]ε³ԡѲˤ2ΩȤơŪװ (language-internal factors, or endogeny) ȸ쳰Ūװ (language-external factors, or exogeny) 롥20μήɸؤǤϡԤǤꡤԤǤȤߤʤƤ줬ΩηϤǤȤΤǤСѲȤϤηϤȤؤȤȤǤꡤŪ󤵤줶򤨤ʤäơѲϸŪԤȹͤʤФʤʤѲװ⡤ηϤˤ˶ᤤȤǺѤװΤۤľŪȤȤˤʤꡤŪװ̤ͥĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥μήɸؤθϡΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥

It is true, I think, that in what might be called the dominant tradition in historical linguistics, it has been assumed that languages change within themselves as part of their nature as languages. The 'external' agency of speaker/listeners and the influence of 'society' in language change have tended to be seen as secondary and, sometimes, as not relevant at all. (Milroy 143)


ŪװȤߤ븫ˤ⡤ȤƤθ쳰ŪװɤΤ餤뤫˴ؤơٺ롥ΰѤˤ褦ˡ"secondary" ʤΤ "not relevant" ʤΤȤMilroy (144) 4ʳǧƤ롥

1. change originates within 'language' as a phenomenon;
2. change takes place within single languages unaffected by other languages;
3. change is more satisfactorily explained internally than externally;
4. change is not necessarily triggered by speakers or through language contact. (144)


3 ΩƤΤ Lass Ǥ롥쳰ŪװǧϤ뤬ѲȤƤŪòۤ褤Ȥ Lass ήΡḺˡ§ (the principle of parsimony) 2Ѥ褦

Therefore, in the absence of evidence, an endogenous change must occur in any case, whereas borrowing is never necessary. If the (informal) probability weightings of both source-types converge for a given character, then the choice goes to endogeny. (209)


I am not trying in any way to rule out syntactic borrowing; but merely suggesting how any suspect case ought to be investigated. Above all, one should never take apparent similarity, even in cases of known contact with evidence for other borrowing, as probative until the comparative work (if it's possible) has been done. The conclusion might be that anything can be borrowed, and often is; but in a given case it's always both simpler and safer to assume that it isn't, unless the evidence is clear and overwhelming. (201)


Milroy ϸ쳰Ūװ̤ͥ򾧤ԤɽǤ롥Milroy ˤСˤθѲ why ϡѲȤΤϤʤʤ actuation 䤦ΤǤʤФʤʤС#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1]) 3ܤ䤤פʤΤȤոǤ롥ѲŪñȯŪŪŪ¦̤Ż뤹뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫顤쳰ܤܤʤȤˤʤ롥Milroy (148) ϡ쳰ŪװΤˤ뤳ȤˤäƤŪװ褯򤵤ϤƤ롥

Linguistic change is multi-causal and the etiology of a change may include social, communicative and cognitive, as well as linguistic, factors. Thus --- seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. (148)


ϡMilroy ΩٻơɤװפȤɸˤϡɤפ
ȴϢơ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ε 쳰 װγƵ򻲾ȡ

Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.

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2013-08-25 Sun

#1581. Optimality Theory Ρϡ [ot][gvs][language_change][causation][methodology]

#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ ([2013-03-01-1]) ǡ첻 (gvs) Ŭ (OT) ˤäƤ˵ҤǤ뤫⤷ǤλΰݤϡOT 첻ܤɤΤ褦ˤƵäΤȤ򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤդʤäȤͿƤʤȤΤä#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡOT Τ褦ʷŪʥץϡǤϤʤҤ褯ΤؤλʤΤǤϤʤ
OT ǤϸѲ "reranking of constraints" ȤȤ館뤬 reranking ѲθʤΤ̤ʤΤȤߤ OT why Ǥꡤ̤Ȥߤ how 򵭽ҤǤ롥ƱոMcMahon (93) ϸԤȤߤƤ롥

It would seem . . . that reranking is descriptive at best, fortuitous at worst, and post hoc either way, so long as the constraint set is in principle unrestricted, and the reranking itself depends on external factors, whether phonetic, functional, or sociolinguistic.


OT ʤ˸¤餺ŪˤμԤϡ餬ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸǤϤʤҤǤȤǧɬפǤȤλŦ (McMahon 94--95) ˤƱդƶޤäͿƤʤȤȤĥĤϤʤŤ˰Сषդ

. . . explanation of change, in its truest sense, may be beyond OT, and indeed any other formal linguistic theory. The cause of the model is not served if its practitioners continue, nonetheless, to claim that they are providing explanations. Lass notes that we tend

to talk about 'explanations' when we mean 'models' or 'metaphors', and to claim that we have shown 'why X happened' when what we have really done is linked X up in a 'network' with Y, Z, etc., and thus created a more or less plausible and imaginatively pleasing picture of 'how' (ceteris paribus) X could happen'. This is all really relatively harmless . . .; at least it is if we can bring ourselves to see clearly what we actually do, and avoid terminological subterfuge and defensive pretence. (1980 [On Explaining Language Change]: 157--8)


ѲθˤϡȲҤȤξɬפǤ롥͡ˡȤ߹碌ʤ¤ѲϸǤʤʾ塤ѶŪˡƿŤѤƤ椯ȤοΤ褦˻פ

McMahon, April. "Optimality Theory and the Great Vowel Shift." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 82--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-20-1] [2020-01-10-1]

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2013-08-21 Wed

#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ [language_change][causation][methodology]

Ѳ븶ϿƤƤ뤬٤ƤθѲ򤭤줤ǤΤϤʤޤ1ĤθѲΤˡĤΰۤʤƱͭǤȤ⤢롥Ѳˤϡ礭ʬƷŪʤΤȵǽŪʤΤ롥Newmeyer (32--33) 줾ħΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥

Formal explanations are those which appeal to mentally represented formal grammars and constraints on those grammars; functional explanations are those that appeal to properties of language users. Many, if not most, accounts of language change appeal to both types of explanation. The principal objection to formal explanation is to claim that it does little more than rearrange the data in more compact form --- such criticism embodies the idea that in order to explain the properties of some system, it is necessary to go outside of that system. The principal criticism of functional explanation is to claim that it is vacuous. Since for any functional factor there exists another factor whose operation would lead to the opposite consequence, the claim that some particular functional factor 'explains' some particular instance of language change has the danger of being empty.


