ε#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ˰³ѲŪװγŪװꡥAitchison ϡŪװʤ뤤ϼҲŪװˤȤơ줿ѤΤۤˤ⡤ήԤȼҲŪɬȤܤƤ롥
ήԤȤС[2012-06-25-1]εǼ夲#1155. Postal θѲѡפפФ롥ޤήԸפȤݤ褯ΤƤ褦ˡʬŪήԤˤäƶΩƤѲϳΤˤ롥ҲŪɬϡμѤθưϤȤƤФˤΤǡɬפϤʤ[2009-06-13-1]ε#46. ѤϤʤ뤫פ[2011-10-16-1]ε#902. Ѥ䤹ܡפȡˡäΤۤѲˤƤ⡤μҲŪɬȿǤ densification ȤŦƤ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹סˡŪˡѲγŪװΰĤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
Aitchison δǤϡήԤҲŪɬȤŪװѤƱͤˡŪװˡ֤Ĥ̤ˤʤŪװѲΤΩƤŪװѲΥå롤ȤȤAitchison ǤϡϳȤ˰³˥ڤȥڤȤŸ롥
When a gale blows down an elm tree, but leaves an oak standing, we do not believe that the gale alone caused the elm to fall. The gale merely advanced an event that would probably have occurred a few months or years later in any case. However, the gale dictated the direction in which the elm fell, which might in turn set off a further chain of events. If the elm fell against another tree, it might weaken this tree, and leave it vulnerable in another gale. Sociolinguistic causes of language change are similar to this gale. They exploit a weak point or potential imbalance in the system which might have been left unexploited. This exploitation may create further weak points in the system. (151)
Aitchison ϡŪװȳŪװΤɤ餬פȤˤĤƤ⡤ŪΤʵŸƤ롥
Note . . . that a number of linguists might disagree with the judgment that sociolinguistic causes are 'superficial' and other types 'deep'. It might be more accurate, perhaps, to replace the terms 'superficial' and 'deep' with the words 'immediate' and 'long-term', which do not imply that one type is more important than the other. It is clear that no long-term cause can take effect without an immediate trigger. It is equally clear that sociolinguistic factors do not set off changes randomly. The language must be ready to move in that particular direction.
ŪװȳŪװΥХˤĤơ˼ΰᡥ
Change is likely to be triggered by social factors, such as fashion, foreign influence and social need. However, these factors cannot take effect unless the language is 'ready' for a particular change. They simply make use of inherent tendencies which reside in the physical and mental make-up of human beings. Causality needs therefore to be explored on a number of different levels. The immediate trigger must be looked at alongside the underlying propensities of the language concerned, and of human language in general. (197)
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) εȹ碌ƹͤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) Ǽ夲ѲθˤĤơǶᡤ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) Ǻƹͤ뵡ä
丫ˤСܿˤ¾줫αƶϡηϤѲ⤿餹ΤǤϤʤμѤϡηϤ̣ηϤˤФαƶͿȤϤ¿ξ硤ηϤΩΤȤƼ롥ޤ֡ؤαƶϡä٤٤ȤƾʤäȤƤ¦θηϤη֤ĤꡤǤŪ˻ϤޤäƤѲ¥ʤȤṲ̄ˤʤˤ衤¾줫αƶϡηѲƤ֤ΤǤϤʤǡ֤ĤꡤŪ˿ʹԤƤѲ˰첡äȤ䤽켫ΤϡޤǤ¿ʬŪǤäѲ߲ȤǡѲˤƽפϰ̤ƤȤͤ롥ѲϡŪηϲϤΤȤǽ졤ŪʰϤΤȤȯΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison αϳȤϡ¤˸̯Ǥ롥
Overall, then, borrowing does not suddenly disrupt the basic structure of a language. Foreign elements make use of existing tendencies, and commonly accelerate changes which are already under way. We may perhaps liken the situation to a house with ill-fitting windows. If rain beats against the windows, it does not normally break the window or pass through solid panes of glass. It simply infiltrates the cracks which are already there. If the rain caused extensive dry rot, we could perhaps say that in a superficial sense the rain 'caused' the building to change structurally. But a deeper and more revealing analysis would ask how and why the rain was able to get in the window in the first place. (145)
Ǥϡξ硤ϳθȤƤפʤΤϤɤʤΤΤҤӡŪװˤζʳŪװˤεǡ³ƹͤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ѲθưϤȤơdrift ꤹԤϡäƾʤʤdrift Ȥơäˡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) εǵǯʻ餳äƤΤؤ Ritt Ǥ롥Ritt θѲѤϻɷŪȻפäƤ뤬κǶʸ (p. 131) ǡdrift ٻ븦ԤνפʰѤ4ۤɤʤƤΤǡƸصΤᡤѸŵŸƤˡ
Languages . . . came into being, grew and developed according to definite laws, and now, in turn, age and die off . . . (Schleicher, August. Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft: offenes Sendschreiben an Herrn Dr. Ernst Häckel. Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1873. Page 16.)
Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift. (Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921. Page 151.)
