Ȥʤɤǡˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) 첻 (Great Vowel Shift; [2009-11-18-1]) ʤɤηŪʤȤߤ˲Ѳ⤹ȡʤΤ褦ѲΤȤѤʵ䤬¿롥ѲθˤĤƤϽȤΰոΩƤꡤϤäꤷȤϸʤΤǤ롥ѸǤܸǤ⡤¾ΤǤ⡤üԤεդ̤ȤDzѲϸߤäȿʹǤ롥ޥˤѸˤ˸¤äƤ⡤¿βѲŪ뤤ʸŪǧƤꡤˡ§첻ܤϡȤ櫓̾ǤϤ뤬¿Τ2Ĥˤʤäơˡ§ˤĤƤΡ֤ʤפ䤦ΤǤСƱ褦̵βѲΡ֤ʤפʤФʤʤʤ롥ѲθϤȤƤ⡤ѲŪǤꡤ˭٤Ǥ뤫ȤȤϵαƤɬפ롥
㤨СѸ Welsh ȯޥĸκƷŪˤʣβѲȤʤФʤʤФ꤫ޥĸ줫űѸ West-Saxon ɸǤ Wīelisc ˤɤ夯ޤǤˤ⡤5ĤβѲͿƤΤǤ (Hamer 34--35) ޥĸȤƤϡ캬 *walh ˷ƻ *-isk ղä *walhisk ƷƤбѸ -ish ˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפȡˡ

οޤǤ "raising", "breaking", "sk > sc", "i-mutation", "loss of h and compensatory lengthening" 줾βѲդ줿̾ΤǤ롥ˡ§ʤɤĤ̾դƤʤ줾줬Ωɤ1ĤβѲǤ롥
äϤǽʤűѸ West-Saxon ɸ Wīelisc ˤɤ夤θѸʹߤˤʤäߤɸ Welsh ϢʤΤϡ West-Saxon ǤϤʤAnglian Kentish Ǥ롥űѸ Anglia Ǥϡbreaking 餺ष1첻 æ a ز줬 i-mutation ˤƤ æ ؾ夬ꡤѸǤϤȯŸ e, a ʤɤΰ۷Ω16ʹߤϡe 첻ǸǤޤꡤߤ Welsh ŪʸȤ夷
2첻 i ξüˤĤƤϡűѸ˻Ϥޤä餷i ̵ͭɤѸˤ㤷ä褦MED Welsh (adj.) ȡˡʤFrench Ƭ -ish 첻ξά줿֤Ƥ[2009-10-09-1]ε#165. ̱²ƻ i-mutationפȡˡޤ̾ Wallace, Wallis Welsh Ū۷Ǥ롥
Τ褦ˡΤˤȯŪˤϡ¿βѲפɤȤɬפȤʤ롥ȤơѸ father ĸɤΤ褦˲ŪȯŸƤ[2010-08-20-1]ε#480. father ͥˡ§פ⻲ȡ
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
ɸϡ[2011-02-06-1]ε#650. ˥ȥˡ§פǼ夲Dz⤷ظƶ (substratum theory) ФƤϰ⤢롥 Grimm's Law θŪˤϥޥ˸ҲܤθˤĤƤ¾Ҳ𤷤
substratum theory äƤƤŵŪˤСޥɤħŪʻҲܤϡȤƻӤƤꡤϤεӵĴ¥ΤȤ줿1901ǯ Meyer-Benfey ˤäƼĥ줿ΤǤ (Collitz 180) οܤܼŪ aspiration ٤ѲǤȹͤƤ Grimm ˤȤäƤƤߤ䤹ä⤷ʤ
θ塤1910ǯˡFeist Kauffmann ʤɤˤꡤ"ethnological grounds" β⡤ʤߤǤظƶ⤬Ф (Collitz 181) [2011-09-01-1]ε#857. ޥ²κħפǿ줿̤ꡤMeillet ⤽̾ΤʤƱٻƤ롥
Collitz 2ĤȽƤ롥ޤظƶΤʤͳȤƤϡظˡޥҲܸбҲ٤·äƤȲꤹΤ뤳ȤƤ롥ǤʤȤСظ줬 aspiration ٤ˤĤƤν۴ķäƤȹͤɬפꡤν۴ķϤʤΤȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ظƶϡܼ˿ƤʤȤ櫓Ǥ (181--82)
Collitz Ϥɤ餫ȤлӵٻƤ롥ȤΤϡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) Ūʬۤѻȡץɥġɥġ̥ɥĤ̿ʤˤĤƿܤδ٤㤯ʤäƤȤ¤뤫ޤMeyer-Benfey Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡƱͤλҲܤФ Armenian 䥢եꥫ Bantu Ǥ⡤ϻϤ˸ꤵƤȤ⤢롥
Collitz ϻϤӵΤߤǤȤϹͤƤʤ3ȤǤ⤤٤ΤȤơaspiration ؤΰŪĴȤʤ⡤͡ؤѲǽʤ餷ˤ "fashion" ƯͿƤȤƤƤ (183) Ĵˤ "increased refinement" 褦ȤΤ̾ȯã"fashion" ƯͿСθ¤ǤϤʤĴȯã⤢롤ȤΤ
