#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ˰³ܲؿǤػ˾1ȶꥢɤˤĤ롥Leo Spitzer ϡؤˤ˶ƤؼԤ1ͤؽѻǥꥫ¤ؤµ Leonard Bloomfield դäȤ롥Bloomfield ǯˤȱε Spitzer ʤȤſʤΤ2ͤ϶̣ɤळȤǤ롥
Spitzer ϡѲθȤ "expressivity" ɽϡˤؤߵȤؤμĥۤȤ櫓̱²μɽȤƤʸΡפȤǰ̤˲Фɤεϡؤβʳɸ֤ Bloomfield ˤȤäƤϼ줬ĥäSpitzer ϤޤǤεˤ롥㤨Сƥ줫ޥػǤβѲ e -- ei -- oi -- ué -- uá ϡƥ e ɽ˭˼¸뤿˳̱²ʳǷФƤȯŸεפǤȵ롥βˤơLeón Aragon ǤɤλĹ³ΤФCastile ǤŪ ué ʳǸ경ԤԤŪ "chaotic" Ǥ, "restlessness" "anarchy" ħŤƤǤȷ (Spitzer 422) ̤εǤϡHitler Deutche Volksgenossen ȯˤ2Ĥ o a ˶ᤤ첻ȤƼ¸ƤȤ夲ˤ Hitler Υȥꥢ¤ɸŪʡɤץɥĸָȤطʤäΤǤϤʤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤɥ̱²Ǥ줿꽤 (hypercorrection) Ȥĥ (Spitzer 422--23)
Τˡ̱²ŪǥޥŪʸΤ褦ʹ롥ǯμҲؤǤƱθݤ accommodation ä accommodation Ȥ diversion; cf. #1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˤʤɤѸǤФиڤǤꡤ줬ñ̤ĿͤʤΤ뤤̱²Τ褦ʽĤʤΤΰ㤤ϤȤƤ⡤ߤǤϤۤɥåʵǤϤʤ褦ˤפ롥ɤϡμҲؤؤνפĤꤷƤȤ롥
Spitzer ϡѲΤߤʤ餺̣ѲˤƤʤ䡤̣Ѳˤˡ"expressivity" νǧƤ롥Ūˤϡϡ"expressivity" ˻Ϥޤꡤ"standardization" ФˡƤӼγؤ³Ƥ椯ǤȹͤƤ롥
Moreover in the field of semantics as in that of phonology the same cycle may be noted: first there is the period of creativity in which an individual innovation develops in expressivity, and expands; this period is followed in turn by one of standardization and petrification---which again brings about innovation and expressivity. Historical semantics offers us many parallels of the endless spiral movement in which words that have ceased to be expressive give way to others. (Spitzer 425)
εϡ˹#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) Ǹ褦ʸѲȿѤλ۵롥Τ褦ˤ⡤ĤμθѲ1ĤθѤΤȤŪ褦Ȥؤָ롥
üԡʽġˤ "expressivity" ؤߵѲκܸȤƿƤʾ塤ɤạ́ʸΤ˶ؿȤϼԤäºݡSpitzer (428) ϡؤβϽפʽˡʸʡʸˡ줿ʸˡ̣Ǥ⤤Ƥ롥
Spitzer, Leo. "Why Does Language Change?" Modern Language Quarterly 4 (1943): 413--31.
Bloomfield, Leonard. "Secondary and Tertiary Responses to Language." Language 20 (1944): 45--55.
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ӡ#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤѲˤĤƤʸκǸˡѲȤ٤ "SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE" (187--88) Ƥ롥
1. Linguistic change is not to be identified with random drift proceeding from inherent variation in speech. Linguistic change begins when the generalization of a particular alternation in a given subgroup of the speech community assumes direction and takes on the character of orderly differentiation.
2. The association between structure and homogeneity is an illusion. Linguistic structure includes the orderly differentiation of speakers and styles through rules which govern variation in the speech community; native command of the language includes the control of such heterogeneous structures.
3. Not all variability and heterogeneity in language structure involves change; but all change involves variability and heterogeneity.
4. The generalization of linguistic change throughout linguistic structure is neither uniform nor instantaneous; it involves the covariation of associated changes over substantial periods of time, and is reflected in the diffusion of isoglosses over areas of geographical space.
5. The grammars in which linguistic change occurs are grammars of the speech community. Because the variable structures contained in language are determined by social functions, idiolects do not provide the basis for self-contained or internally consistent grammars.
6. Linguistic change is transmitted within the community as a whole; it is not confined to discrete steps within the family. Whatever discontinuities are found in linguistic change are the products of specific discontinuities within the community, rather than inevitable products of the generational gap between parent and child.
7. Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior.
ʸԤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian)¤ (structural linguistics)ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ³ػˤ̤ϢʤȼѤƤĿ (idiolect) ȶѼ (homogeneity) 뤹Ȥ櫓ֹ¤ѼפФơиŪΩ줫ȽäΤϡԶѼ (heterogeneity) ι¤ (structure) ǤȤ顤ɤȤƤ "orderly heterogeneity" "orderly differentiation" Ω롥Ω϶ǯ "variationist" ȤƤФ褦ˤʤäƤϾ7̤ȤäƤ
change variation ްդȤ3ܤˤĤƤϡ#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1]) ȡ
6ܤλҶײؤȽˤĤƤϡ#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ѳ "multiple causation" 𤤾夲7ܤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ǤѤmultiple causation ˤĤƤϡǶεȤơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ȡ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) Ǥ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ɸˤĤơ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) κǸǴñ˿줿üԺߤθѲηĹػˤͭ̾ʤȤȤƤϡ#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) Ǥߤ August Schleicher (1821--68) θͭ䡤#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) ǰѤ Jespersen ʤɤԤ̾롥Milroy ϡŪüԺߤθѤηǤˤȡҲؤΩ줫üԸĿͤŻ뤹ŸƤΤ⤷Ȥ˼ҲؤǤüԸĿͤ䤬ɬŤƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲؤǤ⡤üԤνĤȤƤΡüԼҲפȾñ̤Ȥߤʤ¤ˤơüԸĿͤϼξݤ롥ޥҲؤǤϡüԸĿͤδ餬ˤʡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) ȡˡ
Milroy Τ褦ˡѲˤüԸĿͤνĥߥԤ1ͤ Woolard 롥λ (language_death) äʸΤʤǡWoolard ϸλΤ褦ʼҲŪʥɥޤϡüԸĿͤ濴˸ʤФʤʤʤ롥ζΤˤƤϡϰͥؤȹή« convergence θݤߤΤ¿θݤλ³ (maintenance) ȤΤˤشطȤŦФФʤ롥˵䤷ʤơͥؤιή«λλ³ȤΤ˰̴طȤĴ⤢롥Woolard ϤΤ褦ʴطǧ뤳Ȥ˿ŤǤ롥ȤΤϡΤ褦Ĵˤϡ켫ΤŬäƤȤͭȿǤǧ뤫ˤϤޤεͲȤüԸĿͤμξݤȤ꤬롥2ΰѤ̤ Woolard λʹ
When we deal with linguistic data as aggregate data, detached from the speakers and instances of speaking, we often anthropomorphize languages as the principal actors of the sociolinguistic drama. This leads to forceful and often powerfully suggestive generalizations cast in agentivizing metaphors: "languages that are flexible and can adapt may survive longer", or "the more powerful language drives out the weaker". If we rephrase findings in terms of what people are doing --- how they are speaking and what they are accomplishing or trying to accomplish when they are speaking that way . . . --- we may find ourselves open to new insights about why such linguistic phenomena occur. (359)
There is a wealth of evidence . . . that is suggestive of a causal relation, or at least a correlation, between language maintenance and linguistic convergence. In this most tentative of attempts to account for the intriguing constellations we find of linguistic conservatism and language death or linguistic adaptation and language maintenance, I have suggested we best begin by anchoring our generalizations in speakers' activities. Human actors rather than personified languages are the active agents in the processes we wish to explain . . . . (365)
Ūװȸ쳰Ūװζ̡ؤȼҲؤζ̡I-Language E-Language ζ̡θˤΩĤʤեϡۤʤüԤǤ롥üԤϸⲽƤƱ˳ƼҲǻѤƤǤ롥
Woolard ʸ⤦1礭ɤäΤǡոƤλ줬ͥعή«硤ι٤ "acts of creation" ʤΤ "acts of reception" ʤΤ뤤 "resistance" ʤΤ "capitulation" ʤΤȤɾ꤬롥ɾϤͥδˤλüԤˤȤäƤߤСή«ȼѲϡŪˤΤ褦ʼҲŪʰ̣礤ӤӤƤʤ¾θѲѤʤϤǤ롥˲餫ɾȤȤϡǤΩŪǤʤθǤϤʤҲؼԤɾŪǤ٤ݤ뤤ɾŪˤʤꤦ뤫ݤȤˤƿȼä
Woolard, Kathryn A. "Language Convergence and Death as Social Process." Investigating Obsolescence. Ed. Nancy C. Dorian. Cambridge: CUP, 1989. 355--67.
ε#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ˰³Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog θѲ˴ؤŪʸꡥϡάҤѲ5Ĥ¦̤ΤʤǤȤ櫓Ԥ⤹ The Embedding Problem ˴ؤ (p. 186) Ѥ롥
The Embedding Problem. There can be little disagreement among linguists that language changes being investigated must be viewed as embedded in the linguistic system as a whole. The problem of providing sound empirical foundations for the theory of change revolves about several questions on the nature and extent of this embedding.
(a) Embedding in the linguistic structure. If the theory of linguistic evolution is to avoid notorious dialectic mysteries, the linguistic structure in which the changing features are located must be enlarged beyond the idiolect. The model of language envisaged here has (1) discrete, coexistent layers, defined by strict co-occurrence, which are functionally differentiated and jointly available to a speech community, and (2) intrinsic variables, defined by covariation with linguistic and extralinguistic elements. The linguistic change itself is rarely a movement of one entire system into another. Instead we find that a limited set of variables in one system shift their modal values gradually from one pole to another. The variants of the variables may be continuous or discrete; in either case, the variable itself has a continuous range of values, since it includes the frequency of occurrence of individual variants in extended speech. The concept of a variable as a structural element makes it unnecessary to view fluctuations in use as external to the system for control of such variation is a part of the linguistic competence of members of the speech community.
(b) Embedding in the social structure. The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure. In the explanation of linguistic change, it may be argued that social factors bear upon the system as a whole; but social significance is not equally distributed over all elements of the system, nor are all aspects of the systems equally marked by regional variation. In the development of language change, we find linguistic structures embedded unevenly in the social structure; and in the earliest and latest stages of a change, there may be very little correlation with social factors. Thus it is not so much the task of the linguist to demonstrate the social motivation of a change as to determine the degree of social correlation which exists, and show how it bears upon the abstract linguistic system.
ƤˤԤμĥ "orderly heterogeneity" οɽƤ褦˻פβС(a) θ칽¤ؤߤȤϡѲӤȼѹȤμͤuse varieties user varieties ʤʣŪʸ칽¤ΤʤˤɤΤ褦˼ޤ뤫ȤǤ롥ޤ(b) μҲ¤ؤߤȤϡѲΤΤˤƼҲˤܼŪѹȤʤäƤ椯뤤ܼŪѹǤϤʤʤäƤ椯ȤǤ롥ϡҲ¤칽¤˱ƶͿȤˡġɤǡŪïθ칽¤ΤɤʬˤɤΤ褦ʱƶͿƤΤ餫ˤ뤳ȤˤĤʤꡤSapir-Whorf hypothesis (cf. sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ܼŪ䤤Ϣʤ롥츦δϡŪʡ˸ؤȼҲؤζϤɤȤ䤤ˤؤʤʤ̼ҲؼԤϡҲؤŪʸؤޤ뿿θؤȤΩȤäƤˡ
1ϡҲؤΤƸΤȤ館ΤΤ˴ؤŦϢơ#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? ([2013-01-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤ "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change" ϡҲؤδޤѲŪʸȤơθθ礭ʱƶͿƤ⤪˴줿1ͤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥϡ#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1]) ǿƤϡиŪ˼Ȥ٤ѲˤĤƤ5ĤάҤ롥
(1) The Constraints Problem. ѲƱꤹȤꡤʤ "to determine the set of possible changes and possible conditions for change" (183) θ¿ŪƱꤷ褦ȤƤꡤβˤ˴ؿƤ롥
(2) The Transition Problem. "Between any two observed stages of a change in progress, one would normally attempt to discover the intervening stage which defines the path by which Structure A evolved into Structure B" (184) transition ȸƤФ뤳βϡA B ξ¤碌üԤΩȤƿʹԤ¾üԡʤȤ櫓ǯüԡˤȵڤ롥βˤϡ3̤ޤޤȤ롥"Change takes place (1) as a speaker learns an alternate form, (2) during the time that the two forms exist in contact within his competence, and (3) when one of the forms becomes obsolete" (184).
(3) The Embedding Problem. 칽¤ؤߤȼҲ¤ؤߤ̤롥̻ŪʸѲ (change) ϡŪʸѰ (variation) бѰۤϸŪӼҲŪޤ줿ѹ (variable) ¸ߤˤΤ롥ѹϡ칽¤ˤȤäƤҲ¤ˤȤäƤܼŪǤǤ롥Ҳ¤ؤߤˤĤƤϡΰѤȡ"The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure" (185) ǤϸѲˤҲŪװɵ椹Τߤʤ餺ҲȸߴطʤɤμҲŪǤɤٸȿǤ뤫ʤɡˤɵ椹뤳ȤפʲȤʤ롥
(4) The Evaluation Problem. Ѳ˼Ūɾ뤫ꡥ"[T]he subjective correlates of the several layers and variables in a heterogeneous structure" (186) . ޤѲѰۤФ빥˴ؤռ̵ռʤɤ⤢롥"[T]he level of social awareness is a major property of linguistic change which must be determined directly. Subjective correlates of change are more categorical in nature than the changing patterns of behavior: their investigation deepens our understanding of the ways in which discrete categorization is imposed upon the continuous process of change" (186) .
(5) The Actuation Problem. "Why do changes in a structural feature take place in a particular language at a given time, but not in other languages with the same feature, or in the same language at other times?" (102) . ѲεŪꡥ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡactuation θˤ diffusion ³ᡤ The Transition Problem ؤϢʤ롥
ԤƤκˤϡ"orderly heterogeneity" θѡѸǤ variationist 롥嵭θѲ5Ĥ¦̤ϡ̻ŪʸѲȶŪʸѰۤǷӤĤ褦ȤԤλ̿դƤǤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ε#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) ޤᡤ2;Τ˸ܿѲˤ쳰ŪװνˤĤʣεƤ (cf. [2014-09-25-1], [2014-09-26-1], [2014-10-04-1]) ϡΥХ뤿ˡ쳰ŪװФ뿵ߤƤHickey (195) ϡ餬ܿԤǤۤɤҤ"Language Change" ꤹʸϤǡܿˤѲˤĤŤʸƤ롥
Already in 19th century Indo-European studies contact appears as an explanation for change though by and large mainstream Indo-Europeanists preferred language-internal accounts. One should stress that strictly speaking contact is not so much an explanation for language change as a suggestion for the source of a change, that is, it does not say why a change took place but rather where it came from. For instance, a language such as Irish or Welsh may have VSO as a result of early contact with languages also showing this word order. However, this does not explain how VSO arose in the first place (assuming that it is not an original word order for any language). The upshot of this is that contact accounts frequently just push back the quest for explanation a stage further.
Considerable criticism has been levelled at contact accounts because scholars have often been all too ready to accept contact as a source, to the neglect of internal factors or inherited features within a language. This readiness to accept contact, particularly when other possibilities have not been given due consideration, has led to much criticism of contact accounts in the 1970s and 1980s . . . . However, a certain swing around can be seen from the 1990s onwards, a re-valorisation of language contact when considered from an objective and linguistically acceptable point of view as demanded by Thomason & Kaufman (1988) . . . .
ܿϡѲʤǤϤʤѲɤ餭ˤˤθˤĤƤϲäƤʤȤȽˤθ˴ؤ¤ꡤΤˤȽŪͤƤ褦ˤפ롥θѲľܤΡָפȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤Ū˰ˤʤäƤꡤǤ̤θǻϤޤäƤѲ˰첡äʤɡ餫ηǻͿװפȤơ꿵ŤˤСֽװ1ġפȤơٵҴŪ˻Ŧ뤳ȤΤǤܿλϤ롥ιʰ̣ˤָ쳰ŪװפʸĬϡΰѤˤ⤢Ȥꡤ1990ǯ夫ƤҤ줿̡ܿ쳰Ūװ°פ˷뤭餤Τˤ褦˻פ졤ηǰ狼ʤǤϤʤεǸ褦˸ŪװǥեȤȤƤѲˤĹפСܿʸɤιϤ褦䤯ϤޤäФΤ褦ˤ⸫롥
˰Ѥ Hickey "Language Change" ϡ¤줿ʤ⡤Ѳݤ褯ޤȤɼβʸǤ롥ʲͤޤǤܼƤ
Introduction
Issues in language change
Internal and external factors
Simplicity and symmetry
Iconicity and indexicality
Markedness and naturalness
Telic changes and epiphenomena
Mergers and distinctions
Possible changes
Unidirectionality of change
Ebb and flow
Change and levels of language
Phonological change
Morphological change
Syntactic change
The study of universal grammar
The principles and parameters model
Semantic change
Pragmatic change
Methodologies
Comparative method
Internal reconstruction
Analogy
Sociolinguistic investigations
Data collection method
Genre variation and stylistics
Pathways of change
Long-term change: Grammaticalization
Large-scale changes: The typological perspective
Contact accounts
Language areas (Sprachbünde)
Conclusion
Hickey, Raymond. "Language Change." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 171--202.