A living language is not just a collection of autonomous parts, but, as Sapir (1921) stressed, a harmonious and self-contained whole, massively resistant to change from without, which evolves according to an enigmatic, but unmistakably real, inner plan. (Donegan, Patricia Jane and David Stampe. "Rhythm and the Holistic Organization of Language Structure." Papers from the Parasession on the Interplay of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax. Eds. John F. Richardson, Mitchell Marks, and Amy Chukerman. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 1983. 337--53. Page 1.)
languages . . . are objects whose primary mode of existence is in time . . . which ought to be viewed as potentially having extended (trans-individual, transgenerational) 'lives of their own'. (Lass, Roger. "Language, Speakers, History and Drift." Explanation and Linguistic Change. Eds. W. F. Koopman, Frederike van der Leek, Olga Fischer, and Roger Eaton. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1987. 151--76. Pages 156--57.).
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
ե줬ѸͿŪƶȤСäǤΤǤ롥¾ɽֻˤ⾯ʤ餺ƶڤܤˤ¿ʤ˴ؤƤϡФХե줫μѤȤƸڤ벻Ǥ롥Görlach (337--38) ˤȡˤ5बǧ롥
(1) /v/ βDz (phonemicisation) űѸǤ [v] ϲ /f/ ΰ۲ˤޤΩǤǤϤʤäȤ(a) very Τ褦 [v] ĥեѸή(b) vixen Τ褦 [v] μѡ(c) over : offer ˸ñҲȽŻҲΩξü(d) of ˸̵ˤͭȤäŪװˤꡤ/v/ ǤȤΩƱȤ [z] ˤĤƤ롥(a) װ˴ؤƤХեαƶ뤳ȤǤ뤬/v/ /z/ ۲ȤƤϸűѸ¸ߤƤĺ˵ǽƤ̵ͭΩؤ礷ȤȤ館СηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡGörlach ϡѸηװ뤷Ƥ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפȡˡ
(2) /ʒ/ βDzβűѸǤΩǤǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Ѹ joy gentle θƬ /ʤ/ ȤƼ¸줿ΤǡѸǤ鵩ʲä/ʒ/ βDzϡmeasure ʤɤθǤ [-zj-] ͻ餦Ȥ礭βDzˤꡤηϤ /ʤ : ʒ ? ʧ : ʃ/ оȴطϤꡤǤեαƶŪǤʤ
(3) եѸ˴ޤޤ첻αƶǡ첻 /ɔɪ, ʊɪ/ ѸDzDz2Ĥä뤳ȤǡѸ첻ηϤϤμ줿ΤȤʤä
| -- | ɛɪ | aɪ | ɔɪ | ʊɪ |
| ɪʊ | ɛʊ | aʊ | ɔʊ | -- |
. . . it is significant that phonemes said to be derived from French survive only where they fill obvious gaps in the English system --- and some of these were stabilized by loans from English dialect . . . . (337)
¦פʤΤζפʤΤ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפεפ롥
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
ؤαѸˤμȤǡѸζޤοˤĤơ[2012-07-10-1]ε#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤοפdz⤷Ҳ𤷤ޤοϡѸ줬Ū줫ʬŪʸ (synthesis_to_analysis ؤȸžȤʤäѲǤꡤ켫ȤŪװǤʤťΥɸȤܿȤä쳰Ūװˤäư줿ȹͤƤ롥ϡѸˤ¿ΤʤǤ⡤ǤʥߥåǹǤϤʤʤˤǤȤϤϤΤŪŪװȵơѸ˾ѲΤ顤֤ѲˤͳΤʤפȴҤȤȤʤΤɬǤ롥ºݤˡ¿γѲΡָפͳפ褯Ǥȡľܤ뤤ϴܤ˥ȤǽҤ٤Ƥ
ȤΥȤ˼Τ褦ˤꡤܤڤָ줬ɤ뤫ϡˤǤʤʤȻפä
ȤƤϡѲˤϸͳꡤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ٤ɬŪǤ롤ȤȤޤοȤȤơĥ褦Ȥºݤˡ¿γμݤDzᤷݤȿøȿֶ״Ѥ졤˰ɽͤ줿ʹȤʤä
ѲθˤĤƤ causation γƵǰäƤ褦ˡ˸ؤˤǽפȹͤ롥ˤˤɬȶȽŤʤäƤꡤůؤȤäƤ褤ѲθȤƤ⡤θǤΤϤɤޤǤʤΤɤޤǤŪɬȤߤʤΤȤ꤬Ĥ롥֤СѲΤɤޤǤŪλʪʤΤȤˤʤ롥
٤ƶȸäƤޤȡǵϥȥåפ롥٤ɬȸäƤޤȡ٤ƤͿʤФʤ餺©줷ȤޤǤ϶ǡȤޤǤɬȤΤΤȹͤƤ뤬Ȥˤ˵Ҥˤ衤äƤʹƤⶽ̣ΤϡɬεͳȤͿʤͿ줿ۤ祤״Ф̣廊뤫γΥȤͶȯ䤤ϡƤ
Ȥʤɤǡˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) 첻 (Great Vowel Shift; [2009-11-18-1]) ʤɤηŪʤȤߤ˲Ѳ⤹ȡʤΤ褦ѲΤȤѤʵ䤬¿롥ѲθˤĤƤϽȤΰոΩƤꡤϤäꤷȤϸʤΤǤ롥ѸǤܸǤ⡤¾ΤǤ⡤üԤεդ̤ȤDzѲϸߤäȿʹǤ롥ޥˤѸˤ˸¤äƤ⡤¿βѲŪ뤤ʸŪǧƤꡤˡ§첻ܤϡȤ櫓̾ǤϤ뤬¿Τ2Ĥˤʤäơˡ§ˤĤƤΡ֤ʤפ䤦ΤǤСƱ褦̵βѲΡ֤ʤפʤФʤʤʤ롥ѲθϤȤƤ⡤ѲŪǤꡤ˭٤Ǥ뤫ȤȤϵαƤɬפ롥
㤨СѸ Welsh ȯޥĸκƷŪˤʣβѲȤʤФʤʤФ꤫ޥĸ줫űѸ West-Saxon ɸǤ Wīelisc ˤɤ夯ޤǤˤ⡤5ĤβѲͿƤΤǤ (Hamer 34--35) ޥĸȤƤϡ캬 *walh ˷ƻ *-isk ղä *walhisk ƷƤбѸ -ish ˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפȡˡ

οޤǤ "raising", "breaking", "sk > sc", "i-mutation", "loss of h and compensatory lengthening" 줾βѲդ줿̾ΤǤ롥ˡ§ʤɤĤ̾դƤʤ줾줬Ωɤ1ĤβѲǤ롥
äϤǽʤűѸ West-Saxon ɸ Wīelisc ˤɤ夤θѸʹߤˤʤäߤɸ Welsh ϢʤΤϡ West-Saxon ǤϤʤAnglian Kentish Ǥ롥űѸ Anglia Ǥϡbreaking 餺ष1첻 æ a ز줬 i-mutation ˤƤ æ ؾ夬ꡤѸǤϤȯŸ e, a ʤɤΰ۷Ω16ʹߤϡe 첻ǸǤޤꡤߤ Welsh ŪʸȤ夷
2첻 i ξüˤĤƤϡűѸ˻Ϥޤä餷i ̵ͭɤѸˤ㤷ä褦MED Welsh (adj.) ȡˡʤFrench Ƭ -ish 첻ξά줿֤Ƥ[2009-10-09-1]ε#165. ̱²ƻ i-mutationפȡˡޤ̾ Wallace, Wallis Welsh Ū۷Ǥ롥
Τ褦ˡΤˤȯŪˤϡ¿βѲפɤȤɬפȤʤ롥ȤơѸ father ĸɤΤ褦˲ŪȯŸƤ[2010-08-20-1]ε#480. father ͥˡ§פ⻲ȡ
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
ε#1154. ѲΥȢȤƤ analogy ([2012-06-24-1]) Ǹڤ Postal ϡ#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѲθ fashion ȹͤԤǤ롥ƱˡѲȤ "grammar change" ʸˡѲˤˤۤʤʤʸˡѲ֤뵬§κƲǤȤŪѤλơʸˡѲκǽʳɽ魯 "primary sound change which is independent of language contact" ϡ"'nonfunctional' stylistic change" ǤꡤʳθϤꤨʤȤ롥
Postal εϰ츫ñ¤âȤĤƤ롥㤨СҲŪʺ۲Ѳμ¸ȳȻζ̡ܿˤѲѸ Romance Stress Rule ŪˤĤƤƤ롥Postal εϡѲ礭Ȥߤ1ĤȤܤ٤ȹͤΤǡפ1 (283--85) ʬѤ褦
SOME REMARKS ON THE 'CAUSES OF SOUND CHANGE'
It is perhaps not inappropriate to ask what implications the view that sound change consists in changes in grammars has for the much discussed and controversial question of the causes of sound change. Why should a language, independently of contact with other languages, add a new rule at a certain point? Of course there are some scholars who hold that all linguistic change is a result of language contact, but this position seems too radically improbable to demand serious consideration today. Assuming then that some if not all phonological changes are independent of contact, what is their basis? It seems clear to the present writer that there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next, etc. That is, it seems evident within the framework of sound change as grammar change that the 'causes' of sound change without language contact lie in the general tendency of human cultural products to undergo 'nonfunctional' stylistic change. This is of course to be understood as a remark about what we might call 'primary change,' that is, change which interrupts an assumed stable and long-existing system. It is somewhat more plausible that such stylistic primary changes may yield a grammar which is in some sense not optimal, and that this may itself lead to 'functional' change to bring about an optimal state. Halle's suggestion that children may learn a grammar partially distinct from that underlying the utterances they hear and thus, from the point of view of the adult language, reformulate the grammar (while adults may only add rules), may be looked upon as a suggestion of this type. For as he noted, a grammar G2 which results from the addition of a rule to a grammar G1 may not be the optimal grammar of the set of sentences it generates. Hence one would expect that children learning the new language will internalize not G2 but rather the optimal grammar G3. It remains to be seen how many of the instances of so-called 'structural sound change,' discussed in the writings of scholars like A. Martinet, can be provided with a basis of this type.