. . . the phenomena generally designated by the term of Grimm's Law are plainly the outcome of a tendency towards vigorous articulation, the impression of vigor being effected partly by using an abundant amount of breath, partly by adding to the muscular effort. . . . It will readily be seen that, while the mountain climate may favor the tendency toward energetic articulation, it cannot be maintained that either one of the two modes of articulation is dependent exclusively on climatic conditions. (183)
fashion ǧȤˤƤ⡤ fashion ʤλξΤõΤǤϤʤѲθ fashion 䵤ޤ˵ϸŤꤢ뤬ѤȾ˵ϤǻߤޤäƤޤ⤦˿ʤʤΤ
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
ε#1119. Rask's Law Ǥʤ Grimm's Law ȸƤФͳ ([2012-05-20-1]) ǡGrimm's Law ˡ§ȸƤФʤ Collitz ˵äƼCollitz Grimm ̤ƤϤ뤬Grimm's Law ŦƤ롥Grimm's Law ȡβѲĹȤ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) Ȥ碌ƹͤȡmedia, tenuis, aspirate νǡδֳ֤ݤʤ۴ĤȤϡɬƤʤȤ狼롥ΤˡGrimm's Law ˴Ϣ Verner's Law ʤꡤ¾ΥޥˤҲѲʤ٤ȡҲѲ۴Ĥ®٤٤ϡ줾ΥǤޤޤǤ롥षٱ䤬ꡤʣǡΤ۴ѲȤȤ館ۤǤϤʤ
Collitz (178) ϡ褹뤿ˡmedia, tenuis, aspirate 3ΤۤˡʳλҲ3ä۴Ĥؤ٤ˤĤʤ

ˡCollitz (178--80) ϡȤƤĸͭӵProkosch ξ̤ꡤ(4) ̵Ȥߤ٤ǤϤʤȤĥƤ롥
ν۴ĥǥǤ p f, b p, bh b Τ줾βѲˤĤƤǤΥ饦ɤϤݤθȤʤ f bh Ȥδطɬ餫ǤʤäCollitz Τ褦˸ԤӽСϤʤʤ롥Collitz εϹ٤ŪǤꡤˤΤɾ뤳ȤǤʤʤȤ⡤6ʳꤷ۴Ĥ®٤ǤʤȲꤹ뤳ȤˤäơGrimm's Law Ϣ벻Ѳθ̤Ϥ褯ʤ褦˻פ롥
ޥ˳βѲˤϡΤ˰ƽ۴Ĥ롥Grimm's Law, Verner's Law, Second Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤγơοܤˤĤơν۴Ĥ®٤١ʤ6ʳΤɤߤ뤫ϰۤʤ롥۴ĥѥˤ͡Ȥ߹碌ꤨGrimm's Law ⤽Τ1Ĥɽ路ΤȤƲǤ
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
Grimm's Lawˡ§ˤϡȯԤǤɥĤӸؼ Jakob Grimm (1785--1863) ˤʤ̾ΤǤ롥Grimm ϡ Deutsche Grammatik 12 (1822) ǥޥλҲȰбҲȤβطǧ줬ˡ§̾ǸƤФ褦ˤʤä
ػˤǤϤ褯ΤƤȤꡤGrimm's Law ƱѲϡǥޡθؼ Rasmus Rask (1787--1832) ˤäơǤ1818ǯ Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse ΤʤǼƤե² (Finno-Ugric) Ťɸ (Old Icelandic) ʤ¿θ̤Ƥ Rask ϡĸȤǽƤʤä츦ŪŬѤ٤ȤĥƤꡤФ̻ŪؤϻϼԤȤߤʤƤ롥
ˤ⤫餺ˡ§̾ Grimm Ϳ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϤʤCollitz (175) ˤСGrimm ˤƱѲΤȤ館3ĤηŪäȤʲ"media" ͭ"tenuis" ̵"aspirate" ӵ줾ɽ魯
(1) the second or High German shifting proceeds in general on the same lines as the first or common Germanic shifting;
(2) one and the same general formula is applicable to the various sets of consonants, whether they be labials or dentals or gutturals;
(3) the shifting proves to imply a fixed sequence of the principal forms of the shifting, based on the arrangement of the three classes of consonants involved in the order of media, tenuis, aspirate.