Ѳˤ쳰ŪװȸŪװˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ ##443,1232,1233,1582,1584,1977,1978,1986 ʤɤεǵǶǤϡ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) Ǥƹͤ쳰ŪװνŦرĤˡ˯1 James Milroy 롥Milroy ϡΤˤС쳰ŪװŻ뤹ȤϡѲˤüԤä˽Ż뤹ԤǤ롥ָѲפȤηϤΤȤʤ褦ʸϤޤ깥ޤüԤˤפȤʹ֤ΤȤʤ褦ʸ֡"On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change" ꤹ Milroy ʸɤ
Milroy (144) ϡ褪ӸԤθѲˤơŪװǥեȤװǤȤǧ꤬ŪǤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
The assumption of endogeny, being generally the preferred hypothesis, functions in practice as the default hypothesis. Thus, if some particular change in history cannot be shown to have been initiated through language or dialect contact involving speakers, then it has been traditionally presented as endogenous. Usually, we do not know all the relevant facts, and this default position is partly the consequence of having insufficient data from the past to determine whether the change concerned was endogenous or externally induced or both: endogeny is the lectio facilior requiring less argumentation, and what Lass has called the more parsimonious solution to the problem.
ԶѹդʴطơŪװȸ쳰ŪװƱ̤֤ȤǤʤ뤤Ϥ˿ʤƸ쳰ŪװǥեȤȤ뤳ȤǤʤȤΤ Milroy λǤºݤΤȤξԤΥХɤ٤ΤΤʤΤʬʤΥХ϶ŪʸѲλˤĤƤʬʤȤ¿ŪˤϤʤʬʤǡΥХǤѤ뤿ˡMilroy ξװδͿȤȤΩΤäƤ褦˻פ롥Milroy (148) ۩
. . . seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. It seems that we need to clarify what has counted as 'internal' or 'external' more carefully and consistently than we have up to now, and to subject the internal/external dichotomy to more critical scrutiny.
ΤϡǤ롥ʤʤƱͤ˻ŪʼήɤΡҲ˸ؤȼҲؤȤŪǤꡤߤʬβǽȸ³ʬθ³ȲǽľܴؤȹͤƤ롥
Milroy (156) ʸνǡ쳰ŪװνŻϡɬ⤽켫ΤʳŪ˱뤳ȤϤǤοǰǤȼäƤ롥
There may be no empirical way of showing that language changes independently of social factors, but it has not primarily been my intention to demonstrate that endogenous change does not take place. The one example that I have discussed has shown that there are some situations in which it is necessary to adduce social explanations, and this may apply very much more widely. I happen to think that social matters are always involved, and that language internal concepts like 'drift' or 'phonological symmetry' are not explanatory . . . .
ѤκǸ˼Ƥή (drift) ʤüԺߤθѲؤȽˤĤƤϡǽŪεȴϢơ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
ε#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) ǻȤ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸˡָܿˤŪʱƶ (indirect influence in language contact) Ȥä (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (contact-induced interference) ˤƤϡABز餫θबư뤳ȤȤʤäƤ뤬ΰưɬȼʤ֤αƶȤΤ⤢ꤦ롥ŵŪȤƸܿȤʤäƴ¸θबפüꤹ븽ݤꡤѸˤǤťΥɸȤܿˤηϤοȤ꤬Фм夲롥Ǥϲ餫ζŪʸबťΥɸ줫űѸذư櫓ǤϤʤޤܿȤƸűѸŪʸѲʹԤˤʤΤ褦ʥϡִŪʱƶפȸƤ٤#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǽˤ Thomason "Loss of features" ȸƤ֤ȤǤꡤ̤ñ㲽 (simplification) ² (neutralization) ʤɤȸڤǤ⤢ (cf. ##928,931,932,1585,1839)
ִŪʱƶפϡθܿʤФθѲʤäȤǡѲθˤäơľŪʱƶ˾Ȥ̽פäƤ롥ָܿȤŪװ˿ȯ줿ŪѲפȤڤӲϰΤʤƤꡤ줾ʬʬ뤳ȤϤǤʤäơŪŪװΤɤ餬פȤ䤤ϰ̣ʤʤǤϡMeeuwis and Östman θ褦 "multiple causation" 뤤 "synergy" Ȥɬפ롥
. . . there is a host of generalization, avoidance, simplification and other processes at work in second-language acquisition, language shift, language death and other types of language contact, which show no isomorphic or qualitative correspondence with elements in the donor language or in a previous form of the recipient, affected language. These seemingly internal 'creations' of previously non-existent structures occur simply due to the contact situation, i.e. they would not have occurred in the language unless it had been in contact . . . and could thus not be explained without reference to a linguistic and cultural contact. Also, in all these fields, the phenomenon of 'multiple causation' or, as it is also called, 'synergy' has to be taken into account. Synergy refers to changes that occur internally in a language but are triggered by the contact with similar features, patterns, or rules in another language. Here, some qualitative resemblances to features in the donor language or in a pre-contact state of the affected language can be observed: the contact has given rise to a change in existing features. . . . '[S]ynergy' is a widely observable phenomenon that is too often slighted by keeping the distinction between internally and externally motivated language change too rigidly separate. (42)
Τ褦ʸݤФƤ "synergy" ̡ˤȤѸϽ鼪äƤͤ˶䤹Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվǵ
(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳ȤŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥ХθĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳ȤƤ
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
εǰѤ Luraghi ƱʸǸѲŪ (teleology) ˤĤƤ롥teleology ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤˤƤäƴϢǰˤĤƤɬפ롥
ޤѲ therapy ʼšˤ prophylaxis ͽɡˤȤ롥#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) Ǽ夲ˤƤȤƵǽŪʸѲ (functionalism) 롥Kiparsky "language practices therapy rather than prophylaxis" (Luraghi 364) Ȥΰ⤤ĤƤ뤬Lass ʤɤϤɤǤʤȤƤ롥
Ǥϡfunctionalism teleology ƱΤʤΤۤʤΤʤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ȥδ֤ǰոϰפƤʤLass Ʊ뤷Ƥ褦Croft ʤɤҤԤ "functional proper"Ԥ "systemic functional" Ȥƶ̤Ƥ롥"systemic functional" ϸ teleology "functional proper" üԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ؤޤüԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ȤƤ "functional" ȤɽѰۤѲˤĤƤѤ¤ˤơüԤΤǤϤʤ˸ "functionalism" äƤ褤⤷ʤ줬°ؤΤüԤ°ؤΤ̤ƤȤפ
Teleological explanations of language change are sometimes considered the same as functional explanations . . . . Croft . . . distinguishes between 'systemic functional,' that is teleological, explanations, and 'functional proper,' which refer to intentional mechanisms. Keller . . . argues that 'functional' must not be confused with 'teleological,' and should be used in reference to speakers, rather than to language: '[t]he claim that speakers have goals is correct, while the claim that language has a goal is wrong' . . . . Thus, to the extent that individual variants may be said to be functional to the achievement of certain goals, they are more likely to generate language change through invisible hand processes: in this sense, explanations of language change may also be said to be functional. (Luraghi 365--66)
ΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡפʤȤϡָ줬ѲפȡüԤפȤǰ̤ƤȤǤ롥#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡζ̼Τˤ⤢꤬ޤޤƤ뤬ޤüԡʽġˤäƤθǤꡤѲǤ롥üԼΤθѲˤƤ teleology ֤ϤʤȤLuraghi (365) ۩