It should be emphasized that the claim that contact independent sound change is due basically to the stylistic possibility for adults to add limited types of rules to their grammars does not preclude the fact that these changes may serve social functions, i.e. may be related to group differentiation, status differences, etc. That is, the claim that change is stylistic is not incompatible with the kinds of results reached by such investigators as Labov (1963). These latter matters concern more properly the social explanation for the spread of the change, a matter which seems more properly sociological than linguistic.
I have been careful above not to insist that all instances of what have been called sound change were necessarily independent of language contact. Although committed to the view that sound change can occur without contact, we can also accept the view that some changes result from borrowing. The view that sound change is grammar change in fact really eliminates much of the importance of this difference. For under the rule interpretation of change, the only issue is the forces which led to the grammar change. Studies of complex cases of phonological grammar change due to contact have actually been carried out recently within the framework of generative grammar. This work, to be reported in a forthcoming monograph (Keyser and Halle, to appear), shows quite clearly that English has borrowed a number of Romance phonological rules. In particular, English has incorporated essentially the Latin stress rule, that which softens Romance k to s in certain environments, etc. This work has important implications beyond the area of sound change and may affect radically concepts of genetic relationship, Mischsprache, etc., all of which will, I think, require reevaluation.
Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
ѲθϤɤޤõ뤳ȤǤΤ뤤Ϥ⤽õ뤳ȤǤΤʤΤɤϡ˸ؤܼŪʵǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ causation γƵǴŪˤƤޤĤƤθѲθβϡθѲͽ¬ǽȤˤط뤬ε prediction_of_language_change Ǽ夲ƤϡѲθõ뤳Ȥ˾öŪʳؼԤѶŪʳؼԤΰո줾Ҳ𤷤Ԥɽ Postal (283) ϡѲ fashion ǤꡤȤոǤ롥
. . . there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next.
Postal ˤСѲθõ뤳ȤǤʤΤǤꡤõäƤ⤷ΤʤΤǤ롥ǡSmith ϤιͤȽƤ롥ġθѲθϵŪˤϲǤʤ⤷ʤȤƸѲθϵǤϤǤ롥ơ˸ؤõ뤳ȤƤޤСǯɽ˽ϤƤޤȡȿ깭롥Smith ꡤ2Ѥ褦
. . . it is held here that an adequate history of English must attempt at least to take account of the 'why' as well as the 'how' of the changes the language has undergone; problems of causation must therefore be confronted in any historical account, however provisional the resulting explanations might be. (12)
Although it is not possible, given the limitations of the evidence, to offer absolute proof as to the motivation of a particular linguistic innovation, or to predict the precise development of linguistic phenomena, nevertheless a rationally arguable historical explanation can be offered for the kinds of changes which languages can undergo, and a broad prediction can be made about the kinds of change which are liable to happen. This seems a reasonable goal for any historical enquiry which seeks to go beyond the simple chronicle. (194)
Smith ϡѲϸŪӸ쳰Ūʣθʤ뤤ϾŪǡˤʣȤ߹蘆äȤǧǤꡤѶŪõꡤΤ˸ؼԤλŻȳοƤ롥Ѳͽ¬ (prediction_of_language_change) ˤޤƧ߹ڤꡤˤϰ⤢˰㤤ʤϳ Smith ΰո˻Ǥ롥ʤSmith ϻβդǤ
Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
ɸϡ[2011-02-06-1]ε#650. ˥ȥˡ§פǼ夲Dz⤷ظƶ (substratum theory) ФƤϰ⤢롥 Grimm's Law θŪˤϥޥ˸ҲܤθˤĤƤ¾Ҳ𤷤
substratum theory äƤƤŵŪˤСޥɤħŪʻҲܤϡȤƻӤƤꡤϤεӵĴ¥ΤȤ줿1901ǯ Meyer-Benfey ˤäƼĥ줿ΤǤ (Collitz 180) οܤܼŪ aspiration ٤ѲǤȹͤƤ Grimm ˤȤäƤƤߤ䤹ä⤷ʤ
θ塤1910ǯˡFeist Kauffmann ʤɤˤꡤ"ethnological grounds" β⡤ʤߤǤظƶ⤬Ф (Collitz 181) [2011-09-01-1]ε#857. ޥ²κħפǿ줿̤ꡤMeillet ⤽̾ΤʤƱٻƤ롥
Collitz 2ĤȽƤ롥ޤظƶΤʤͳȤƤϡظˡޥҲܸбҲ٤·äƤȲꤹΤ뤳ȤƤ롥ǤʤȤСظ줬 aspiration ٤ˤĤƤν۴ķäƤȹͤɬפꡤν۴ķϤʤΤȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ظƶϡܼ˿ƤʤȤ櫓Ǥ (181--82)