ŪϡѲΥޡȤʵҤդȤ뤬ʤѲΤȤˤƤʤǽŪϡʤȤ䤤ˤ褦Ȥ뤬ȿװˤޤΤǤꡤϤΤˤʤʤ
ŪȵǽŪȤ֤줬褷ͻ¤ǤʤȤСǤʤ⤷ʤ㤨СֺŬפȤ褦ξ˵ĤȤǤξĤʤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˲Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲȵǽŪʲؤȤϢȤ礫ʤξͻ¤ǤΡХ󥹤ΤȤ줿ܻؤȤʤʤ񤷤

Newmeyer, Frederick J. "Formal and Functional Motivation for Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 18--36.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-05-25-1] [2013-08-25-1]

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2013-07-24 Wed

#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? [language_change][causation][invisible_hand][teleology][drift][functionalism]

֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩ󤬰ۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) 󤬼Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 󤬼롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ͹ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦

the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)


ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤ򸫤ȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥

As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.


Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥ򤯤ȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥󤬷Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ

Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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2013-05-12 Sun

#1476. Fennell ˤѲθ [language_change][causation][variation][contact][systemic_regulation]

Fennell αѸ˳Ƭ˶ᤤ1.2 Language Change (pp. 3--7) ܸ󤹤뵡񤬤äѲθˤĤƤγǤ롥äʤΤǡܥ֥ˤǺܤƤ

ʤ줬ѲΤͳ͡Ǥ롥1ˡưŪŪ¤ͭƤꡤŪʸѲ롥2ˡϡܿȼظ̤ʤɤȤƸ롤üԤԴʽ椨Ѳ롥
ˡʤ͡ϤĤƱä򤹤櫓ǤϤʤΤȤ䤤롥ؼԤϡ٤ƤλҶ콬˴ؤʿǤꡤɤθǤ⽬ǤǽϤäƤ뤳ȡޤƱĴﴱˤƱθ첻ȯǽϤäƤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ȯˤϤ鷺ѰۤĤǤ¸ߤΤǤ롥`sh' `th' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤С`r' `w' `l' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤롥ޤĿͤθߤƤߤȡռˤ褷ʤˤ衤Ȥ櫓ꡤѤꡤ̤Ѥꤹ롥θĿŪѰۤѲμʤΤǤ롥⤷ȡȯˡҿäƤꡤ֤üԤ餯̵ռˤΰҿäѤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ䤿ϤߤʡäϢӤ򶯤褦Ȼפ˹碌ä򤹤뤷Υ֤ȻפäˤΥ֤ΤǤ롥ҲؤǤϤָŪפȸƤǤ뤬줬ĿŪǰŪʸݤǤϤʤŪˤŪˤȤСѲؤȯŸ
줬Ѳ⤦1ĤͳϡüԤ̱ʤɤ̤¾üԤܿ뤫Ǥ롥ˤäƤϡȤθ줬Ԥθ˶ִפ뤳Ȥ뤫⤷ʤ뤤ϡ¸ȤƤξԤδ֤Ūʽ󤬤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤξĤ̩ܿƤΤǤС֤αƶ礭ǽ롥ȿФˡξĤʸŪʪŪʬΥƤСߤθŪƶϤۤȤɤʤ
ŪʸȤʳθȤδ֤ܿϤ뤬Ūʶ̹बʤˤϡ¤Τܿ줬ȯã뤫⤷ʤθϡϴά줿ηϤĤˤѰۤ䤹ɬ⤹٤ƤΥߥ˥εǽ̤ʤʳθԥȸƤ֡Υԥ줬夫Ʒ֤ȵǽư˸ȤѤ褦ˤʤȡ쥪ȸƤФʳȯŸȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʸϡҲꤷήɼҲθϤޤˤĤơФлŪʸΤۤܶᤷƤ椭̤Ȥƥݥȡ쥪Ϣ³ΤȸƤФѼϢ³Τ뤳Ȥ¿ǤϡŪñ㲽ޤޤΡֲءѼŪʸ˶ᤤءѼˡ־ءѼ郎¸Ƥ뤬ѼǤɸѼȤϰۤʤħƤ뤳Ȥդ
ܿϡĤѲɬ׾濫뤤ϽʬǤȤϤʤषʬΥ뤳ȤˤäƸѲ뤳Ȥ¿㤨СѸ줬17˥ꥫˤ⤿餵ȡĤͳǥꥹѸ줫ʬƤäޤ⤿餵줿Ѹϡʣΰ̱ȤˤäơʣȤƤ⤿餵줿Ǥ롥ˡ֤ο͏͡ʸȤܿˤꡤѲ뤲ˡä˥ꥫΩΤȤꥹѸδȤϰۤʤظŪʬФơꥫˤͣθ쵬Ϥʤäˡ줾ϰ˰ҿΤѼ郎ޤ줿ΤǤ롥
嵭Τ褦ʸѲˤñ㲽Τ餤뤳Ȥդ줿¿θѲˤϡ¿ͤͳΤǤ롥㤨СꥫѸ줬ꥹѸ줫ʬͳˤϡ¾Ȥܿ⤢ꡤͱѸ (AAVE) ǤϤʬ٤礭ɸѸˤƤϡ¾줫αƶŪϾǤꡤ͸ùܤ˸¤롥
ޤǽҤ٤ƤѲװϸ쳰ŪʤΤäŪװ⤢褦1ĤϡѸ줬ʸˡǽ̤Τ˷־θ˰¸Ūʸ줫顤˰¸ʬŪʸذܹԤǤ롥¤ŪˤϡϱѸˤˤѲѲͳϸŪǤ롥ǤϸΤɤˤǤ1褦ˤʤꡤ޸ۣ沽ȾüΤǤ롥ʸˡǽ϶޸礬ô褦ˤʤꡤ嵭෿ŪѲä⤽⶯ѲΤʤΤ쳰ŪͳäΤïˤ狼ʤäѲäȤϡϰϢŪѲΤǤ롥
ŪѲ̤ȤơI饦ȤȸƤФűѸޤޥ췲Ѳ롥ޥĸǶ˸³̵ [i] [j] ä硤첻ꤢ뤤ϹˤʤȤѲǤ롥beran bireþmūus mys 򻲾ȡѲθ⡤ŪװʳˤϹͤʤ
ŪѲΤ⤦1Ĥϡ1500ǯʹߤ do ΰư줫ưؤѲѲˤꡤdo ϸ򼺤ʸʸȤʸˡŪʵǽؤȯŸΤ褦ѲϡʸˡפȸƤФ롥
do ѲϡŪˤ빽¤ȷӤĤƤǽ̤ι¤ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäȤ̣ǡֺʬϡפȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤѸηǤϡʬϤβ̶ʬȤƤΡְʬϡפ㤬˭٤Ǥ롥㤨Сnaddre, napron, noumpere ϡ֤괧 an Ȥδ֤ǰʬϤ̡adder, apron, umpire θޤ줿ȿФˡan ewt a newt ȰʬϤ줿Ȥ褦⤢롥ŪѲȤ
ѲθޤȤȡ(1) ŪʬΥܿ(2) νݡʼҲĶˤܿ(3) Դʽ(4) ظ̡(5) ҲŪʰҿװ롥
ŪװȤƤϡ(1) Ĵưײ(2) ѡ(3) ʬϡ(4) 롥


Fennell ϸѲθȤơŪװȸ쳰Ūװ̤Ƥ뤬ΤʤѰ (variation) ε򺹤Ǥ롥碌ȡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǸѲ3ȤƸڤ (1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact Ǥ·äȤˤʤ롥Fennell ϡҲŪʱѸˤäƤΤǡʤ variation contact Ȥ櫓Ż뤹뤬ŪˤϤ3åȤDZѸˤˤѲ褦ȤƤȤ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-13-1]

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2013-05-02 Thu

#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 [language_change][causation][variation][contact][systemic_regulation]

Glasgow ؤ Jeremy Smith ĤҤ٤Ƥ롤Ѳ3ʳ3ˤĤơ
ޤ3ʳ顥ɤθѲɬФ3ʳ롥#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1]) Ǿ줿Τ (1) potential for change, (2) implementation, (3) diffusion Ǥ롥塼ؤΩ줫鸷̩ˤС(1) ϸѲʳǤꡤ(2) ʳǽơָѲפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥Smith ľܸäƤ餦 (7)

The distinction may be made between potential for change, implementation (itself including triggering or actuation) and diffusion. The potential for change exists when a particular speaker or group of speakers makes a particular linguistic choice at a particular time; implementation takes place when that choice becomes selected as part of a linguistic system; and diffusion takes place when the change is imitated beyond its site of origin, whether in terms of geographical or of social distribution. Strictly speaking, the first of these phenomena is not to be included as part of the typology of change. The continual flux of living languages means that new variant forms are constantly being created in a given linguistic state. However, these variants are not themselves linguistic changes; rather, they constitute the raw material which is a prerequisite for linguistic change. A linguistic change happens only when a particular variable is selected and a systemic development follows. In that sense, language change begins with implementation; when implementation of potential for change is for some reason triggered in a linguistic system, then we can speak of a linguistic change. The diffusion of the phenomenon within a particular speech-community is, it is held here, a further process which can be counted as part of the particular change involved; it may, of course, itself have further effects.


ˡѲ3ϸѲ3򤷤Ƥ褤(1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact 3ĤǤ롥(1) variation ϡ֡졤̣ʤɤܤˤʣ variants ѰդƤꡤ¸ΤϤΤ줫ǤȤͤ˴ŤƤ롥variants ΤμϰϤ variational space ȸƤФ졤μ¸ϤϰϤΤʤǰۤʤꤦ롥̵¤˰ۤʤꤦ櫓ǤϤʤˤ (2) systemic regulation ηϤεƯƤꡤ¤ߤƤΤǤ롥(1) (2) Ǥ٤ƤĴۤɡñʤΤǤϤʤʶƱΡˤϿˤ¸ߤϤθʶƱΡˤȤδؤΤʤ¸ߤƤ롥ɬŪ (3) contact ξΤǤꡤŪηϤˤȤɤޤäƤϤʤ
ʾ3ߴطʣSmith ΤȤФǤޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ (49)

The three mechanisms of linguistic change distinguished above --- variation, systemic regulation, contact --- are not to be taken as totally separate causes of the phenomenon; rather, they interact in complex and, except in the most general terms, practically unpredictable ways to produce dynamic change in the history of a given language. To sum up the argument so far: new variants are produced, and are imitated through contact; but they are constrained by the changing intra- and extralinguistic systems of which the are a part.


ǶϸѲ͡Ω줫͡Ȥߤ󼨤Ƥ뤬Smith ϡñ㲽ƤΤΡñ㲽Ƥ뤫顩ˡ褯ޤȤޤäƤȻפ

Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2013-03-11 Mon

#1414. ʻžϥͥ󥹴Ϥθ줫 [conversion][shakespeare][word_formation][causation][synthesis_to_analysis]

ʻž (conversion) 뤤 (zero-derivation) ˤĤƤϡ#190. ʻž ([2009-11-03-1]) Ϥ conversion γƵǴϢ夲ƤʻžŪʸȤо줹ΤϽѸ졤ä Shakespeare ˤƤǤꡤͥ󥹴γϡ㡹ĩ￴ʤɤȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ롥³ϼλ椷ơΤˤΤӤΤӤȤʷϵǤ롥Baugh and Cable (250) ⡤ͥ󥹴αѸħ1ĤȤơʻžʲΤ褦ɾƤ롥

English in the Renaissance, at least as we see it in books, was much more plastic than now. People felt freer to mold it to their wills. Words had not always distributed themselves into rigid grammatical categories. Adjectives appear as adverbs or nouns or verbs, nouns appear as verbs---in fact, any part of speech as almost any other part. When Shakespeare wrote stranger'd with an oath he was fitting the language to his thought, rather than forcing his thought into the mold of conventional grammar. This was in keeping with the spirit of his age. It was in language, as in many other respects, an age with the characteristics of youth---vigor, a willingness to venture, and a disposition to attempt the untried. The spirit that animated Hawkins and Drake and Raleigh was not foreign to the language of their time.


μҲĬʻžȤȤӤĤƹͤΤϡΤ̥ŪǤϤ롥#1015. ҲѲȸѲΰ̴طɵǤ뤫 ([2012-02-06-1]) Ǽ夲 Martinet μĥ˽ޤʻžȯŸȤ򡤤ޤǸŪɬפΤǤϤʤ
ֶޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѸϤλޤǤˤۤܤ٤Ƥʻˤƶޤव캬ȤǤƤ֤٤ʬŪʸؤȯŸƤƱˡ⸷경ȤŪʰ֤ˤƸʻˡƱꤵȤʤäƤΤ褦ŪŪħĤ˻äѸˤƤϡѸޤǤäѸ¿ϡǤʻžμͳͿƤȤ롥إƥ濴ȤӤѸ줬˲äʤ̼Ѥͥ󥹴λλʪǤȤߤʤȤˤϰϤʤˡʻžȤˡդ뤳ȤȤʤäȤȤǤϤʤ
ҲĬʻžΤδطꤹ٤ȸäƤΤǤϤʤδطľŪȤϥ󥯥å󶴤ŪʤΤǤȹͤޤǸŪǽŪʰ̴طõΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-01-19-1] [2013-12-17-1]

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2013-03-03 Sun

#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ [causation][language_change][speed_of_change][generative_grammar][lexical_diffusion][grammatical_change][auxiliary_verb][syntax][genitive][case]

Ѳ뤤ʸˡѲ®٤ˤĤƤ speed_of_change γƵǼ夲ƤۤȤɤѲ®˴ؤҲŪװŦˤȤɤޤꡤŪˤäƤʤä#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١ ([2011-01-08-1]) ǡ̤Ѳ®٤ˤĤơ餤Ǥ롥
ʸˡǤϡҶθ콬˴ؤᥫ˥ Primary Linguistic Data (PLD) ȤФϤδ顤ŪʸˡѲƤεͼԤ Lightfoot Ǥ롥Lightfoot 2006ǯʸĹǯˤ錄󤷤Ƥ롥

Changes often take place in clusters: apparently unrelated superficial changes occur simultaneously or in rapid sequence. Such clusters manifest a single theoretical choice which has been taken differently. If so, the singularity of the change can be explained by the appropriately defined theoretical choice. So the principles of UG and the definition of the cues constitute the laws which guide change in grammars, defining the available terrain. Any change is explained if we show, first, that the linguistic environment has changed and, second, that the new phenomenon . . . must be the way that it is because of some principle of the theory and the new PLD. (42)


Ѥ1ʸˡѲˤƤϡϢѲ«ȤʤäƱˤ뤤ϵ®롤Ȥ롥̤ΰѤ⼨

[I]f grammars are abstract, then they change only occasionally and sometimes with dramatic consequences for a wide range of constructions and expressions; grammar change tends to be "bumpy," manifested by clusters of phenomena changing at the same time . . . . (27)


ʸΤʤǡLightfoot ϡcan, may, must ʤɤˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) Ϳ¿θˤû֤16ޤǤ˴λȡdo-periphrasis ([2010-08-26-1]) 18ȡ2Ĥΰ츫ȴϢʤѸˤˤʸˡѲV-to-I operation ȤξüˤäƴϢŤ뤳Ȥ롥ޤѸˤˤפǤʤοȸȯãδطˤĤơsplit genitive, group genitive, of ˤ뱪Ū°ʡ-'s ˤȤꡤѤ뤳ȤǰϢʸˡѲϢŤǤȼĥ롥
«Ȥʤäơסֵ®ˡפȤΤLightfoot θѲˤƺǤפʼĥ1ĤǤ롥Ǥ餯Ū˷ӤĤƤΤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȹͤƤ롥óȻˤƤϡϢܤ«Ȥʤäơ׾ʤȤȻʳˤƤϡֵ®ˡ׿ʹԤȤƤ롥Lightfoot θѲȸóȻϡѤޤǰۤʤ뤷оݤ㤦ΤϳΤ"clusters" "bumpy" Ȥ̤ΥɤϸѲħɽ路Ƥ褦˻פƤʤʤ

Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.

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2013-02-28 Thu

#1403. drift Ū Ritt λ [drift][teleology][unidirectionality][causation][language_change][functionalism]

ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǽ夲ʸǡRitt ˸ؾνפǤ drift ήˤˤޤȤĤᤤȤƤ롥drift ϡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) Ǥ夲Τ褦󼨤뤳ȤǤ롥üԸĿͤϼοδ֤ĶƸѲ³褦ȤưŤʤɤäƤʤϤʤΤˡʤĶƤȤפʤѲΤ줽ΤΤüԤĶۤȤ̿äƤ뤫Τ褦ʿ񤤤򸫤ΤϤʤ Ritt (215) ΤȤФǼȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

[S]ince individual speakers are normally not aware of the long-term histories of their languages and have no reason to be interested in them at all, it is difficult to see why they should be motivated to adjust their behaviour in communication or language acquisition to make the development of their language conform to any long-term trend.


ФRitt (215) ϸüԤˤĤƤ3Ĥ򤹤뤳ȤDzǤȽҤ٤롥

First, . . . the case can be made that even though whole language systems do not represent historical objects, their constituents do, because they are transmitted faithfully enough among speakers and thereby establish populations and lineages of constituent types which persist in time. Secondly, when speakers make choices among different variants of a linguistic constituent, they are not completely free. Instead their choice is always limited (a) by universal constraints on human physiology and (b) by socio-historical contingencies such as the relative prestige of different constituent variants. Since it would be against the self-interests of individual speakers to resist them, their choices can be expected to reflect physiological and social constraints more or less automatically. Thirdly, a speaker never chooses among isolated pairs of constituent variants. Instead constituent choice always occurs in the context of actual discourse, where any constituent of a linguistic system is always used and expressed in combination with others.


ƶä٤ȤˡüԤϾ嵭˴ŤưˤơŪҲŪʵȤƵǽƤˤʤȤ򤬼 (215--16)

In such interactions between constituents the role of speakers will be restricted to responding --- unconsciously and more or less automatically --- to physiological and social constraints on their communicative behaviour. In other words, speakers will not figure as autonomous, active and whimsical agents of change, but merely provide the mechanics through which linguistic constituents interact with each other.


ΥǥˤСüԤϡġθܤߤȤΩƤƤͥåȥΤʤư롤ŪӼҲŪʵǽͿ줿޼ȤȤˤʤ롥üԤѲμΤǤϤʤ޲ǤȤϡ controversial

Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-03-1]

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2013-02-27 Wed

#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ [drift][causation][language_change][vowel][diphthong][consonant][degemination][phoneme][phonetics][gvs][meosl][functionalism][isochrony][functional_load][homorganic_lengthening]

#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4 ([2012-09-09-1]) εǡRitt ʸ˿줿ʸǤɸ˷Ǥ꤬ͻ뤬ɮԤ٤ϤƹŪǵǽŪǤ롥
Ritt ϡѸ Homorganic Lengthening, Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL), Great Vowel Shift ϤȤĹ첻2첻ޤϢưƤ첻̤Ωβʤɡ첻ˤޤĤѲ첻ζ (strengthening of vowels) Ȱ礷ФơҲ̤ΩβáҲ첻ҲξüʤɤμλҲˤޤĤѲֻҲμ岽 (weakening of consonants) Ȱ礷ľǯˤ錄Ѹ첻ˤ첻ζȻҲμ岽ħŤȤʤ顤طʤˤ븶Ū褦ȻߤΤ褦ŪĬήϤФ drift ήˤȤƸڤ졤˸ؤˤƤθưϤϺ1ĤȤʤäƤ뤬Ritt ϰճʤȤ˲򸫤Ȥ롥ϡѸĹդƤ "rhythmic isochrony" "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" (224) Ǥ롥
ΤƤ褦ˡѸˤ "rhythmic isochrony" 롥褽ȼ夤Ȥߤ˸뱤 (foot stress) γơ褽ƱĹäȯȤˤꡤ¿β᤬ޤޤ뱤ӤǤϳƲ᤯ûȯ졤դ˲ʤӤǤϳƲϤäĹȯ롥ˡѸˤ "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" Ȥ֤֤˴ؤ붯¤ꡤϼۤΤ˼ĥɬפ롥ơ2Ĥθ§ˤꡤ֤ƱǤǤŪʰ֤ˤäĹѤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤĹûΩ˵ǽȤϸ¤ʤ֤Ȥʤ롥ä˱ѸλҲǤǤĹûΩεǽô (functional load) ϤȤ礭ʤäΤǡΩϽѸ˾üʻҲμ岽ˡ첻ǤǤĹûΩϵǽô̤礭ä˾ü뤳ȤϤʤषΩݻ礹ؤȿʲû첻Ĺ첻κΤˤ뤿ˡԤд˲Ԥĥ˸Ԥ2첻ȯãơԤȤν̤ޤä2Ĥθ§ȡüȯ첻ζפϡߤ˻٤礤ǤʥѥȤʤäƤä줬ɸФ Ritt εǽŪʲǤ롥
ѤˤĤޤޤ줿褦ʴ롥¿ε䤬⤫Ǥ롥⤽ѸǤϤʤ rhythmic isochrony ۤɤޤǤ˶ǤʤΤ¾θˤ롤뤤ۤ drift ӤȤˡƱ褦ѤΤǤεǽô̤ŪǤϤʤ¾Ū˷פˡϤΤ٥ŽƤ褦첻Ѳ̤λǤϤʤˤˡˤΤϤʤ
Ritt εϤष¿䤤Ƥ֤褦˻פ뤬οΰյϡ˿줿褦ˡdrift Ū褦ȤȤˤΤȻפϤ礤ŪˤʤΤεǡ

Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.

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2013-01-28 Mon

#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? [sociolinguistics][variation][language_change][causation][idiolect]

ҲؤǤ͡ĴԤʤƤꡤǤ˸ŵŪȤ̾ĴĤ⤢롥ܥ֥ǤϡΤΤۤξ˲᤮ʤʲ˿Ƥ

#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])
#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1])
#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])

Ĵ⡤ʤüԽĤμҲŪʶ̤ŪѰۤбƤȤȤ餫ˤƤ롥Τ褦ʸ̤ߤȡΤ˼ҲȸȤطƤ뤳ȤϤ狼뤬ʤؤƤΤشط̣ΤȤ꿼䤬롥¿θǤϡޤƧ߹ˤϻʤȤ¿ǡҲؤϡҲȸشطŦƽ "correlational sociolinguistics" ǤȤȽʤƤؤȼҲؤΤ줾ˤꤵƤѥ᡼դ碌˲᤮ҲؤȤʬȼ餫ˤθȤΤϾʤȤȽ
ΤˡȽϼҲؼԤŤߤ٤ȽȻפ롥Wardhaugh (11--12) ʤɤ⤳ˤĤƻ̤䤤ƵƤ뤬ȽؤβȤƤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤ Trudgill (39--41) Trudgill ϼ5󤲤ơ"correlational sociolinguistics" ȤȽ롥

(1) ŪʾڵפȤüԤ˼ҲŪϰ̤ͿˤꡤΤˤɤΤ褦ʾѤƤ뤫Ƥ롥
(2) оݤȤƤ춦ƱΤμҲ¤ˤĤƲ򶵤Ƥ롥㤨СNorwich ǤϡҲ Middle Class Working Class 礭ʬª뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥
(3) Ŀ͸ (idiolect) ο񤤤ͽۤ뤳ȤϤǤʤҲĤʿŪʿ񤤤ͽۤ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥
(4) ̤ҲĤδ֤θŪۤϡޤŪϢ³ŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ȤʤäƤ뺹ۤŪʰ㤤ǤϤʤŪʰ㤤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨤
(5) ѲˤˤĤ¿μͿƤ롥

Trudgill ϡҲؤμΩä (5) ˤäƤȹͤƤ᤬롥"correlational sociolinguistics" ʤ "causational sociolinguistics" (?) ʤʬȯŸԤƤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-10-16-1]

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2013-01-27 Sun

#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ [sociolinguistics][style][rhotic][causation][language_change]

ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ǡʸΤκˤ۷֤λߤʸκ̤λҲ𤷤#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) ȡ#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) Ǽ夲˥塼衼Ԥˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ̵ͭʬۤˤĤƤǤ롥 Labov ˤҲĴ̤ʲάҤ Trudgill (88--89) ͿƤ복פ˴ŤΤǤ뤳ȤǤäƤ
Labov ϡ˥塼衼ԤˤƼҲ񳬵 non-prevocalic /r/ ȯΨȤؤƤȤΩơեɥˤ¾ڤʤ⤤ǤФۤɤβĶǤ /r/ Ψ⤤Ȥ/r/ ҲŪʰҿӤĤƤȤΤˡLabov ϳ̤ʬ (Lower Class, Lower Working Class, Middle Working Class, Upper Working Class, Lower Middle Class, Upper Middle Class) ȹ碌ʸ̤ʬϤߤʸΤζ̤ϡ줿Ʊͤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) 4Ǥ롥ʬϷ̤ϡ褽ʲΥդ̤Ȥʤä

Stylistic Variation of Non-Prevocalic /r/ in New York City


Norwich ˤ -in' Ĵ̤ƱͤˡΤȤơʼФäʸΤǤФۤɰҿ /r/ ȯФΨ⤤Ȥ狼롥Ȥˤ Norwich ξȰۤʤ롤ƶ̣1Ĥ롥Lower Middle Class word-list style ˤơͽۤ /r/ Ψǧ뤳ȤǤ롥б Upper Middle Class Ψ礭ۤơ60%ιΨ򼨤ƤΤǤ롥ϤɤΤ褦Ф褤Τ
ͭϤϼ̤Ǥ롥LMC ϡξ徺ָ顤ҿ /r/ ̵ͭҴǤꡤռŪʸΤˤƤϾ̤ UMC /r/ ¿Ф˻ΤǤϤʤ˲䤷ʤȡ˥塼衼ԤαѸ춦ƱΤ /r/ ȯؤȸƤΤϡۤʤ LMC ǤϤʤȤǽФƤ롥ºݡLabov θüȯ뤽θμҲؤθˤСβϳͻٻƤƤ롥ѲθȸưϤˤĤƤ椬餫ˤƤƤȤ褦

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2012-12-29 Sat

#1342. ظƶؤȽ [substratum_theory][causation][celtic][contact][race][ethnic_group][celtic_hypothesis]

Ѳ벾ΰĤˡظƶ (substratum_theory) 롥ԤԤθݤˡȤθħäȯħˤϢƤ椯Ȥǡ¦θ˸ѲȤͤǤ롥ѸˤȴŪ˴ϢȤǤϡˡ§ޤ First Germanic Consonant ShiftSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤΤˡβ⤬Ф뤳Ȥ¿#416. Second Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤä ([2010-06-17-1]) #650. ˥ȥˡ§ ([2011-02-06-1]) #1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤ ([2012-05-22-1]) ʤɤǿ줿̤Ǥ롥
βκμߤϡ¿ξ硤ؤʤƤˤĤƤμ­Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥ä˸θѲˤˤϡμߤ˸롥㤨Сˡ§˼СƶͿƤȤظ줬ʤΤȤǤ鴰ʰפ򸫤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ˤ줬ȸäλ򤵤Ƥ⡤θѲľܤǤΤΥȸѼθηϤ뤳Ȥ񤷤פˡѲڤܤȹִͤظפ򡤵Թɤ褦˻Ωƾ夲뤳ȤĤǤǽʤΤǤ롥θħžܤȤݼΤϸ콬ʬǤ⹭ΤƤ뤬ζŪʸѲľƤϤ뤳Ȥ񤷤
Jespersen Bloomfield ⡤Ʊ˲ŪΩäƤ롥ȽδĴϡȤƤѲȡؤδͿꤵƤ̱²ȤŪ뤤Ūɬ礷ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰǤ롥̱²ꡤ̤ȤƸؤʹԤƤޤˤλ֤ȾˤơθѲäȤȤǤСظƶϾʤȤ⸡ڤͤѲؤλ֤äƤꡤѲ뤲ŪʬۤŪʬۤȰפʤΤǤСʬظƶʤåȤϾʤʤ롥ष̤θõä褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
ظƶԤˤϡʥ˥βǽΤȤ⤻ظ㤨Хȸˤαƶ͡ʻ˴Ф褦ȼĥԤ⤤롥Jespersen ϤΤ褦ʹͤȿ롥

I must content myself with taking exception to the principle that the effect of the ethnic substratum may show itself several generations after the speech substitution took place. If Keltic ever had 'a finger in the pie,' it must have been immediately on the taking over of the new language. An influence exerted in such a time of transition may have far-reaching after-effects, like anything else in history, but this is not the same thing as asserting that a similar modification of the language may take place after the lapse of some centuries as an effect of the same cause. (200)


Jespersen μĥϡظƶˤϳ (atavism) ϤʤȤĥ (201) ƱݤȽBloomfield Ǥⷫ깭Ƥ롥

The substratum theory attributes sound-change to transference of language: a community which adopts a new language will speak it imperfectly and with the phonetics of its mother-tongue. . . . [I]t is important to see that the substratum theory can account for changes only during the time when the language is spoken by persons who have acquired it as a second language. There is no sense in the mystical version of the substratum theory, which attributes changes, say, in modern Germanic languages, to a "Celtic substratum" --- that is, to the fact that many centuries ago, some adult Celtic-speakers acquired Germanic speech. Moreover, the Celtic speech which preceded Germanic in southern Germany, the Netherlands, and England, was itself an invading language: the theory directs us back into time, from "race" to "race," to account for vague "tendencies" that manifest themselves in the actual historical occurrence of sound-change. (386)


ǯѸˤ夬äƤƤ륱ȸαʸˡؤαƶȤ⡤ظƶΰ֤ª뤫⤷ʤǤȤСʤȤŪˤϡ嵭ȽƤϤޤ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) #1254. ѸäդθѲϽ񤭸դߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ظƶ⤬ƤѲȤƤϡJespersen (192--98) 򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-23-1] [2019-08-07-1]

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2012-11-03 Sat

#1286. ֲѲΰۤʤ븻 [phonetics][frequency][causation][neogrammarian][analogy][verb][conjugation][lexical_diffusion]

Ѳȸ٤ȤδطˤĤƤϡPhillips θҲ𤷤ʤ顤#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) #1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ˲ŪѲϹٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ᤯19ŦƤդ (analogy) δؤֲŪѲٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ⡤ۤƱ Herman Paul ˤäƻŦƤHooper 95)
Hooper ϡ1984ǯʸǡ٤Ȥ顤벻Ѳȹͤ븽Ѹˤ schwa-deletion memory ʤɤ2첻ˤˤʿȹͤưμѲĴ2Ω "phonetic change tends to affect frequent words first, while analogical leveling tends to affect infrequent words first" (101) ٻPhillips Ϥñ2ΩˤäƤǤʤΤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ뤬ΩνȯȤ뤳ȤϺǤ
Τ褦٤ȲѲδطˤäƤ褦˸ Hooper ¤ΤȤüԤϸپ˥ǤʤϤȹͤƤ (102)

I do not think the relative frequency of words is a part of native speaker competence, so I would not propose to make the rule sensitive to word frequency.


Ǥ٤ȲѲοʹԽشط뤳Ȥǧ³ΤǤСξԤϡüԤθǽϤǤϤʤ챿ѤΤʤˤȤȤˤʤΤHooper ϻҶθ򸫤Ĥ褦ȤƤ褦
٤ȲѲν˴ؤΤŪʰյϡʷ֡˲Ѳˤϸΰۤʤʣμब뤳Ȥˤ롥ѲνۤʤȤȤϡ餯ѲΥᥫ˥बۤʤȤȤǤꡤѲθۤʤȤȤǤϤʤȤСѲν狼СѲưŤ狼뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϤΤ褦ʸΰۤʤѲˡֽ벻ѲפŪʷֲѲפȤ٥ŽդƤϤ٤ʬबɬפHooper (103) ηƤ

. . . if it turned out that vowel shifts and some other phonetic changes affect infrequent forms before frequent forms, then we would have an interesting indication that phonetic changes arise from different sources, and furthermore, if my hypotheses are correct, a way of determining which types of changes are traceable to which source. Thus it appears that lexical diffusion, studied in terms of word frequency, may turn up some interesting evidence concerning the source of morpho-phonological change. (103)


Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-06-04-1] [2012-11-04-1]

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2012-10-30 Tue

#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ [language_change][causation][invisible_hand][drift][typology][uniformitarian_principle][grammaticalisation]

ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ򸦵椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ󤹤롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ᤿̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥෿εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλ򰷤űѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸Ϥ᤿Τʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդ򴭵Ƥ롥

Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.

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2012-10-19 Fri

#1271. ܸȤθ [phonetics][japanese][grimms_law][causation][anthropology]

[2012-02-12-1]ε#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿפǷڤڤΤߤܸ̻Ū (delabialisation) ФȤƤ롥ߤΥϹԤλҲϡĤƤ [p] äȤǤ롥[p] ໤໤ΤΤ夯ʤꡤĴ [h] ؤȸषȤʤ櫓ǤϤʤسǤϤۤȤƼƤ롥
[p] > [f] ѲȤСѸˡΤˤϰˤȤ٤ˤˤˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) ۵롥ˡ§μѲϡĴˤƤĴͼˤƤ⡤ϤηŪǤꡤñȯܸοಽȤ礭ۤʤ롥[2012-05-22-1]ε#1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤפʤɤǡˡ§ѲεǤΤ򸫤ȤꡤܸοಽװǤȤǡξԤ϶̤Ƥ롥
(95--96) ϡˤäƤϸջݤͿͤʤŪװƤƤ롥

ΡFͤβϡɻ򤵤ΤܤäλˤϿι碌äȶơpͤβǤäȿꤵƤ롥礦ɸβȬŻǻ pa֤ panaꤤ pai paka puni pu: Ȥ褦ˡɻꤺäȰڤܸǤ⡤ puna ʤɤȸäƤΤȤϺγسǤ롥ʤǤϡp͢F͢hͤȤѲϲεäΤˤĤƽȤʤͤʤϤ줬ܿͤγܤιθȤʤǯŪѲ̩ܤʴطΤȹͤƤ롥ܤʸο͹ǤϾȲȤϤԤä߹蘆äƤ뤬ʹߡܤभŪ˾˽Ф뷹롥Ƴһο͹ο͹Ȼ夬ˤĤơܤʤꡤˤäƹԤƽл䤽û¿ʤĤĤ롥ϸ忰ûΤܿͤξ岼οι碌򤷤ˤ븶ȤʤŪѲǤ롥ѲʤȡϹԻҲΡp͢F͢hͤѲȤʿԤƤꡤ˽Ҥ٤wͻҲæ⡤ȯѲȤƤƱθˤäƤҤƤ롥


ƤϳسǤϤۤȤˤʤäȤ (125) ϤΤ褦ʸջƤ򡤸ջΤߤͳˡƬʤꤹΤϲʳŪ٤ǤϤʤȸڤ褦ȤɬפȹͤƤ褦ȤƤϾβܹꤷƤ뤬⾯ʤȤ⸡ڤͤϤȤոΤˡջ̵ΤȻפ롥ΤȤϤɤޤǾФäƺѤޤʤΤȤνʤ顤ΤꤿȻפ
ʤ⤬ջʹ뤫ȤСŪװȤϿͼŪʺʤΤȤǤꡤϿͼﺹ̤ˤĤʤꤦϤǤ뤫εˤĤƤϿŪθԲķǤ뤳Ȥï⤬ǧƤʤ顤ŪħȽħؤƤǽȤϰΥ֡ȤƤѤ롥
ǡϥޥƥͤβʳŪꥢꥺɾʲϡࡼʥ (281--82) Υޥƥ͡ʡزѲηкѡ١ɾǤ롥

ޥƥͤϤˡʤäƤ褤ʳŪꥢꥺäơʪŪƯǽƤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥ʤˤʪŪȤΤϡʥǥŪˡѤ줿뤿ӷ礬¿ΤǤ롥Ϥ񤤤Ƥ롤ֿͼαƶȤĤΩ꤬󵯤롥ऱƤޤ櫓ˤϤʤΤθδﴱΰ̤˸оϡŪ෿˱ѤäƤǽ뤷Ūʿι¤ˤäơȤФθˤϤβǤǡƤȤޤǤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤϡΤϤ򤯤ˤϡɤʼѤ⤿ĹǦѤŤ褤ĴʤᡤŪʳβΤʤ褦̩θ뤳Ȥ׵ᤵ


ܸ򤵤Τܤ١ȽŹ1974ǯ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ

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2012-09-12 Wed

#1234. Hockett random fluctuation [language_change][causation][phonetics][history_of_linguistics]

#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ȡ#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) ǡѲˤŪװȳŪװˤĤơAitchison ζѹդμ줿ͤҲ𤷤ƤΤ褦ʶѹդݤƤ櫓ǤϤʤä˲ѲˤĤƤϡ1950ǯˤŪѲнŤѲѤäꥫθؼ Charles Fransis Hockett (1916--2000) ᤿random fluctuation Ǥ롥
Hockett ˤСüԤϤ첻ȯȤˡŪȯɸŪפȤܻؤƤ롥Ū濴ͤʤȤ򤵤ǽ㤤ΤǡüԤϤФФøȯ¸롥٤֤ⷫͤȯϡΤȤŪ濴Ϥ褦ʬۤ뤬֤ȤȤ˥ߥŤʤäƤ椯ȡŪ濴ۤξĤƤ椯̤ȤơäˤȤäƤʹˤȤäƤ⡤ۤ濴ưȤˤʤ롥줬ѲȤ櫓Aitchison (135--36) ¹Hockett (443--45) Ѥ褦

It is just this sort of slow drifting about of expectation distributions, shared by people who are in constant communication, that we mean to subsume the term 'sound change'. . . The drift might well not be in any determinate direction: the maxima might wander a bit further apart, then come closer again, and so on. Nevertheless, the drift thus shown would constitute sound change.


ιͤˤ3Ĥ (Aitchison 136--37) (1) Hockett 褦ˡˤƤ椯ȤȡϤ䤬ƺ٤˴٤ºݤθϡѲƤΤȤƤݻƤ롥(2) ۤʤǤ褦Ѳ֤äƤ롥Ѳ˵ȤСΤ褦ˤ(3) Ѳˤϡ䤹ѲȵˤѲȤ롥Ѳˤϲ餫Ū¤뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥꡤrandom fluctuation ȤƤʤ
ߤǤϡHockett 䡤#1155. Postal θѲѡ ([2012-06-25-1]) ǿ줿 Postal μĥ褦ˡrandom fluctuation Ѳμ礿븶ǤȤϱƤʬŪʸǤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽϻĤƤꡤꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Hockett, C. F. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan, 1958.

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