Croft . . . warns against the 'reification or hypostatization of languages . . . Languages don't change; people change language through their actions.' Indeed, it seems better to avoid assuming any immanent principles inherent in language, which seem to imply that language has an existence outside the speech community. This does not necessarily mean that language change does not proceed in a certain direction. Croft rejects the idea that 'drift,' as defined by Sapir . . ., may exist at all. Similarly, Lass . . . wonders how one can positively demonstrate that the unconscious selection assumed by Sapir on the side of speakers actually exists. From an opposite angle, Andersen . . . writes: 'One of the most remarkable facts about linguistic change is its determinate direction. Changes that we can observe in real time---for instance, as they are attested in the textual record---typically progress consistently in a single direction, sometimes over long periods of time.' Keller . . . suggests that, while no drift in the Sapirian sense can be assumed as 'the reason why a certain event happens,' i.e., it cannot be considered innate in language, invisible hand processes may result in a drift. In other words, the perspective is reversed in Keller's understanding of drift: a drift is not the pre-existing reason which leads the directionality of change, but rather the a posteriori observation of a change brought about by the unconsciously converging activity of speakers who conform to certain principles, such as the principle of economy and so on . . . .
Ϣ drift, functionalism, invisible_hand, unidirectionality γƵ⻲ͤˤ줿
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
ε#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѤ Drinka Ʊ Companion ˼ϿƤ Luraghi ʸ˴Ť롥
ʸˡˤѲϡ֤Դʸã (imperfect language transmission from one generation to the next) ˿Ԥ롥Ҷθ콬κݤ˥ѥͤȤϰۤʤͤꤵ뤳ȤˤꡤʸˡȤͤLuraghi (359) ϡΤ褦ʡֻҶײפ2κŪʵꤲ롥
In spite of various implementations, the 'child-based theory' . . . leaves some basic questions unanswered, i.e., in the first place: how do children independently come up with the same reanalysis at exactly the same time . . . ? and, second, why does this happen in certain precise moments, while preceding generations of children have apparently done quite well setting parameters the same way as their parents did? In other words, the second question shows that the child-based theory does not account for the fact that not only languages may change, but also that they may exhibit no changes over remarkably long periods of time.
ҶײԤϡ2ܤεФƼΤ褦ĤޤꡤƤȻҤȤǤϤȤʤ PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) ۤʤäƤꡤѥͤΰȤʤΤۤʤΤȡʤ֤ϤۤʤΤ̤ΤޤޤǤ롥֤ϤۤʤäΤˤʤ뤿ˤϡ콬ʳηѰۤѲƤʤФʤʤϤĤޤꡤͤüԤѰۤѲƤȤͤʤ
ҶײΤ⤦1ĤȤơ"the serious problem that there is no positive evidence, in terms of real data from field research, for language change to happen between generations" (360) 롥ҲؤǤ Labov ĴʤɤˤѲθ줬ͤߤƤꡤиŪդ롥ѲγȻϿƤ롥⡤ѲγȻ˱ƶϤäƤΤϡۤȤɤ٤ƤΥˤơҶǤϤʤͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥
ʾȿäǡLuraghi ϸѲʤ켫ȤϺȳȻʤˤθϡŪˤϤ٤ƸܿˤǤ롥ξ硤ܿȤϤäƤ2Ĥθ֤ȤϤܿǤϤʤ2ĤѼ֡뤤2ĤθĿ (idiolect) ֤ȤϤܿޤࡥǾϤȤƤäʹΤߤδ֤Ÿ accommodation κѤ٤ƤθѲθǤ롤Ȥĥ
. . . in spite of varying social factors and different relations between social groups in case of language contact and in case of internal variation, mutual accommodation of speakers and hearers is the ultimate cause of change. The fact that an innovation is accepted within a community depends on the prestige of innovators and early adopters, and may be seen as a function of the willingness of a speaker/hearer to accommodate another speaker/hearer in interaction, and thus to behave as she/he thinks the other person would behave . . . . (369)
Luraghi ϡѲʤθˤäơŪ (innovation) ͤͤؤȳȻ (diffusion) Ƥ椯Ȥ櫓Ż뤷Ƥ롥ѲȤϲȤ˱ơʤ餽θѤäƤ뤬⸶§Ȥ Luraghi Drinka Τ褦˸ѲˤüԵڤüԶƱΤȤδطˤªȹͤƤ롥
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
˸ؤΥϥɥ֥åꡤDrinka ˤܿɤܿؤҲ𤷤ΰյĥȤŪǽ줿ʸϤǤꡤͽ̤Ѳˤ볰ŪװνĴƤΡ褯ͤƤȤݤ
Drinka ϡܿؤʬǿʱƶϤ Thomason and Kaufman μĥˤ褽褤ʤ顤ܿξ̤ͻˤäƺǽפΥѥϡɤθŪǤϤʤܿμ̤Ǥ롥ޤMilroy Mufwene μĥ˱äơѲüԸĿʹ֤ܿüȯ줬ƱΤعޤäƤ椯ΤǤȤΩȤ롥ˡ̾θѲ⡤ (linguistic_area) ⡤ԥ䥯쥪ˤߤ㤷Ѳ⡤ᥫ˥ƱǤȸƤꡤѲˤܿϰ̤˿Ƥ礭Ĥդ줿ΤǤȼĥ롥Τ褦Ωϡ¾ Normalfall "[contact . . . viewed as] potentially present in some way in virtually every given case of language change" ȰѤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
Drinka ͤηѤ褦
In conclusion, contact has emerged in recent studies as a more essential element in triggering linguistic innovation than had previously been assumed. Contact provides the context for change, in making features of one variety accessible to speakers of another. Bilingual or bidialectal speakers with access to the social values of features in both systems serve as a link between the two, a conduit of innovation from one variety to another. When close cultural contact among speakers of different varieties persists over long periods, linguistic areas can result, reflecting the ebb and flow of influence of one culture upon another. When speakers of mutually unintelligible languages encounter one another in the context of social symmetry, such as for purposes of trade, contact varieties such as pidgins may result; in contexts of social asymmetry, such as slavery, on the other hand, creoles are a more frequent result, reflecting the adjustments which are made as the contact variety becomes the native language of its users. As Mufwene points out, however, the same principles of change appear to be in operation in contact varieties as in other varieties---it is in the transmission of language and linguistic features from one individual to another, through the impetus of sociolinguistic pressure, where change occurs, and these principles will operate whether the transmission is occurring within or across the boundaries of a variety, as long as sufficient social motivation exists. (342--43)
ºݤΤȤ伫ȤѲˤäƸܿνФмĥƤΤǡڤˤ Drinka ΰոˤϻǤ롥ä Drinka Keller (invisible_hand) ؤθڤʤɡȤ¿
. . . self-interested individuals incorporate new features into their repertoire in order to align themselves with other individuals and groups, with the unforeseen result that the innovation moves across the population, speaker by speaker. (341)
ϢơѲˤŪŪװʲε⻲ͤˤ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
ƶϤ礭 Thomason and Kaufman θܿˤĤƤϡʲȡ
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥
Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)
So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)
Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ
Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.
4֤εǡưˤʹ꤬äƱ餤뤤Ϥʾ˱ƶϤĤȤƤʡ#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])ޤεǽ˴ؤ뤽¾ε (function_of_language) Ǹ褦ˡʹϸưԲķǤ1ĤǤ뤫顤ͤƤߤΤȤǤ롥 (139) Τ褦ˡθѲθˤơʹˤ줬ɤΤ褦ʹ뤫Ȥ˷ƤפȤϤ褽ǧʤФʤʤ³ơäŪϡ뤿ᡤ뤿Ǥ뤫顤äȤڤʤΤϡäΰտޤȤʹ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡʹ꤬Τʹ褦äȤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʹΤθѲ¸ߤ̵뤵Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѲΤʤˤϡʬ (metanalysis) ˤꤦޤΤ⤢СƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) ⤢뤳ȤϻŦƤ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ǤϡʹδͿ̣Ѳˤ줿ʹδͿϤ褽뤵ƤȤϤ
(118--38) ϡܸΥϹԻҲηϤꤵŪʥϹԻҲʹΰ˵Ƥ롥ΥϹԻҲϡ11 [ɸ] [w] Ѳʡ#1271. ܸಽȤθ ([2012-10-19-1]) ȡˡ㤨СβѲ˽äơ [ɸawa] [ɸiwi]ˤ [ɸowo] ȤʤäΤޤȯã뤲ƤʤСƬ [ɸ] [h] Ȥʤꡤϡ֥ϥסϡ֥ҥסˤϡ֥ۥסʼºݤˡ֥ۥۡפ¤ǡ֥ۥפ⤢ˤȤʤäƤΥϹԻҲμ夵䶯٤ޤҲνƱˤꡤĻŵŪƱ˽ʣ (reduplication) ޤä2ܤΥϹԻҲ褷ߤϡ֥ϥϡס֥ҥҡס֥ۥۡפȤʤäƤ롥ϹԻҲĴϢѲ뤲ƤȤϡľܤˤäˤ˰㤤ʤŪˤŪϹԻҲʹΰŪʼ夵˵ȹͤ롥ʹΰȤʹΩΩäɸǤ롥ҤλҲˤĤ [h] > [ç] ȤѲΤ⡤[h] ʹΰ䶯ȤƤ롥
ܸΥϹԻҲȴϢơѸ [h] Ȥμդβ˴ؤˤʣˡ§ (grimms_law)#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) h γƵ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ʤɤ꤬ط롥 (132) ܸȱѸˤݤŦƤꡤ<gh> ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ġıѸ light, tight ʤɤ gh ɤޤʤ«ˤʤäƤ뤬 h ϡʹæڥˤ줬ĤäΤǤ뤷rough, tough ʤɤ gh [f] ˤʤäƤΤϡʹΰ [h] [f] ֤줿̤Ǥ롥[ɸ] [f] Ȥΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ܸΤ뿰ಽȵäƤ뤳Ȥܤ
ȤСrough tough [f] ϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) Ǽ褦äΤβѲη ([x] > [xw] > f) ȤƤǤϤʤ[x] 뤤 [h] ʹΰˤʤʤʹΤΡ [f] ǤִȤȤˤʤ롥줬˵äȤ¾ڤ뤳Ȥ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١ֽ2001ǯ
ε ([2014-08-11-1]) ǰѤ monitoring ˴ؤ Smith ʸϤǡLyons ȤƤLyons (111) äƤߤȡ첻λФˤĤƤսǡüԤİԤθߤ monitoring ѤȤ뤳ȤפȤݤεˤơfeedback 뤤 monitoring ȤɽƤ롥
In the case of speech, we are not dealing with a system of sound-production and sound-reception in which the 'transmitter' (the speaker) and the 'receiver' (the hearer) are completely separate mechanisms. Every normal speaker of a language is alternately a producer and a receiver. When he is speaking, he is not only producing sound; he is also 'monitoring' what he is saying and modulating his speech, unconsciously correlating his various articulatory movements with what he hears and making continual adjustments (like a thermostat, which controls the source of heat as a result of 'feedback' from the temperature readings). And when he is listening to someone else speaking, he is not merely a passive receiver of sounds emitted by the speaker: he is registering the sounds he hears (interpreting the acoustic 'signal') in the light of his own experience as a speaker, with a 'built-in' set of contextual cues and expectancies.
ѼԤĴŪȲŪȤƤФǤʤ첻λФˤϢưƤ롤Ȥ⤬ǾƤ롥Ϣơ#1656. γФΤγФΤ ([2013-11-08-1]) Ȥ줿
Lyons ϡȤƸ첻λФˤ monitoring κѤĴƤ뤬monitoring κѤϲʳ¾θˤƱͤ˸ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
It may be pointed out here that the principle of 'feedback' is not restricted to the production and reception of physical distinctions in the substance, or medium, in which language is manifest. It operates also in the determination of phonological and grammatical structure. Intrinsically ambiguous utterances will be interpreted in one way, rather than another, because certain expectancies have been established by the general context in which the utterance is made or by the previous discourse . . . . (111)
monitoring ȴϢƴ (established)ʸ̮ (context)塼 (cue) ȤɤФƤСˤ϶ (collocation) (frequency) ʤɤȤѸ줬ФƤƤ⤪ʤѲδϡUsage-Based Grammar #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) Ǥߤ "clusters of bumpy change" ιͤȤطϡüԼΤǤϤʤİԼΤθѲ¿ʹ褦ˤʤäƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤơüԡİԡפǤ뤳ȤǧƤ륭ɤȤ뤫⤷ʤϢơʹδͿ̣ѲˤĤơ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.
Smith ѲѤɽ魯ΤȤơ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ȡ#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ҳ𤷤ϵŪʸѲθǤꡤʹԺߤΰݤͿ뤫⤷ʤSmith θѲϷ褷ƸμҲŪ¦̡üԤİԤȸδطʤˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤSmith (49) ϡѲμȤƤ variation ¸ߡ variation ΤʤθġθȤ٤ϡѼԤǤ˼Ƥ monitoring ȤѤȿؤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Human beings are social creatures, and not simply transmitters (speakers) or receivers (hearers); they are both. When humans speak, they are not only producing sounds and grammar and vocabulary; they are also monitoring what they and others say by listening, and evaluating the communicative efficiency of their speech for the purposes for which it is being used: communicative purposes which are not only to do with the conveying and receiving of information, but also to do with such matters as signalling the social circumstances of the interaction taking place. And what humans hear is constantly being monitored, that is, compared with their earlier experience as speakers and hearers. . . . / This principle of monitoring, or feedback as it is sometimes called (Lyons 1968: 111), is crucial to an understanding of language-change.
üԤϼʬȯդ뤫˾դʧäƤ뤷İԤȯդΤ˾ˤθɸŪηϤȤƤ롥üԤİԤ⡤ȯ줿դƻܤ餻Ƥꡤߤ˥åäƤ롥2ͤθηϤϲʸˡäκˤƼ㴳㤷Ƥߥ˥ȼǤξȹȤ椨ˡߤ礭æ뤳ȤϤʤ2ͤθηϤϾͭƤꡤξΤΤư뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ξԤȤ˰ưƤΤǤ롥줬Ѳˤˤ monitoring Ȥ
ͤθոΤʤѲ뤳ȤˤĤơ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) ǹͻƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤƤƤĿͤƸѤʤǡüԤȤδ֤ monitoring ǽѤ monitoring η̤ȤơηϤξİưƤ⤷ʤˤΰư¥Ƥ⤷ʤ
monitoring ϡˤ뵬ϼȤ礤˴ط롥̾üԤİԤ monitoring λϡߤθѡ뤤Ϥ⤦餬°춦ƱΤˤ̤θѤ#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϼŪѤٸ춦ƱΤΤʤ˿ƩȡʸˡΤΤ monitoring λȤʤꤦ롥Ĥޤꡤʬ꤬εϤ餷Ƥ뤫ɤå礦Ȥ̾⤺ä©줷롥ϼŪѤȯãϡmonitoring ȤߤСmonitoring μ̤ŤǤȤ⤤뤫⤷ʤ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1])#1863. Stern ˤΰ̣Ť3ǡ ([2014-06-03-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1]) ạ̇̄Ọ̇̄ѲˤĤƹͻ Stern θҲ𤷤ƤStern (165--76) ϰ̣Ѳʬ꤬7ʬƤ
A. External Causes Class I. Substitution.
B. Linguistic Causes
I. Shift of Verbal Relation
a. Class II. Analogy.
b. Class III. Shortening.
II. Shift of Referential Relation
a. Class IV. Nomination.
b. Class V. (Regular) Transfer.
III. Shift of Subjective Relation
a. Class VI. Permutation.
b. Class VII. Adequation.
Class I (Substitution) ϡŪŪװˤ̣ѲǤ롥ФеѤʸȯŸؤäƤꡤ㤨 ship to travel ϡŪʾʪȯȸȤǤϡؼо (referent) ۤʤäƤ롥̣ѲΤΤȤߤʤϡؼоݤѲȼ̣ѹȤäۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Class II (Analogy) ϡ㤨 fast ֤äȡפ®פؤȤɤạ̈Ѳˤбƻ fast ؤƶƻ fast ®פθȤ㤬롥տŪտŪξ롥üԼΡ
Class III (Shortening) ϡprivate soldier ξάȤ private Ѥ褦ʥǡ̤Ȥ private ΰ̣䵡ǽѲȤˤʤ롥տŪտŪξ롥üԼΡ
Class IV (Nomination) ϡȡȡȤʤɤޤžȤ櫓ͤʤɤտŪʤȤŪˤ˹ԤŪžؤüԼΡ
Class V ((Regular) Transfer) ϡտŪžɽ魯 Nomination ФơտŪžؤտޤ̵ͭȽȤʤ⤢롥üԼΡ
Class VI (Permutation) ϡcount one's beads Ȥֶפˤơ beads ϵ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ̤ΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads ϡξ˲ǤȤۣǤϤ뤬ʤ̤ƤΤؼоݤȤƤȤħ롥տŪʹ¿Ϳ롥
Class VII (Adequation) ϡưʪγѤɽ魯 horn Ȥָפʺʤ˳ụ̄褦ˤʤä㤬롥ؼоݼΤѲƤʤΤ Substitution ǤϤʤؼоݤλŪ˴ؤüԤѲħŪǤ롥տŪʹ¿Ϳ롥
Stern 7ʬϡ(1) 쳰ŪŪ(2) ʡؼоݡѤΤ˴ؤ뤫(3) տŪտŪ(4) 礿뻲ͿԤüԤΤߤʹޤफȤäʣδŤ碌ΤǤ롥1ĤΥǥȤƤȤ館Ƥ
Ϣơ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ϡޤǤˤ 3pp γƵDz٤äƤ³ǤƤ褦ˡưľˡˤ3ʣ -s εˤĤƤϡ쳰ŪƶȡŪ3ñ -s ȤΩƤ롥ŪԤȤơSmith 롥Smith Shakespeare First Folio оݤȤơ3ʣ -s 100ĤߤĤSmith ϡʬۤʤαƶꤷŪװΤߤǽʬǤǤμݤʸη褯ޤȤޤäƤ (375--76)
I. That, as an historical explanation of the construction discussed, the recourse to the theory of Northumbrian borrowing is both insufficient and unnecessary.
II. That these s-predicates are nothing more than the ordinary third singulars of the present indicative, which, by preponderance of usage, have caused a partial displacement of the distinctively plural forms, the same operation of analogy finding abundant illustrations in the popular speech of to-day.
III. That, in Shakespeare's time, the number and corresponding influence of the third singulars were far greater than now, inasmuch as compound subjects could be followed by singular predicates.
IV. That other apparent anomalies of concord to be found in Shakespeare's syntax,---anomalies that elude the reach of any theory that postulates borrowing,---may also be adequately explained on the principle of the DOMINANT THIRD SINGULAR.
פˡSmith ϡˤ⸽ߤˤ⸫3ñ -s ζŪкͥʤ줬3ʣΰؿȤϼǤ⤤Ƥ롥
Smith εˤ꤬¿1ˡShakespeare ΤߤäƽѸɽ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȡ2ˡƶˤ NPTR Northern Present Tense Rule; #1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ) äƤ˽ʬդʧ鷺ˡƱӽƤ뤳ȡʤNPTR ˴ϢڼΤ p. 366 εˤˡ3ˡSmith ˸¤ʤƶȤΩƤꡤξԤȤͭȤ븫βǽӽƤ뤳ȡ
12ˤĤƤϡSmith 100ǯʾθŤǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥Τ褦ŦǤΤϡθ带椬ʤǤڵȤ⤤롥3ˤĤƤϡʤθƤʤƶˤϤ줾ζߤȼߤ뤬ξԤͻ¤ǤʤȤͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) εǤߤ褦 McIntosh θ NPTR Ūȵڤ뤷 Smith λŦ붦ŪǸŪװ⤽ȤϤ롥װ궯ѤƤ뤫ȤܤζϤ줫Τߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤΩȤƤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) 褦ˡ3ʣ -s ˤĤƤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ
Smith, C. Alphonso. "Shakespeare's Present Indicative S-Endings with Plural Subjects: A Study in the Grammar of the First Folio." Publications of the Modern Language Association 11 (1896): 363--76.
McIntosh, Angus. "Present Indicative Plural Forms in the Later Middle English of the North Midlands." Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davis. Ed. Douglas Gray and E. G. Stanley. Oxford: OUP, 1983. 235--44.
#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ -eþ Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤
In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.
"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ϡޤϤäƲƤʤѸˤǤ롥QŪˤϡҲŪƶϤΤ London 濴Ȥ륤ѲȯϤȤʤꡤʤɼդŤƤϤѸǤϤषդθबعߤƤȤ㤬¿
ФơMillar Samuels ήεǽŪΩ줫顤"conservative radicalism" ȤͿƤ롥ȤƼ夲ƤѲϡ3;ʣ̾ they ˤűѸ hīe ִȡͤȲꤵƤ롤³ though ˤ þeah ִӻؼ those ˤ tho ִ
The issue with ambiguity between the third person singular and plural forms was also sorted through the borrowing of Northern usage, although on this occasion through what had been an actual Norse borrowing (although it would be very unlikely that southern speakers would have been aware of the new form's provenance --- if they cared): they. Interestingly, the subject form came south earlier than the oblique them and possessive their. Chaucer, for instance, uses the first but not the other two, where he retains native <h> forms. This type of usage represents what I have termed conservative radicalism (Millar 2000; in particular pp. 63--4). Northern forms are employed to sort out issues in more prestigious dialects, but only in 'small homeopathic doses'. The problem (if that is the right word) is that the injection of linguistically radical material into a more conservative framework tends to encourage more radical importations. Thus them and their(s) entered written London dialect (and therefore Standard English) in the generation after Chaucer's death, possibly because hem was too close to him and hare to her. If the 'northern' forms had not been available, everyone would probably have 'soldiered on', however.
Moreover, the borrowing of they meant that the descendant of Old English þeah 'although' was often its homophone. Since both of these are function words, native speakers must have felt uncomfortable with using both, meaning that the northern (in origin Norse) conjunction though was brought into southern systems. This borrowing led to a further ambiguity, since the plural of that in southern England was tho, which was now often homophonous with though. A new plural --- those --- was therefore created. Samuels (1989a) demonstrates these problems can be traced back to northern England and were spread by 'capillary motion' to more southern areas. These changes are part of a much larger set, all of which suggest that northern influence, particularly at a subconscious or covert level, was always present on the edges of more southerly dialects and may have assumed a role as a 'fix' to sort out ambiguity created by change.
Millar Conservative radicalism ̾ΤȤDz⤷ƤηϤ˼ޤƤᥫ˥ϡƵǽŪȤ뤬Υᥫ˥बѤȤơܿ (dialect contact) ȽѰ۷ (variants) ζ¸äȤפǤ롥ܿ (contact) η̤ȤƷ֤Ѱ (variation) εޤ졤ηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ˤꡤ֤Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ѳ3 contact, variation, systemic regulation ФäƤ롥Millar conservative radicalism Ȥͤϡ츫ԲĻĤؤθѲŤȤˡӤŪͿƤ褦˻פ롥
they though Ѳ˴ؤ̤ȤƤϡ#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]) ȡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ([2011-04-10-1]) ȡ
ʤMillar (119--20) ϡ3;νñ̾ she ˤűѸ hēo ִˤ conservative radicalism Ʊ褦ŬѤǤȹͤƤ褦she ˤĤƤϡ#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1]), #793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲([2011-12-27-1]) ȡ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
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