Collitz Ϥɤ餫ȤлӵٻƤ롥ȤΤϡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) Ūʬۤѻȡץɥġɥġ̥ɥĤ̿ʤˤĤƿܤδ٤㤯ʤäƤȤ¤뤫ޤMeyer-Benfey Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡƱͤλҲܤФ Armenian 䥢եꥫ Bantu Ǥ⡤ϻϤ˸ꤵƤȤ⤢롥
Collitz ϻϤӵΤߤǤȤϹͤƤʤ3ȤǤ⤤٤ΤȤơaspiration ؤΰŪĴȤʤ⡤͡ؤѲǽʤ餷ˤ "fashion" ƯͿƤȤƤƤ (183) Ĵˤ "increased refinement" 褦ȤΤ̾ȯã"fashion" ƯͿСθ¤ǤϤʤĴȯã⤢롤ȤΤ
. . . the phenomena generally designated by the term of Grimm's Law are plainly the outcome of a tendency towards vigorous articulation, the impression of vigor being effected partly by using an abundant amount of breath, partly by adding to the muscular effort. . . . It will readily be seen that, while the mountain climate may favor the tendency toward energetic articulation, it cannot be maintained that either one of the two modes of articulation is dependent exclusively on climatic conditions. (183)
fashion ǧȤˤƤ⡤ fashion ʤλξΤõΤǤϤʤѲθ fashion 䵤ޤ˵ϸŤꤢ뤬ѤȾ˵ϤǻߤޤäƤޤ⤦˿ʤʤΤ
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
ε#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã ([2012-02-05-1]) ȡ黲Ȥ#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1]) εǤϡҲѲȸʤȤ櫓ʸˡˤѲΰ̴طˤĤƿ줿꤬ԤδؿͶȤϤޤʤҤ٤褦˳Ū˰ˤޤǤ뤳ȤΤ
ҲѲ߽ФȤ褦ʸäκʤɤϡŪˤ̴طȤ館䤹ҲѳפˤäƤ⤿餵Ȳꤵʸˡ٥ѲϡƤ֤ΤǤꡤλ֤ĹĹۤɡŪΤİ̴طξڵȤƤβͤϼޤ롥ޤʸˡѲξ硤ޤ˸ȤϡȤꡤ٤˹ޤäƤ롤ȤؤȤ¿äξΤ褦ʡ̵ͭνиȤ䤹ѲǤϤʤȤ̤̤θѲ®٤ˤĤƤϡ[2011-01-08-1]ε#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١פ[2011-01-09-1]ε#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪפȡ
Martinet (180--81) ϡҲѲȸѲΰ̴ط˴ؤޤäӽ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡŪʹ¤ؤΩ줫ŪʤΤȤƤˤƤޤǤΰ̴طɵؤ٤ȼĥ롥
. . . il est trés difficile de marquer exactement la causalité des changements linguistiques à partir des réorganisations de la structure sociale et des modifications des besoins communicatifs qui en résultent. Les linguistes, une fois qu'ils ont reconnu l'influence décisive de la structure sociale sur celle de la langue, n'auront de chance d'atteindre à quelque rigueur que s'ils limitent leur examen à une période assez restreinte de l'évolution d'un idiome et se contentent de relever dans la langue même les traces d'influences extérieures et de noter les réactions en chaîne que celles-ci ont pu y déterminer, sans remonter aux chaînons prélinguistiques de la causalité. Certains traits de la langue étudiée deveront être nécessairement considérés comme des données de fait dont on ne saurait justifier l'existence qu'à l'aide d'hypothèses invérifiables. L'objet véritable de la recherche linguistique sera donc, ici, l'étude des conflits qui existent à l'intérieur de la langue dans le cadre des besoins permanents des êtres humains qui communiquent entre eux au moyen du langage.
Ҳ¤κ䡤륳ߥ˥ɬפƤüȯѲΰ̴طΤ˼ȤϡȤƤؼԤϡäҲ¤칽¤ͿŪʱƶǧȤƤ⡤ȯŸνʬ˸¤줿Ĵꤷơθ˳Ūʱƶκפ줬ǽΤȿϢ˸ڤ뤳Ȥۤΰ̴طϢˤΤܤ餺ˤϡ餫θ̩뤳ȤϤǤʤоݤθħϡǽβˤäƤ¸ߤǤʤͿλ¤ȤƤߤʤʤФʤʤäơ츦οŪϡˤäƸߤ˰ջã͡ѤɬǸ¸ΩθʤΤǤ롥
ƱκǸΰ (208) Ƥ
Les difficultés qu'on éprouve à identifier toutes les circonstances qui ont pu influer sur la genèse d'un changement linguistique ne sauraient détourner les chercheurs d'une analyse explicative. Il convient simplement de toujours donner la priorité à cet aspect de la causalité des phénomènes qui ne fait intervenir que la langue en cause et le cadre permanent, psychique et physiologique, de toute économie linguistique : loi du moindre effort, besoin de communiquer et de s'exprimer, conformation et fonctionnement des organes. En second lieu, interviendront les faits d'interférence d'un usage ou d'un idiome sur un autre. Sans faire jamais fi des données historiques de tous ordres, le diachroniste ne les fera intervenir qu'en dernier lieu, après avoir épuisé toutes les ressources explicatives que lui offrent l'examen de l'évolution propre de la structure et l'étude des effets de l'interférence.
Ѳε˱ƶͿǽΤ뤹٤ƤξƱꤹˤäƺ뤫ȤäơԤϡŪʬϤæƤϤʤʤݤΰ̴طΤ¦̡ʤθȸȿΤοŪŪѤȤߡʺǾϤθ§ջãɽɬﴱι¤ȵǽˤȤˤʤ褦ʰ̴ط¦̤ͥ褹Τñˤäơ褤2ܤˤϡˡˡ¾˴ĤȤ¤ͿƤƤ褤Ū˽Ϳλ¤ä̵뤹櫓ǤϤʤ̻ŪʸԤϡ˲ΤϺǸˤΤ褤¤ȯãΤΤĴ䴳ĸ̤θƤ⤿餷ƤŪʥ٤ƻȤԤȤˤΤ褤
Martinet ƩŰΡ¤μĥƤ롥֤̻֤ޤ礤ˤĤƤϡ[2011-09-10-1]ε#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫פۤ diachrony εȡ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ˤˤơ°ʸˤȤ롥°¤ϡʸ٤ȯãͤɽƽƽиΤȤȤʸǤФлŦƤ롥ȤСǶᡤвäΤȤ2Ѥ褦
ʸʽ°ʸdependent clauseˤϽ°³ޤϴطˤäƳ롥ȯã˾塤ʸϿʹ֤ɽǽϤ٤ȯŸʳάŪˤϤޤˡΤˤʣʽˡȯãʲܡp. 57
La comparaison des langues indo-européennes montre que la proposition relative est une acquisition tardive, et l'observation synchronique indique que le type d'expansion représenté par les propositions subordonnées ne s'impose, dans certaines communautés, que sous la pression de besoins nouveaux apportés par la culture occidentale. (Martinet 179)
Ӥˤꡤط٤Ƴ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤƤ뤷Ūʴѻˤꡤ°μγϡ붦ƱΤǤϡʸˤäƤ⤿餵뿷ɬפΰϤΤȤǤʤ
ǹθɬפΤϡܻΤֿʹ֤ɽǽϤ٤ȯŸʳפ䡤Martinet ΤʸˤäƤ⤿餵뿷ɬפΰϤΤȤǤפȤɽ˴ްդƤ褦˻פʸȯãȡʣ칽¤1ȤƤν°ʸȯãȤϡʤطˤ뤫ȤȤǤ롥
ʤȤʸ̮ǤϡMartinet θ褦ˡ°ȯãȯãŪ٤ʳ˸ȤΤϵҴŪʻ¤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤʸȯãȽ°ʸȯãȤŪˤ褽礹뤳ȤϳΤŪϡ¨̴طްդ櫓ǤϤʤξԤδ֤˰̴طϤΤʤΤȤСɤ٤ΰ̴طʤΤʳʸ̮ǤϤɤʤΤ
ľŪˤϡʸȯã뤳ȤˤäơҲʣȼäƻؼоݤͤͼʣȼäбɽʣȤΤϡΤ褦˻פMartinet ϡȯȼ le bateau qui marche à la vapeur Ȥɽ˵Ƥˡ
̤ΥƥåפפȤǤ롥ʸȯãȡμνѤȾãɬפ礹롥ɬפ˱뤿μ礿Τ졤ä˽ȤФȤСʪδطΤ˵ŪɽˡɬפȤʤ롥ǡŪãΤɬפ졤֡ˡʤɤ˺Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬Ūʺ1ĤȤƽ°ʸȯãȤȤäΤǤϤʤ
ʸȯãȽ°ʸΰ̴ط¾ڤ뤳Ȥ϶ˤξȯãȤ⡤ˤƤǤϤʤĹλ֤ƵäΤǤꡤΤ¾¿װʶǽ뤫Ūʰ̴طꤽȤȤϤޤǤǤƤ⡤̴ط¤ʤϤäȤȤ
Ϣƶ̣㤬ΤǼƤ (59) Τ褦ˡʻɸդŪŪ繽¤ϿͤθħŤΤǤꡤʣ칽¤ȯãŪˤɤθǤǽǤ롥ʣ칽¤߲뤫ɤϸˤäưۤʤꡤˤʸŪװؤäƤ뤫⤷ʤޥήμĺν̱²ˤääԥϡˤϲŪ߹¤ʤȤ졤ԤܤƤ뤬 (59) ˤС֥ԥϡˤϡ¾θƱͤˡʲŪȤƤΡʻɸդϤꡤŪ繽¤߽Ф뤬ʸŪDzŪ߹¤ޤǤϤʤפǤ֤ޤʣʲʤפˤʤȤ
ʸȯãȸ̤ʸȤϰۤʤȤϤ쳰װˤä칽¤ȤηϤѲǽȤȤϡܤ٤Ǥ롥쳰װạ̈˱ƶڤܤ¿뤬Ū٥ˤƱͤ˱ƶڤܤΤȤϡʤʤɵ椹Τ
ˤĤƤϡ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פ˰Ѥ Leech et al. μĥˤ⼪ޤʸȯãȸȯãȤǡ[2011-08-25-1]ε#850. դȯŪͤδطפ⡤ܵȴϢ뤫⤷ʤ
ͺӸ١ҡ1999ǯ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
ؤμȤDZѸˤˤŪʸѲˤäơФиѲ⤹ɬפΤγغŪʬ˾ǤŬڤʻʤѲܼʤɤȤΤǤϤʤȻפäƤ뤬õ⼫ʬǤޤȤۤüᤤȹͤBussmann θؼŵ "language change" ιȤޥɥޥåפƤߤΡɤĤǤFlashɤ

äƤϡۤ[2010-07-13-1]εָѲθפʤɤȤ椯椯 language_change γƵޤȤơޥɥޥåפβǤꤿȻפäƤ롥̣ǡΥ֥Τ̤ƸѲ˴ؤͻϿȤƤȤΤǡνο
ѸθѲ˴ؤ륦־λȤƤϡRaymond Hickey's Studying the History of English Language change ¤Ƥ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
ε[2010-07-13-1]ǡѲθˤϸŪʤΤȸ쳰ŪʤΤȽҤ٤װߴطʣǤ롥ˤĤƤϻռƹͤ³ƤBrinton and Arnovick μΰɤǾä
Scholars generally agree that external causes of change are less important than internal causes; in fact, some argue that the external ones do not 'cause' change at all, but simply speed up changes already underway in the language, exploiting imbalances or weaknesses already present in the internal system of the language, and encouraging the choice of one variant form over another. This view may underplay the extensiveness of the changes brought about by external influences, which operate indirectly over long periods of time and are difficult to assess, but the argument is nevertheless a useful antidote to the popular view, which tends to attribute far too many changes to external causes. (59)
Ū쳰ŪξװˤĤơԤΤۤԤ "important" ǤȤƱդ褽Դ֤˹ߤȤΤľäƤΤ褦ʤȤϽʹषθ "the popular view" ˶ŪװϸѲξΩƤƤˤ쳰ŪװѲ©ߡͿ̤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ
ΤˡΰˤȤꡤǤ˸Ū˻ưƤѲܿʤɤγŪװˤ®ȤϡѸˤˤ¿롥㤨СѸθξüȤտ魯θ경ȤѸ˾礭ʸѲϡŪװˤäƻϤޤꡤťΥɸեȤܿȤ쳰Ūװˤä¥ʤ줿ȤΤŪ˼ƤǤ롥ξ硤Brinton and Arnovick θǤϡθѲװȤƤפʤΤϸŪװǤꡤ쳰ŪװϤޤǤ¥ʤȤˤʤΤθǤϡŪװѲʹԤƤ椯ΤΩƤƤˤ¼Ū˿䤷ʤΤϸ쳰ŪװǤȤˤʤ롥ƱݤΤĤβȤȤˤʤ롥
ΰոϡѲװˤĤƲä "important" ȤߤʤȤ˴ԸΤǤϤʤѲѰ۷ ( variants ) ¸ߤΤǤСѰ۷װפȤȤˤʤ롥ơѰ۷װˤϡŪʤΤ⤢и쳰ŪʤΤ⤢롥ɤξԤŪʽ٤¬뤳ȤǤΤʤȤ⤽ǸԴ֤ƱդȤϻפBriton and Arnovick ΰո˵Ǥ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Ѳʤ뤫θˤĤƤ͡ʸ椬ʤƤѲ causation ˴ؤϡŪˤϸդεǤ롥뤤ϺƤѲѻڵ鲿ȿ¬롥¿ξ硤Τ褦˿¬줿θѲˤĤƤΤͭǤꡤ̤ѲŬѤꡤѲͽ¬ΤˤΩʤޤۤܤ٤ƤθѲˤƸϰĤǤϤʤʣθʣŪȤ߹蘆äƤȹͤ졤causation εǤϰΩˤ
Ūˤ¿θѲƤϤޤȹͤ뷹ϤꡤʬवƤ롥ʬФ꤬ʤŪƱդƤȻפΤϡŪ ( language-internal ) ʸȸ쳰Ū ( language-external ) ʸȤʬǤ롥Brinton and Arnovick ( 56--62 ) ˽äơɽŪʸվ褦ĤιܤˡϢ륭ɤܥ֥ؤΥդ
Language-Internal Causes
[ üԤ褽̵ռŪ ]
ease of articulation ( assimilation )
perceptual clarity ( dissimilation )
phonological symmetry ( [2009-11-27-1] )
universal tendencies
efficiency or transparency
[ üԤ褽ռŪ ]
spelling pronunciation ( spelling_pronunciation )
hypercorrection
overgeneralization
analogy ( analogy )
renewal
reanalysis ( reanalysis, metanalysis )
Language-External Causes
contact-induced language change ( contact )
extreme language mixture ( leading to pidgins, creoles, and bilingual mixed languages ) ( pidgin, creole )
language death ( language_death )
ŪʸˤĤƤϡüԤѲˤĤ̵ռŪʤΤռŪʤΤʬƤ뤬ռ̵ͭ٤ʤΤŪʴˤϤʤʤ
Ϣ뵭Ȥơ[2010-07-01-1], [2010-06-01-1]ε⻲ȡ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ѸˤμȤǡѸ줬űѸѸˤƤ200ǯ?300ǯۤɤû֤Ū ( synthetic ) ʸ줫ʬŪ ( analytic ) ʸؤȸ쥿פۤ180žȤ˿줿ѸѲϡ줬ѲȤˤϤû֤ǷŪѲ뤫Ǥ롥Ѳξܤطʤ丶 ( causation ) βˤĤƤϼȤǾܤʤäΤǡʤԻĤȻפͤ¿ä褦Ǥ롥ǡѸˤޤλ褬ʤȤ˲Ū˸뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ;פ˱ѸѲԻĤΩƤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
ΥꥢڡѡˡѸѲȤϳĤäƤޤλˤĤơΤ褦ʴ˭ɽѤƤ
ä200ǯ餺ǡ¿ο͡Ȥ줬ʤѲʤơ˶äơñ s Τ褦˻ĤäƤޤäΤؤǤĤ³뤳ȤԻĤȻפϤȤɤʷˤѤꡤǤޤưŤ餤٤ˤäƷѤŴΤ褦ȻפäˤȤäƤβ٤ϲʤΤ