ĤޤꡤƱѲñȯΩݤǤϤʤĴŪ˰Ӥޤä̤Ѳˤ֤ⷫߤ븶Ƥ뤳ȤGrimm ΤǤ롥[2009-08-08-1]ε#103. ˡ§ȤϲפǼ2Ĥοޤɽ蘆ƤϡΤˡ§̾ˤդ路
Grimm's Law (1822) ɽư衤ʬŪԵ§ϵդƤꡤGrimm ǯǤ1863ǯˤ Hermann Grassmann ͤʤɤƤ뤬ǽŪˤ1875ǯ Karl Verner (1846--96) ˤ Verner's Law ([2009-08-09-1]) 뤳ȤˤäơԵ§ä줿
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
Ѹˤˤƥե줬ѸͿƤƶˤĤƤϡfrench ¿εǼ夲ƤűѸ˻ޤǡŪʱƶϤۤʩѤؤΰǤꡤαƶϡѸ줬ŪϤäƤ18ʹߤˤʤäƽơѸǧȤäƤ褤ʥۡॺåġp. 147ˡ
Ѹ˰̱²֥ƥϤľˤϡѤʩؤθŪƶŪ˳ǧ롥äȤ⡤θѸʩȸƤ֤Τϡ̩ˤŬڤɸɽˤʤäƤ뤬ʲ˵طʤȤǰƬˤΤϡAnglo-Frisian Gallo-Roman ȤʳǤθܿǤ뤳ȤǤäƤ
ޥϡ[k] [ʧ] ؤѲ (palatalisation) Ф Anglo-Frisian 췲Ȥʳθ췲ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥Ф Anglo-Frisian üԤΰϡ5̱²ưΰĤȤƥեذϤƤꡤArtois Boulogne դ꽻ƤȤ̾ξڵ¿롥ΤȤˡAnglo-Frisian Gallo-Roman ˤĤθŪʱƶͿǽ롥Martinet (5) ƤŪ
嵭 Anglo-Frisian ŪʸƶڤܤǽȿǤȤƤϡƥ caballum ϡˤե cheval ϡˤؤθƬҲοܤ롥եʵڤӥץ˰ʳΥޥǤ /k/ ݤƤ뤳Ȥ顤Anglo-Frisian δͿͤ롥
ե savon Фˤϡޥĸ *saipōn ͳ褹˴Ť1첻ϡ zeep ɥĸ Seife 첻ǤϤʤűѸ sāpe 첻ȿǤƤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤե hâte ʵޤˤ⥲ޥ줫μѤȸ haifsts ˼褦2첻ϡťեꥸ hāst (cf. űѸ hǣst) Ĺ첻褯ȿǤƤʥ haast ɥĸ Hast ϸ˥ե줫Ѥ줿ΡˡƱ첻Сե est ˤ첻ϡ oost ɥĸ Ost ⡤űѸ ēast 첻ˤᤤ
嵭㤬ĥƤ褦ʸܿȿǤǤȷŤ뤿ˤϡͿ֤βбȳƸβѲȤܺ٤ˤĤ碌뤳Ȥɬפθܿβϡޥ²ΰɤΦ֥ƥϤˡե꽻̲ᤷƤ椯Ѥפ벾Ǥꡤ̣롥
ޥ²Υ֥ƥؤΰܽ˴ؤϿޤϡ[2010-05-21-1]ε#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽפȡޥηޤʬۿޤϡ[2009-05-08-1]ε#9. ȸGothicˤȱѸˡפȡ
U. T. ۡॺA. H. å إեˡ١罤ۡ1974ǯ
Martinet, André. "Comment les Anglo-Saxons ont-ils accédé à la Grande-Bretagne?" La Linguistique 32.2 (1996): 3--10.
ε#976. syntagma marking ([2011-12-29-1]) Ǽ夲ϺΤäΤϡ˸زˤơ̳ƻؤΡ֥ޥΡnæפȷƻѲΡʸˡספꤹ븦ȯɽΤʤǤ̾ƤǤ롥
űѸ䡤ʬŪѸˤ⸫줿ޥηƻѲŵŪʸ -n ǤƤ椯ȤˤäơʤΰפȤʸˡŪǽͭƤѲζηϤʸˡפƤ椯ˤĤ븦ȯɽä-n ޤƻѲ˾üƤޤäΤǤʸˡⲿʤ櫓꤮ΤȤ -e ʤɤ첻ĤäƤꡤǤƤθϤĤƤΤ褦Ūʰפ櫓ǤϤʤȤȾüʳĤΥޥ˸롥㤨СեꥫǤϡĤƤζͳ褹 -e ̵ͭϡƻ촴ηŪˤäƼưŪ˷ޤäƤΤǤꡤŪʾϴƤʤȤ
ϡƻʸˡȤϡ̤θС줬ַƻ̾פϢ뤹ñʤ֥ơספƤȤȤǤȻŦ롥֥ơספȤϡƻ̾Ϣ٤뤿첻 -n ֤˶߹Ȥ syntagma marker ȤƤƯˤۤʤʤϲ (euphony) ȤƤΩĤȻפ졤Ūǽϸ¤ʤ夤ȤƤ⡤¸߰յޤäʤȤȤˤϤʤʤޤ¿ΥޥǡˡǤϷƻζݤˤȤ¤뤬ϴط̾ȤϢ٤ˡξ夤Ǥ
ޤޡܲѸηƻηϤ (ilame) ˴ؿΤǡβDzŪ˻ĤäƤƻϡޤ syntagma marker ȤơĤʤΡ֥ơספȤơǽƤˤʤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤȡȯɽİƻפäǤ롥
ѸΤƻϾüˤʤʤ⡤֤Ȥʤ館ƤŪʰפΰռƻĤäƤ椨Ȥͤ뤬Ȥ̤ˡŪ syntagma marking ä椨뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤspeculative ǤϤ뤬ɷŪʵȤʤꤦ롥
Ϻظء١罤ۡ1981ǯ
[2011-07-02-1]ε#796. Ѹ˵ӱƳ줿ŪװפǡޥɤħŪʱͼȤƤƬ (alliteration) ˤĤտŪ˿줿ƬȤϡťɸαʸ Edda űѸαʸŵŪ˸ƱλҲʤȤ첻ˤܤƶ벻ȿ뤳ȡסʡؿѸؼŵ١ˤħȤǤ롥űѸŵŪƬĹԤˤ aa:ax Ȥ롥
ѸˤΦӱ⤿餵졤ƬϱƤʤä14ˤϥǸŪ褷ǤϡƬȾ (a-verse) aa ɸಽƬ (alliterative phrase) ȸƤФäθɽޤ줿㤨С "man on earth" ɽ魯 gome vnder Gode, man vpon molde, segge vnder sunne ʤɤ֤Ѥ줿ѸˤƬΡפʸ̤ʤΤ뤤ϸűѸηѾʤΤطʤˤĤƤϾܤʬäƤ餺Ѹ˾塤ʸػ˾ȤʤäƤ롥
ѸȡƬϻԤιȤƤѤ졤äѤŪǤȤʤä㥤 (chiming effect) ⤿餹Ƭεˡϡ̣ǤϸŪȤʸ˸¤餺Ѷ硤ɸ졤ɽꡤȤФʤɤˤơߤˤޤǹѤ³Ƥ롥Ѹ줫褦
(1) : flimflam, tittle-tattle
(2) ж硦Ѷ: bed and breakfast, birds and beasts, cash and carry, confidence and cowardice, footloose and fancy-free, from top to toe, house and home, part and parcel, through thick and thin, with might and main
(3) Ūľ (intensifying simile) 뤤ݸŪľ (proverbial simile): as blind as a bat, as bold as brass, as brisk as a bee, as clear as crystal, as cool as a cucumber, as dead as a door-nail, as dry as dust, as fit as a fiddle, as good as gold, as green as grass, as hungry as a hawk, as mad as a March hare, as queer as a Quaker, as strong as Samson, as sweet as summer
(4) : Birth is much but breeding is more; Care killed the cat; Hold with the hare, and hunt with the hound; Look before you leap; Soon ripe, soon rotten; Wilful waste makes woeful want
(5) Ȥ (tongue-twister): Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers
(6) : Guinness is good for you, You can be sure of Shell
(7) ʸŪ: fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute (Milton); solid, so still and stable (J. Conrad); the great grey-green, greasy Limpopo River (Kipling)
(8) ɽ: Love's Labour's Lost (Shakespeare); Mice and Men (J. Steinbeck); Pride and Prejudice (J. Austen); Twice-Told Tales (N. Hawthorne)
ʾΤ褦ˡǤƬˤϱΧŪŪʸŪ䤬ǧ뤬ƬΤĥޥӸؾΰյ˺ƤϤʤʤűѸʤɤǰۤʤ첻ˤƬƤ¤ϡ첻Ԥĺ (glottal stop) ԤʤƤȤƤꡤʸˤʤƷ (reconstruction) ˴ͿƤ롥ޤ/sp/, /st/, /sk/ Ϥ켫ȤȤƬʤȤ顤2碌ƲŪñ̤ʤƤ餷Ȥ狼롥ƬϡΤ褦˸ŲοȤӸؾνפ˸ƤƤΤǤ롥
Ϣơ[2010-07-08-1]ε֤ˤƸŲꤹ뤫פ[2011-05-25-1]ε#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2)פȡ
ѸˤǤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƵäηϤδñޤοʿ (levelling) ñ㲽 (simplification) ȤѸɽΤ̤Ǥ롥Ʊͤθݤ¿쾯ʤ¾ΥޥǤƤȤϡε#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ˤƤǤʿñ㲽ȤѸ줬ŬѤ
O'Neil ϡޥ˸ޤοϡΤ˶̤٤2ĤѸ neutralization simplification ˤäƵҤ٤ȶĴƤ롥줾ϡO'Neil (283) ˤȼ̤ꡥ
(A) If there is significant and more-or-less permanent contact between two closely related languages differing for the most part only in superficial aspects of their grammars (inflections, accent, tone, etc.), these superficial differences will be rapidly neutralized or erased. (283)
(B) Without language contact, inflectional systems will simplify only so far as there is room available for easing learning without greatly decreasing perceptibility. (283)
ĤޤȤܿȤʤäʸˡƥζ̤褦ʸηϤδñ neutralization ȸƤӡܿȤϴطʤؽγФ˴ؤüԤθ쿴Ū˴ŤƼ˿ʹԤηϤδñ simplification ȸƤʬ٤ȡO'Neil ϼĥƤ롥Ū˸Сneutralization ǡȤƷ㤷Ѥǥϡsimplification Ͼ˾ĺѤƤ륢ʥϤª
ѸǥޥζηϤδñƵҤȡΤ褦ˤʤIcelandic High German ʤɤŪݼŪʸǤϡȤ simplification ˤηϤδñΤߤѻΤФơñѸ졤Φʥӥ졤եꥫʤɤǤϡsimplification ˲äơܿˤäư줿 neutralization Ѥ
űѸŪ˿ʹԤƤޤδñťΥɸȤܿˤ®ȤŪϡǤϹƤ뤬Τ˶̤2ĤѸˤʤȤˡO'Neil ΰյ롥˿ʹԤƤץ (simplification) ΤޤޱĹ줿ΤǤϤʤñȤ̣Ǥϰˤ뤳ȤǤΤΡťΥɸȤܿˤͶȯ줿̤Υץ (neutralization) ˤäƸ岡줿ȹͤƤפǤ롥
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơŪ졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥
Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)
ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյäפȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥
It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)
ˡѸΦʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥
. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)
¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥
. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)
ǸˡϿλշǼޤŪʶ٤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥
. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
ޥʸˡѲۤƤפ2ĤװˤĤơ[2011-02-11-1]εