ҥȤȯﴱŪʪǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ#544. ҥȤȯﴱοʲŬ ([2010-10-23-1]) Ǥߤη̤ȤƥҥȤθ͡ħ뤤¤Ĥ˻äȻפ뤬Ѳ䡤ˤϸѲ⡤ҥȤȯﴱŪüȴϢƤȤ롥 (15) ϡޥƥͤθΤ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
Ͼ˶ΤȤ줿ηϤؤѲ롥ʹ֤ȯﴱϡȯ켡ǽȤƤĤΤǤϤʤ塤Ͽʪݼ褷𤷡߹िˤǤƤꡤȯﴱϡòǽξˡСŪǽȤƤˤʤäơδﴱϡʪξòˤԹ褯ǤƤƤ⡤ȯɬԹ褯ǤƤʤȯﴱȤƤߤԶѹդˤǤƤꡤѹդΤȤ줿ηϤܻؤηϡä첻ҲηϤȤ¸˰ܤȯﴱȤ礷ƤʤΤȤŪʸѲװǤꡤºݤˤФȯѲѲθȤʤ롥
ĴؤؤλΩƤС㤨첻ߤʬ褦ˡȸоŪԶѹդǤ롥#19. 첻շ ([2009-05-17-1]) #118. 첻շʤ첻ϻΡ ([2009-08-23-1]) οޤߤСФߤȤˡĹǤϤʤʤ줹ŪʿˤǤ롥ȤŪˤС㤨ܸΤ褦5첻ηϤˤơ/i, e, a, o, u/ γƲǤϺоΤͥʻѷʤ뤤Vˤդξ֤Τ̤Ǥ롥ۤоŪ¤оŪȤޤˤ롥
ΰѤǼĥƤ뤳Ȥϡۤȸ¤Υ줳¤Ѳ븶ưϤǤ롤ȤΡۡפˤϡΩηϤǤȤ륽塼ι¤ŪʸѤǻȿǤƤ롥
աإ塼ȥԥθۡؤ뤿ˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ϣ Hockett ˸Ѹ˴ؤʸѡȤƤ뤬ƱʸѲμ (kinds) ȻȤ (mechanism) ζ̤ˤĤ Hockett θ
ŪʸѲλȤơ[f] [v] ΩβDz夲褦űѸǤξ1Ĥβ /f/ ΰ۲ˤʤäѸǤϸƬʤɤ [v] ĥեñμѤʤɤ̤ /f/ /v/ ǤȤƤΩ褦ˤʤä
ѲˤĤơɤΤ褦ȤŪʲˤϰڿ줺ˡλ¤٤СϡֲѲפǤɽǤ롥֤ѲǤʤСѲäѲǤʤѲǤȤ롥ϡѲμ (kind) ˤĤƤθȤ֡졤äʤɤ̤1Ĥθ˴ŤʬǤ뤫顤θ˰¸ĤߤȤäƤ褤ȤѤС˱ѲμʬѤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѲλȤ (mechanism) Ȥϡ[v] βDzǤСŪˤɤΤ褦ʲơ۲ [v] /f/ Ω /v/ βǤϰ̤ΤȤξܺ٤ΤȤǤ롥ΥޥäơѸ줬 [v] Ƭʤɤˤĥեñܿ˵ڤǡƬ [f] ĸȤκǾФΩ[v] βDzΩȤȤǤʤβDzμºݤξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ʤɤεȡˡȤߤˤ͡ʤΤ̤뤬㤨вѲ (sound change) (analogy) (borrowing) 3Ĥζ̤ꤹȤΥǼȤƴͿƤȤߤϡѤȤʤĤλȤߤꤹ뤫ˤĤƤŪ¿ͤΩ줬ꤦΤǡ¸αĤߤǤϤ롥
ѲμȻȤߤ̤٤ǤȤ Hockett μĥϡѲΥӥեȥե2üδطʬह뤳Ȥȡ2üδ֤ǺѤᥫ˥餫ˤ뤳ȤȤۤʤĤߤǤȤȤơαĤߤˤĤưȤγǰѸΥåȤƤ٤Ǥꡤ2ĤΤΤƱƤϤʤʤHockett (72) ۩
My last terminological recommendation, then, is that any individual scholar who has occasion to talk about historical linguistics, be it in an elementary class or textbook or in a more advanced class or book about some specific language, distinguish clearly between kinds and mechanisms. We must allow for differences of opinion as to how many kinds there are, and as to how many mechanisms there are---this is an issue which will work itself out in the future. But we can at least insist on the main point made here.
ϢơHockett (73) ϡѲλȤ (mechanism) ȸ (cause) ȤѸˤĤƤ⡤դƤ롥
'Mechanism' and 'cause' should not be confused. The term 'cause' is perhaps best used of specific sequences of historical events; a mechanism is then, so to speak, a kind of cause. One might wish to say that the 'cause' of the phonologization of the voiced-voiceless opposition for English spirants was the Norman invasion, or the failure of the British to repel it, or the drives which led the Normans to invade, or the like. We can speak with some sureness about the mechanism called borrowing; discussion of causes is fraught with peril.
Hockett εϡѲ what (= kind) how (= mechanism) why (= cause) Ѹ츯ˤĤƲƹͤƤ뵡Ȥʤä
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
2֤εʡ#2634. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (1) ([2016-07-13-1]) ȡ#2635. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (2) ([2016-07-14-1])ˤǡλ졦̣ϰŪȻ (areal diffusion) ˤĤơDrinka ͤ夲Drinka ϰ̤ˤμθϰŪȻ̤νǤꡤܿ˵٤ѲͽۤʾˤǤȹͤƤ롥Drinka ϤΩΩäҤǤꡤ#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ̤ͤѤ褦ˡѲˤܿΰյ϶ĥƤ롥¾ҤȤơLuraghi (#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])) ⻲ȡ
λʸκǸǤ⡤Drinka (28) ϺǸϰŪȻΰŪĴƤ롥
With regard to larger implications, the role of areal diffusion turns out to be essential in the development of the periphrastic perfect in Europe, throughout its history. The statement of Dahl on the role of areal phenomena is apt here:
Man kann wohl sagen, dass Sprachbundphänomene in Grammatikalisierungsproessen eher die Regel als eine Ausnahme sind---solche Prozesse verbreiten sich oft zu mehreren benachbarten Sprachen und schaffen dadurch Grammfamilien. (Dahl 1996:363)
Not only are areally-determined distributions frequent and widespread, but they constitute the essential explanation for the introduction of innovation in many cases.
Τ褦ϰŪȻȤϡ (linguistic_area) ȤǰȤ̩ܤʴطˤ롥ä˱λΤ褦Ūʼ (syntactic borrowing) ˤĤƤϡ#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ ([2013-06-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡҲķɸ (the marker of cohesion in society) ªǽŦƤꡤҲؤˤʲͽ롥
ʤŪװȸ쳰Ūװϡܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥ#2589. ѲưΤϷǽ (2) ([2016-05-29-1]) ˴ϢؤΥƤΤǡȤ줿
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
첻 (gvs) 䥰ˡ§ (grimms_law) ɽ벻ν۴ĥե (circular shift, chain shift) ˤ͡Ū롥Samuels ϡ첻ܤϡϵŪ ("mechanical") ѲȤƻϤޤäʳǵǽŪ ("functional") ʺѤƯƲηϤȤƤΥХ줿ϢβǤȤߤƤ롥ŪѲȤϡŪˤС㡦첻ˤĤƤϡĴ줿ʶĥˤΰ۲줿ȤȤǤꡤ첻ˤĤƤϡ줿дˤ2첻Ūʰ۲줿ȤȤǤ롥ơ첻ϡϤΤ褦˵Ū۲餯ΩƺΤäʳˤʤäơηϤΰݻ褦Ȥ뵡ǽŪʰϤ˲ƺǽŪʬۤȤͤ
Circular shifts of vowels are thus detailed examples of homeostatic regulation. The earliest changes are mechanical . . . ; the later changes are functional, and are brought about by the favouring of those variants that will redress the imbalance caused by the mechanical changes. In this respect circular shift differs considerably from merger and split. Merger is redressed by split only in the most general and approximate fashion, since the original functional yields are not preserved; but in circular shift, the combination of functional and mechanical factors ensures that adequate distinctions are maintained. To that extent at least, the phonological system possesses some degree of autonomy. (Samuels 42)
Samuels εαǤ롥۴ĥեȤǽŪΩ줫鲻Ǥʬȵۼ (split and merger) βȤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤ뤫Ŧʤ顤Ԥ벻ηϤμΧǫƤ롥Τ褦 Samuels Ω줬ǽŪФäƤȤθˤʤӤ䤹ΤäϤޤǵŪװǤ Samuels ƤõƤϢơ#2585. ѲưΤϷǽ ([2016-05-25-1]) ȡ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
#2585. ѲưΤϷǽפ˰³ˤĤƤ Samuels ιͤꤿSamuels (38) ϡѲθ˴ؤơεǽŪΩѲƳƤΤ뤤ĴηŪʵŪˤװѲưƤΤ䤤ʤ顤Τ褦ʸƤ롥
. . . provided the potentiality for contrast exists, it is likely to be realised sooner or later, though the accident may be only one of many that could have given the same result; and the greater the potentiality for contrast, the sooner it is likely to be realised, i.e. the more inevitable and less accidental the phonemicisation actually is.
ǤϡǽŪװѲŪȤơŪװѲμºŪʰȤƲƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ԤѲװ뤤Ϥäȼ夯СѲǤꡤԤѲ¸뤭äǤ롥Ԥ϶ȯŪ (accident) ˤʤȸڤƤ뤬ȤäơSamuels Ԥ٤ܼŪ˽פǤʤȤϹͤƤʤεdzǧ褦ˡSamuels ϷŪװΤۤǽŪװܼŪǤȤפǤȤ뤤ϤεդǤȤΤ褦ʥץꥪϴӤƤ뤫Ѳˤξ¦̤ꤵ٤ǤꡤȰξʤѲʤȤȤϸޤǤʤ¦̤פ䤦Τϥʥ
褦ʵȤơŪװȳŪװϤ줬פȤӤ褬롥#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) Ǽ夲 Aitchison ڤơѲϳݤڤȤʤСϷಽ뤤϶ȼäڤۤʤ٥ǤȤѲθ줬ܼŪǽפװ䤦ΤϥʥǤ롥ѲθǤϡ multiple causation of language change Ȥ٤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡۤˤʲεȤ줿
#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1])
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ѲˤäʹˤĤơȤ櫓ԤŪ˽Ż뤹ǯˤĤơ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1])#2140. ѲΥ饤ե ([2015-03-07-1])#2150. Ѳˤʹ ([2015-03-17-1]) ʤɤεǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
Samuels (31) ϲѲϤΤʤǡäʹȤδطˤĤơХμ줿Ƥ롥
As regards the current controversy as to whether articulatory or acoustic evidence is to be preferred, the study of change evidently demands both: the production of new variants is mainly articulatory in nature, their spread and imitation mainly acoustic, and both are continually coordinated by the process of monitoring.
äĴ (articulation) ˶ư줿Ѳʹβ (acoustics) ȤƤμƤ̤ƸѼԤδ֤˳ȻβϽĤδƻ뵡ǽ (monitoring) ˤĴ롤Ȥǥ
ε#2585. ѲưΤϷǽ ([2016-05-25-1]) ǡŪʵŪˤʶưȵǽŪʶưδطˤĤ Samuels θҲ𤷤줾ζưϤäʹˤ褽б褦ˤפ롥ѼԤϡ̾ƱäǤʹǤ⤢뤫顤Ŀʹ֤Τߤʤ餺ĿͤˤƤ⡤ξΩ줫δƻ뵡ǽƯƤΤ
ѲˤƤϡ(1) äιư(2) ʹιư(3) ˥3ǤռƤɬפ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ɸˤĤƤϡ#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) ǵѲѰ۷ȤȡϷŪʵŪˤ˶ưƤΤ뤤ϵǽŪ˶ưƤΤκŪˤĤơSamuels (28--29) Τ褦˹ͻƤ롥ĹεβսѤ롥
Does it [=the process of selection] involve merely fitting a ready-made stretch of the inherited spoken chain, recalled from memory, to a given situation? If so, the mechanical factors in change would appear more important. Or is there fresh selection of each functional element in the utterance? In that case, the functional factor would outweigh the mechanical. These are questions for which the psycholinguist has not yet provided an answer, and perhaps no answer is possible. From a subjective viewpoint, it might be surmised that, since many tactless or otherwise inapposite utterances turn out, in retrospect, to have been uses of previously learnt stretches of the spoken chain that simply did not fit the situation, our overall use of the 'form-directed' spoken chain is greater than we might think, and in any event greater than the conventionalities of cliché and phatic communion to which it is often restricted. Information theory has shown that all common collocations, being predictable, are more easily understood than rare collocations; and since the same presumably applies to the speaker's selection of them from the memory-store, their use is but another demonstration of the principle of least effort. On the other hand, a brain that is alerted to the danger of inapposite utterance will presumably 'check' the functional value of the units it selects. It depends, therefore, on the degree of alertness, whether an utterance is to be called as 'form-directed' or 'function-directed'; naturally there are borderline cases, but it is probably wrong to assume that utterance normally results from a conflict, within the brain, between the need for intelligibility and the tendency to rely on stretches of actual or embryo cliché. In the genesis of a single utterance, one or other factor will have the upper hand (which one depends on the speakers and the situation); but there is no way of gauging from individual utterances the relative importance of each factor for the processes of change. But although the two factors cannot be separated at the level of idiolect, it is reasonable to suppose that the total utterances of a community will fall mainly into one or the other of the two types --- 'form-directed' and 'function-directed'. Both types belong to the same language, and neither (except in extreme cases of cliché or innovation) is overtly distinguishable; they are interdependent and interact, and neither would exist or be understood without the other. It follows that, for the study of change, both types must in the first instance be accorded equal consideration . . . .
Samuels ϡȵǽˤưξ˻ĤĸѲͻϤ뤳Ȥפ⤯ġθѲǤϡ̤Ȥơ줬ͥǤ뤫ʬΤ⤷ʤǽ餫餤줫нŤΥХäƤϤʤȤȤȤ Samuels ʤεˤ functionalist ȤȽƤSamuels ȤϤΰѤκǸ夫餫ʤ褦ˡȵǽξΤǥХȤƤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ǯθѲθǤϡѲβָ (invisible_hand) θˤ褦Ȥ Keller λߤΤ褦ˤʤäƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤#8. ̽ڤȸѲ ([2009-05-07-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǰäƤ
Keller (123) Ƥ "invisible-hand explanation" ˡ徯äΤ˷Ǻܤ褦
(micro level) (macro level)
intentional causal
actions consequence
invisible-
hand explanandum
process
ecological conditions
An invisible-hand explanation consists --- ideally --- of three levels:
(a) The depiction of the personal motives, intentions, goals, convictions, and so forth, which form the basis of the individual actions: the nature of the speaker's language and the world he lives in, as far as they are relevant for the speaker's choice of action and his choice of linguistic means.
(b) The depiction of the process that explains the generation of structure by the multitude of individual actions. This process is called the invisible-hand process.
(c) The depiction of the generated structure.
Ρָפˤϡ#2531. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" ([2016-04-01-1]) ȡ#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1]) ˤ spaghetti_junction ȤطꤽǤ롥
Keller, Rudi. "Invisible-Hand Theory and Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 113--27.
ɸϡ#2464. Ѳθ ([2016-01-25-1]) Ǥ줿Ǥ롥ѲͳȤơŤƱ (assimilation)۲ (dissimilation)æû岽ʤɤƤĴΤ䤹ŪȤƤꡤ碌 "the principle of least effort" ʺǾϤθ§ˤ뤤 "ease-theory" ȸƤ֤Ȥ롥Ǥ٤ƤβѲǤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷⤬٤ƤȤС줬ƱͤĴ䤹褯ˤʤäƤϤ¤ˤΤ褦ʾϤʤ
ɸؤβϤǺѤȤкѤΤSamuels (18) 2ۤɰŪʲͿƤΤǡƤSamuels 褦Ȥ䤤ϡΤˤȡ"if such changes are so simple, they should appear in all languages and dialects to a full and equal extent, and not in varying proportions in each" (17) Ǥ롥
Firstly, there must be a limit to the rate and quantity of assimilations, contractions and other rearrangements that is tolerable in a single dialect if intelligibility is to be maintained, so that, even if a large proportion of them are continually occurring in certain colloquial styles, only a small proportion could be in process of acceptance into other styles at any given time. Secondly, the fact that their incidence differs according to language and dialect follows from the very nature of dialects, which owe their existence to development in part-isolation: in each dialect, there are differences in the basis of articulation, in the effects of suprasegmental features on the spoken chain, in the forms that are socially accepted or rejected as status-markers, or selected for functional utility, or merely redistributed at random.
Samuels ϡѲˤʣװͿ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥνװꥹȥåפ褦ȤƤΤǤ롥ǽ䥳ߥ˥θΨӻѰΩȤäĴŪŪǤʤ¦̤ιθɬפȤΤȤĥƤˤʤָϡ䤹ѲפȤñʸѲϡ̤˼뤳ȤǤʤ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ε ([2016-04-01-1]) ˰³"spaghetti junction" ˤĤơϡθݤ˴ؤ Aitchison 1989ǯʸɤΤǡݡȤ롥
Aitchison ϡѥץ˥塼˥ǹä Tok Pisin λꡦˡηϤ͡ʼʤκʤäƤȤȤ˰ӤΤˤʤäƤͻҤѻ "spaghetti junction" θ̤ˤΤTok Pisin ˸뤳Τ褦ηϤѲϡϢʤ¾Υԥ䥯쥪ǤѻƤꡤΤ2ĤΩͤƤȤ1Ĥ Bickerton ʤɤؼԤĥ褦ˡʸˡ˶ŪƯƤꡤѲɬŪˤηϤ˽뤹롤ȤΤΩϡŪҥȤΰҤȤ߹ޤƤꤹ뤿ᡤ"bioprogram" ȸƤФ롥⤦1Ĥιͤϡ졤ǧΡߥ˥˴ؤ͡ʰۤʤߤ˺Ѥ̡ǽŪ˻褦ʲФȤΤΩ줬 "spaghetti junction" Ǥ롥Aitchison (152) ϡ2ܤθʲΤ褦ٻƤ롥
This second approach regards a language at any particular point in time as if it were a spaghetti junction which allows a number of possible exit routes. Given certain recurring communicative requirements, and some fairly general assumptions about language, one can sometimes see why particular options are preferred, and others passed over. In this way, one can not only map out a number of preferred pathways for language, but might also find out that some apparent 'constraints' are simply low probability outcomes. 'No way out' signs on a spaghetti junction may be rare, but only a small proportion of possible exit routes might be selected.
Aitchison (169) ϡ2ĤΩΰ㤤͡ʸɽƤ롥"innate programming" Ф "probable rediscovery" ǤȤѲ "prophylaxis" ͽɡˤФ "therapy" ʼšˤǤʡͽɡפȡּšפˤĤƤϡ#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ȡˡAitchison ϡξΩȿΤȤϡŪ⤷ʤȹͤƤ褦
"spaghetti junction" ΩĤΤǤСθѲβϡФ䤹ƻڡפͽ¬뤫ȤȤˤʤAitchison (170) ϡʸΤ褦äƤ롥
A number of principles combined to account for the pathways taken, principles based jointly on general linguistic capabilities, cognitive abilities, and communicative needs. The route taken is therefore the result of the rediscovery of viable options, rather than the effect of an inevitable bioprogram. At the spaghetti junctions of language, few exits are truly closed. However, a number of converging factors lead speakers to take certain recurrent routes. An overall aim in future research, then, must be to predict and explain the preferred pathways of language evolution.
Τ褦ʸ̤ϸȯȽȯãˤ⿷ʸƤƤ뤫⤷ʤ͡褬ä˽װˤФ䤹ƻڡפѤ졤ˤĤʤηǤΤǤϤʤȡ
Aitchison, Jean. "Spaghetti Junctions and Recurrent Routes: Some Preferred Pathways in Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 151--71.
2֤ˤ錄ɸε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1]) ˤĤƤ3ơϡevolution 3θߤʪؤǼƤ˸Ѳ˱Ѥ줦뤫ˤĤƹͤ롥McMahon (334) ꡤ3θǧƤ
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ˤʤäƤƤˤ evolution εκüϡޤˤθǤ evolution ȤƤ롥ޤǤ2εǸƤ褦ˡ1920θȾˤơؤˤ evolution ȤѸˤϼ깤ĤƤޤäؤˤơѸϥβʳŪʤ⡤üʲʹѤӤӤƤ뤳ȤŪʥåƥŽƤʪʳءˤȸʳءˤ°פӤƤ椨ǤꡤǫξԤʿʿСͭѤȤǤ³ǽϻĤ롥Ӥκݤ˵äΩĤ٤ evolution Ȥϡ嵭θ evolution Ǥ롥ˤϴޤޤƤʤʪʲʬǹƤ mutation, variation, natural selection, adaptation ʤɤѸ졦ǰ˸Ѳ˱ѤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
McMahon (334--40) ϡʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤιͻΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ߤΰƱ褯ǤСˡ˸ؤˡʪؤؤ֤٤Ȥ¿षԤΤƤΰǤȼĥƤ롥McMahon (340) ϼ̤
[T]he Darwinian theory of biological evolution, with its interplay of mutation, variation and natural selection, has clear parallels in historical linguistics, and may be used to provide enlightening accounts of linguistic change. Having borrowed the core elements of evolutionary theory, we may then also explore novel concepts from biology, such as exaptation, and assess their relevance for linguistic change. Indeed, the establishment of parallels with historical biology may provide one of the most profitable future directions for historical linguistics.
ʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ε ([2016-03-28-1]) ˰³Ѳˤ evolution βˤĤơ evolution Ū (teleology) Ūʴްդ2θ"A series of related changes in a certain direction" ܤä (1) Ⱥθ (2) ϸѲȤˤƶ̤Ƥ뤬(1) ˥٥ˤĹŪʲʹѤȼä˴طΤФơ(2) ϲʹѤѤΤΡѲˤŪˤϱ̿Ť줿Ťȼĥ롥
üŪˤСŪȤ "effects precede (in time) their final causes" ȤȯۤǤ (qtd. in McMahon 325 from p. 312 of Lass, Roger. "Linguistic Orthogenesis? Scots Vowel Length and the English Length Conspiracy." Historical Linguistics. Volume 1: Syntax, Morphology, Internal and Comparative Reconstruction. Ed. John M. Anderson and Charles Jones. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1974. 311--43.) ̾ŪΩ X ³ Y Ȥ̴طʪ뤬ŪˤƤϡ Y 뤳ȤǤ褦 X 롤롥2ϸȿФ1ĤθѲФȤƻȤƤޤȤפǤ롥㤨СΤʳ [mb], [md], [mg], [nb], [nd], [ng], [ŋb], [ŋd], [ŋg] λҲϢ³ƤƤΤʳǤ [mb], [nd], [ŋg] 3路ƤʤʤäȤ롥̾βŪˤСƱﴱƱ (homorganic assimilation) פȤʤ뤬ŪŪѤȡĴ䤹뤿ƱﴱλҲϢ³ȤʤäפȤʤ롥
ػˤˤƤϡ͡ԤŪȤäƤȿԤƱ餤Ƥ㤨 Jakobson ŪԤäθѤŪοǻBloomfield Lass ϡŪΩ˸ȿФƤ롥McMahon (330--31) ⡤ŪŪŪ (teleology of purpose) ȡֵǽŪ (teleology of function) ʬˤ뤳ȤŪŪܤƤơΥˤĤŪŪƱ˲ǽǤȿMcMahon ηѤơ2ΰ̣ evolution ƹͤȤ
There is a useful verdict of Not Proven in the Scottish courts, and this seems the best judgement on teleology. We cannot prove teleological explanations wrong (although this in itself may be an indictment, in a discipline where many regard potentially falsifiable hypotheses as the only valid ones), but nor can we prove them right; they rest on faith in predestination and the omniscient guiding hand. More pragmatically, alleged cases of teleology tend to have equally plausible alternative explanations, and there are valid arguments against the teleological position. Even the weaker teleology of function is flawed because of the numerous cases where it simply does not seem to be applicable. However, this rejection does not make the concept of conspiracy, synchronic or diachronic, any less intriguing, or the perception of directionality . . . any less real.
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1]) Ǿ줿Samuels ϸѲȤװͤǤδŪΩȤơIntralinguistic Extralinguistic ͤƤꡤԤϤ Intrasystemic Extrasystemic ʬ롥Samuels (7) ˤطޤѤƼȡʲ̤Ǥ롥
Intralinguistic Intrasystemic
Extrasystemic 1 (linguistic sense only)
Extralinguistic Extrasystemic 2 (non-linguistic sense, here not used)
Ѳϸν̿Ȥ⤤ۤŪʤΤǤꡤźȤ줿Ϥʤ줯餤ߤƤʤ⡤θޤ餫ȤƤʤΤԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥⤽⡤ְ̣פȼʤʱˤѲȤΤϤɤȤʤΤạ̈ѲȤΤ䤹Ѳ뤳ȤïȤΤؤκǤ̥ŪǤ롥
ѲθˤĤƤϡŤ͡⤬ƤAlgeo and Pyles (34--35) ȤơĤɽŪʤ Ҳ𤷤褦
ޤ2ĤθABܿAüԤBԴ˽ȤAȯħBػۤȤȤ롥СˡظȯħƳ륱ϡظ첾 (substratum_theory) ȸƤФ롥դˡظȯħظ˻ۤ졤Ū˸Ԥ˲Ѳˤ "superstratum theory" ȸƤФ롥
ʤ٤ߤηֳ֤Ȥʤ褦ĴƯΤǤϤʤȤ "phonological space" ʲ֡ˤδ⤢롥ܸΤ褦첻Ȥ [i, e] 첻Ȥ [u, o, ɑ] 첻ηϤϡ褯ѹդμ줿֤ǤꡤŪѲˤѹդμƤʤ֤ϡѹդܻؤѲ䤹⤷ʤ
Ʊ (assimilation) ۲ (dissimilation)æ (elision) (intrusion)ۤˡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) Ǽ褦ʳƼβظˤϡ "ease of articulation" ĴưפˤȤưŤ褦˻פ롥Ť龧ƤǤϤ뤬⤷줬ѲͣθȤС٤Ƥθ줬Ĵ䤹νؤȵ夷ƤޤȤˤʤäơϡĤꤦ븶1ĤˤʤȤ롥
üԤΰռٴͿβѲ⤢롥#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) Ǹ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥƿ줿褦ˡcomptroller ֻҲ [mptr] ȯ褦ˤʤäȤˤϰ spelling_pronunciation äȤˤʤ롥ޤ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡchaise longue chaise lounge Ȥȯ褦ˤʤäΤϡָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ˤΤǤ롥
ҿȯؤΰռ뤳Ȥˤä꽤 (hypercorrection) ⡤Ѳ1װȹͤ롥talkin' somethin' Τ褦 g æȯ¤ޤפޤꡤ g ͽʤĶǤ g [ɪŋ] ȯ褦ʥǤ롥㤨 chicken Virgin Islands 줾 chicking, Virging Islands ʤɤȯѲ롥Ϣơrajah, cashmere, kosher ʤɤλˡͽʤä /ʒ/ 褦ˤʤä̲ (overgeneralization) ⤢롥
͡ʲ⤬ƤƤñȤDzѲԤȤϤǤʤʣװͿƤ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥɬפ
Ѳθ˸¤餺Ū˸Ѳθ˴ؤƤϡ#442. Ѳθ([2010-07-13-1]) Ȥ줿
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Ѹֻˤˤơ<u> <o> Ѥ뽬ˤĤƤϡ#223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1])#1094. <o> ֻ /u/ 첻ɽ魯 ([2012-04-25-1]) Ǿ줿ɸŪʸˤȡ첻ɽ <u> ϥåΤǤϽ (minim) 2ܤ¤٤ <<ıı>> Τ褦˽줿Ʊ鹽 <m>, <n>, <u>, <v>, <w> ʤɤʸ¤־ˤϡʸɤζ̤ʤ롥Ѥ路뤿ˡѸμ̻첻ɽ <u> <o> ִơ<sume> <some> ء<sun> ©ҡˤ <son> ء<luue> <loue> ؤִ졤줬ɸಽΤȤJespersen (88--89) ΰʲΰѤŵͿƤ롥
In ME texts of a more recent date (Chaucer, etc.) we find o used still more extensively for /u/, namely in the neighbourhood of any of the letters m, n, and u (v, w). The reason is that the strokes of these letters were identical, and that a multiplication of these strokes, especially at a time when no dot or stroke was written over i, rendered the reading extremely ambiguous and difficult (five strokes might be read as uni, nui, uui (uni or wi), iuu (ivu or iw), mii, imi, etc.). This accounts for the present spelling of won, wonder, worry, woman, monk, monkey, sponge, ton, tongue, some, Somerset, honey, cover, above, love (ME loue for luue) and many others.
Carney (148) ˤСߤɸŪֻˤơ츻Ū <u> ԤȤǡ<m> <n> ֤ˤ <o> ȤƸñϳΤ¿ (ex. become, come, comfort, company, compass, somersault; conjure, front, frontier, ironmonger, Monday, money, mongrel, monk, monkey, month, son, sponge, ton, tongue, wonder) ޤѸ <<uu>> ֤줿 <w> θ֤ <u> ĶˤƤ⡤ֻϤҤɤɤߤˤʤ顤Ѹ wolf <uuulf> <uuolf> ֤뤳ȤˤʤäΤΤǤ롥ʤűѸǤ <<uu>> <ƿ> Ѥ줿Τǽ <ƿulf> ֤줿Upward and Davidson (59) ˤ wolf ֻ˴ؤ뤳ϡΤϤäƤ롥
. . . the U [is] replaced by O in ƿulf 'wolf' and by OO in ƿul 'wool', ƿudu 'wood'. The purpose of this change from U to O was not to reflect any change in pronunciation, but to clarify scribal writing in ME . . . . OE, like ModE, used four distinct letters to spell ƿulf 'wolf', but when in ME the letter wyn (ƿ) was replaced by UU (the early form of W), the effect was that such a word would have appeared as uuulf, with U three times in succession. When, furthermore, one takes into account that the 'Gothic' style of scribal writing reduced many non-capital letters more or less to short vertical strokes ('minims'), one can see how difficult the reading of uuulf could be. If, on the other hand, the vowel is respelt O, then the form uuolf is less likely to confuse readers.
Τ褦 <u> <o> ˤִ˴ؤ "minim avoidance" βϤ٤ϤäƤ褦˸뤬ǡ<o> ִ줺Ԥ <u> Τޤ <m> <n> ֤˸ñ¤Ͼʤʤ (ex. drum, jump, lumber, mumble, mumps, munch, mundane, number, pump, slum, sum, thump, trumpet; fun, fund, gun, hundred, hunt, lunch, punch, run, sun) ˡϢ³뤿Ȥͳ˵뤳ȤΤǤʤ <u> <o> ִ⤢ (ex. brother, colour, colander, thorough, borough, other, dozen) äơ"minim avoidance" ϡִΰȤʤäƤǽǧˤ衤줬٤ƤǤϤʤȤդɬפ롥βˤĤƤ "multiple causation" Ȥۤ褤
Ϣơ"minim avoidance" ˤĤƤϡ#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1])#870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ ([2009-07-27-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
³ơGould and Vrba γŬ (exaptation) ꡥGould and Vrba (11--13) ϡʲˤ볰ŬȤѸȳǰν4ۤɻŦƤ롥
(1) Ŭϡ "preadaptation" տ魯Ū (teleology) ŪʴްդʧƤ롥 "preadaptation" ϡѸηϤˤƤ "preaptation" ȸƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤλ¤ˤƹͤ줿 "exaptation" ΰʤ "potential, but unrealized, exaptations" (11) ȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(2) 1˳Ŭ2ŬѤȤ"Feathers, in their basic design, are exaptations for flight, but once this new effect was added to the function of thermoregulation as an important source of fitness, feathers underwent a suite of secondary adaptations (sometimes called post-adaptations) to enhance their utility in flight" (11). Ŭˤäޤ줿θ塤ŬѤβФƤ˵ǽŪˤʤäƤ椯ȤȤϡ̤ΤȤǤ롥
(3) Ŭλ̵¤Ǥꡤ٤ࡥ"[T]he enormous pool of nonaptations must be the wellspring and reservoir of most evolutionary flexibility. We need to recognize the central role of 'cooptability for fitness' as the primary evolutionary significance of ubiquitous nonaptation in organisms" (12). Ϣơ"[A]ll exaptations originate randomly with respect to their effects" (12) Ǥ롥
(4) Ŭ⤿餷ϡnonaptation ä⤷ʤ adaptation ä⤷ʤ"Exaptations . . . are not fashioned for their current role and reflect no attendant process beyond cooptation . . .; they were built in the past either as nonaptive by-products or as adaptations for different roles."
Gould and Vrba (13) ϡȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
We suspect . . . that the subjects of nonaptation and cooptability are of paramount importance in evolution. . . . The flexibility of evolution lies in the range of raw material presented to processes of selection.
ϡ#2155. Ѳȡ̵٤δӡס ([2015-03-22-1]) ǰѤ Lass θѲˤ "The joys of idleness" ľ̤ͤǤ롥
Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.
űѸŵŪ <cyning> 뤤 <cyng> ֤Ƥ줬ѸǤŵŪ <king> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥 /k/ ɽ魯ʸ <c> <k> ؤ֤줿ȤȤˤϤʤưŤäΤ
/k/ бʸ <c> <k> ִ줿аޤˤĤơScragg (45) ϵǽŪΩ줫鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . Old English orthography continued to represent the two sounds [= [k] and [ʧ]] by <c> (i.e. both of these words in late Old English were spelt cinn or cynn). Although <c> could still unambiguously represent /k/ before back vowels and consonants (as it still does in cat, cot, cut, climb, crumb), there was no agreed way of distinguishing the sounds graphically before front vowels. The use of <k> for the plosive appeared sporadically from the ninth century but it was not until the thirteenth that it was fully established in words like king and keen, by which time <ch> had been adopted for the affricate.
<c> <k> ؤѲϡ/y/ ߿Ȥ첻ѲͿƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥űѸǤϸ (palatalisation) θ̤ˤꡤ첻Ԥ /k/ [ʧ] ȤƼ¸褦ˤʤäƤ첻Ԥ /k/ [k] ȤƼ¸³ƤꡤߤʬۤʤᡤξϤޤƱ첻Ǥΰۤʤ¸Ǥˤʤääơɽ魯ʸ <c> 1Ĥǻꤿ
Ȥ첻 /u/ i-mutation ˤ첻 /y/ Ȥʤꡤ߿ /i/ ؤѲȡcinn [ʧin] cynn [kin] Ωޤ졤ʬۤ롥 /ʧ/ /k/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤȤƶ̤褦ˤʤäDz (phonemicisation) βǤ롥
ʳˤơۤʤ벻ǤϰۤʤʸɽΤդ路ȤǽŪȯۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ͤˡϤĤμ¸ȼѤδ֤Ф夤Τϡ/k/ Ф <k> /ʧ/ Ф <ch> Ƥˡä <c> ΤΤĤäƤʤȤդ줿
Ѹˤ <k> <ch> Ѥ줿طʤˤϡֻѤ륢Υޥ̻νͿƤScragg θǤʸǤб˴ؤ뵡ǽŪ˽ϤƤΤФOED K, n. εҤϡΥޥֻˤڤǤꡤХμ줿Ȥ롥
Yet, in the Old English use of the Roman alphabet, both the guttural and the palatal sound were represented by C, although in the practice of individual scribes K was by no means infrequent for the guttural, especially in positions where C would have been liable to be taken as palatal, or would at least have been ambiguous, as in such words as Kent, kéne, kennan, akenned, kynn, kyning, kyðed, folkes, céak, þicke. But, even in these cases, C was much more usual down to the 11th century; and K can be regarded only as a supplemental symbol occasionally used instead of C for the guttural sound. After the Conquest, however, the Norman usage gradually prevailed, in accordance with which C was retained for the original guttural only before a, o, u, l, r, and K was substituted for the same sound before e, i, y, and (later) n; while the palatalized Old English c, now advanced to /ʧ/, was written Ch. Hence, in native words, initial K now appears only before e, i, y (y being moreover usually merged in i), and before n ( < Old English cn-), where it is no longer pronounced in Standard English, though retained in some dialects.
űѸǤ⤹Ǥ <k> ѤƤȤˤդ٤Ǥ롥ʸǤֻѲޤᡤѲˤϡʣξװͿƤȤ (multiple causation of language change) ˺ƤϤʤʤ
Ϣơ/k/ бʸŪˤĤơ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) ȡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
#2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1]) ǰѤ De Smet (3) ϡѲγȻ˷֤2Ĥħ˿Ƥ롥"gradualness" "unidirectionality"
. . . diffusional changes do have two recurrent characteristics. First, they are gradual and their gradualness is context bound, which means that different environments are affected by change at different times or in a different pace. This context-bound gradualness has been disputed for some changes . . . ; yet in many cases, . . . context-bound gradualness is immediately apparent from the data. While this suggests that gradualness is perhaps more pronounced for some changes than for others, there is no denying that it is a central aspect of some major grammatical developments.
Second, diffusional changes are unidirectional, in the sense that once an environment has been conquered by change it is not normally yielded back. Unidirectionality here does not mean that diffusion proceeds indefinitely but simply that there is a time window in which distributions can grow continuously, without any serious fallback or fluctuation. This consistency of change sometimes seems natural. For instance, in actualization it might be thought of as a systematic bearing out of the logical consequences of syntactic reanalysis. In grammaticalization, consistent collocational expansion often follows from semantic bleaching. But in other cases, . . . a single straightforward explanation for directionality seems lacking, making the directionality observed all the more mystifying.
De Smet ε1ĤħѲϴĶȤ˽˳ȻƤȤħϡΤ˼Ƥ褤Aitchison ήˤ "rule generalisation" (95) ˤäơĿʤǤΤŵǤ롥
2ĤħѲΰ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƤϡ٤꤬Ĥ褦˻פ롥ޤDe Smet ѤκǸѲΰ "mystifying" Ǥ뤳ȻŦƤ褦ˡθ餫ˤȤ礭꤬ĤƤ롥ϡSapir drift ήˤͿ "mystical" Ȥɾפ (see #685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]))
ˡѲγȻˤϡܺäƤޤΡ뤤ϰŪǤϤήꡤʤȤ֥졼äꤹ륱뤳ȤǤ롥㤨С伫ȤιԤäѸˤ̾ʣ -s γȻȤǤϡˤưŪй -n δꡤ-s γȻˤϤष֥졼äθ塤-s γȻᤷΤǡǽŪˤϡפȤ뤫⤷ʤŪѲΰƤ褤ΤʤΤƹͤ¥ǤϤ롥
De Smet ⡤Τ褦㳰ˤߤβǽǰƬ֤ʤ顤Ť "unidirectionality" ȤǰƤ褦ǤϤ롥â1Ĥ "a time window" ¤ϡ줬ԹΤ褹복ǰ֤ʤΤǤϤʤȤפäƤ롥Ǥ -s ǤСȻ˥֥졼ľޤǤ1ĤλȤСΤ˰˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤ֥졼ľ夫⤦1ĤλȤСޤ˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥뤿ˤϡԹ褯ꤹ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ѲγȻ (diffusion) Υᥫ˥ˤĤơŪʴ#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1])#1642. lexical diffusion 3ĤS ([2013-10-25-1])#1907. ѲΥ塼οǥ ([2014-07-17-1])#2168. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ (2) ([2015-04-04-1]) 濴ˡlexical_diffusion γƵǰäƤ
ȻζưϤǤ뤫Ȥ䤤ФơDenison (58) Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤȤФƤ뤬De Smet (8) ϼ礿븶ưϤ (analogy) Ǥꡤ2ĤŪϤääƤȹͤƤ롥ޤϤǤѤ鸫Ƥߤ褦
Most innovations in diffusion appear to arise through analogy---that is, as a result of the bearing out of synchronic regularities. There are two reasons analogy can lead to unidirectional diffusion of a pattern. If we assume that analogy is sensitive to frequency, in that analogical pressure grows as the analogical model becomes more frequent, it follows that as diffusion proceeds analogy grows stronger and more and more environments will yield to its pressure. In this sense, diffusion is a self-feeding process, keeping itself going once it has been triggered. . . . But analogy can be self-feeding not only in a quantitative but also in a qualitative way. . . . [D]iffusion can proceed along analogical chains, whereby every actual change reshuffles the cards for any potential change. Because language users are tireless at inferring regularities from usage---and may even not mind some degree of inconsistency---each analogical extension changes the generalizations that are likely to be inferred, opening new horizons to further analogical extension.
ƤƤѰ۷٤Ȥװޤᥫ˥ϡDenison νҤ٤Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤˤᤤѲγȻϡȤᥫ˥बŪ˺Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƤΤ߶ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤ䤬礿븶ưϤȤʤĤĤ⡤ġѰۤŪǶɽŪϤƯȻηϩפȤͤDe Smet (8) ˤСŪϤ2ढ롥
Nevertheless, it would be simplistic to believe that analogical snowballs and chains operate exclusively on the basis of analogy. I see at least the following two auxiliary factors. First, if linguistic choices are determined by multiple and variable considerations that are weighed against each other, every usage event comes with a unique constellation of factors pulling linguistic choices one way or another. It is therefore inevitable that there are occasional contexts in which language users are strongly compelled to go against the default grammatical regularities of the system. The unusual choices that occasionally arise in this way may help break down resistance to change. Second, the construction from which a new spreading pattern derives usually occurs in a number of different environments. Because of this, the new pattern is present from the very start in a number of different places in the system, having as it were a diffusional headstart that can very quickly lead to the inference of new generalizations.
ŪϤ1ĤϡġѰۤƯװʣ߹礤ΤΤǤ롥ġѰۤȤޤĶǤ1ĤξηϤƤꡤηϤ¾ξηϤȼäƤ롥ηϤΤĤȼϡȤηϤΤİѲθưϤȤʤ2Ĥϡ餫͡ʴĶˤƸȤ¤ΤȤϡʳȻʤǤϤδĶ٤ޤäƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤȻưϤˤĤʤ2ĤŪϤϡȤ礿ưϤǻ٤ƤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ
Danison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ܥ֥ǤϡѸˤ˴ؤ뵭Ʊ餤Ѳ (language_change) ˴ؤ뵭ƤѲȤѸ䳵ǰȤƤطʤˤƤʤФʤʤȤ롥ϡѲ (linguistic change) üԺ (speaker-innovation) ζ̤Ǥ (Milroy 77) 줬ѲΤϡüԤո뤫Ǥ롥
üԤոȤäơ줬Ѳľ뤹Ȥϸ¤ʤ٤η֤뤳ȤΤʤˤʤ⤷ʤĿŪѰۤˤȤɤޤ뤫⤷ʤ줬ηϤΤʤ夷춦Ʊ˳ȤäƤϤơѲȤ롥ֽǤСüԺϸѲԤ롥ޤüԺߤθѲϤꤨʤȤȤǤ⤢롥ΤȤϹͤƤߤмǤϤ뤬䤿ϡָѲפݤˡФиηϤΧΤȤưüԤƤɤ롥ռŪˤΤ褦ˡΤäƤΤǤϾʤȻפ뤬ոκμΤüԤǤȤ¤ϡǰƬˤƤɬפ롥
ѲμΤüԤȸΤưפˤؤΤϡѲؤΰܹԤ˴ؤᥫ˥ब褯ƤʤǤ⤢롥Υᥫ˥1ĤȤ (invisible_hand) ƤƤ뤬ޤơθȤäƤ褤
褦ѸηǰȤơüԡʽġˤɤܿƤˤ⤫餺ФСָܿ (language contact) ȤȤ롥ܿȤΤΤ꤬櫓ǤϤʤäƾüܿȤǧοǤ롥
ѲüԺζ̤üԺߤθѲˤĤƤϡʲεˤƤΤǡȤ줿
#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])
#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])
#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])
#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])
Milroy, James. "A Social Model for the Interpretation of Language Change." History of Englishes. Ed. Matti Rissanen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 72--91.
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