ѲȤŴϤǤꤹ벹٤Ǥ뤫ɵ椹Τޤ˸ ( historical linguistics ) εˤŪǤ롥ġθѲ causation ˤѲ̤ causation ˤŪװĤФȤȤϤʤʤ餯¿ʣװͻ礷ƤѲƤΤȿ¬롥Ū˵äѲ⡤"the absolute cause" ͤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤ⡤"some conditioning factors" θĤ뤳Ȥ餤ϤǤ
ѲˤƲ٤ξ夲椷Ƥ factors ϤäʤΤˤƤ⤤Ȥʤδߤ
Ѳ causation ˤĤƤϡ[2009-12-21-1]ε⻲ȡ
ŵŪʥꥫѸˤ Krapp ϡꥫѸȯꥫͤε˵Ȥ¯ФäڤΤƤƤ롥ꥫѸü߽ФװϺǽŪˤϤɤ˵ϤȤǧĤĤ⡤ΤȤȽǤʤΤ顤ʳηѾ ( inheritance )ʤꥹѸ줫ΰ仺ȤߤʤΤ˲ȤȤƸ٤ǤϤʤȤˤˤ֤ʤפɵ椹 causation εˤơǽŪʸͤߤ뤳ȤΤꤦ¤ʸŪڵäȤ⤢ꤽʷѾβΩƤƵҤ褦ȤʳŪ٤ƩŰƤ롥
Especially in speech covering short chronological periods, as is the case in comparing British and American speech, one may more hopefully look to inheritance than to ultimate causes in seeking to account for the traits which present themselves. Inheritance obviously will not explain everything, since what is inherited must ultimately have had a determining cause, must have had an origin; but if one cannot discover ultimate origins, the historia, at least, can content himself with transmissions. (Vol. 2, 22--23)
If one did not fear to affirm a universal positive, one might say that in every case the distinctive features of American pronunciation have been but survivals from older usages with were, and in some instances still are, to be found in some dialect or other of the speech of England. (Vol. 2, 28)
The student who would explain American speech as derived from British speech has an inexhaustible store of variations to draw upon, and it is only when the probabilities in all directions have been exhausted that one may turn to the theory of independent and original development of speech sounds in America. (Vol. 2, 29)
ΤȤ Krapp ϡꥫѸꥹѸαĹ˰֤ŤƤꡤꥫ ( the American language ) ǧʤΩǤ롥⤦ĤΥꥫѸˤθŵ The American Language Mencken Ȥ٤ۤʤ롥
Krapp, George Philip. English Language in America. 2 vols. New York: Century, 1925.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963. 194.
ڥ ( Esperanto )Ȥ줬롥1887ǯ˥ݡɤΰեۥ(Zamenhof)ˤäƹȤʤ٤ͰƤ줿Ǥ롥λˤϡEsperantoޤʣι줬³ȹͰƤ줿ǺǤǤꡤ10ͰʾüԤȤ롥ʸˡäϥ衼åѤθ졤ä˥ޥϤƤ뤬ñ㲽Ƥꡤ⤫ĤƤäȤΤưפǤʢޤƤʤȤȤˡܤǤܥڥȳزȤɽؤΤǡؿΤϻȤ줿
Esperantoֿ(artificial language)ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ˰ϤʤǤܸѸʤɤ̾θϡּ(natural language)ȸƤǤ褤Τ˿ؤιֵȤΤ褦˸äƤΤפФֿʹ֤ФΤǤʾ塤ʤɤȤΤϤꤨʤϤ٤ƿǤ롥
EsperantoȱѸֿפȤư勞ˤˤϡϤ롥ʤΤ
ǡ[2009-05-07-1]ˡָ̽ڤȸѲפȤƼ夲KellerƤӰ礤˽ФΤˤϼʪȿʪ뤬ԤˤϿŪʪȼŪʪबȤȤȤ˿Ƥߤ롥
things natural artificial(?) artificial natural the Alps Esperanto English flowers paper flowers traffic jam waterfalls euro 'grown' towns bee language satellite cities the Latin alphabet the Morse alphabet Buddhism
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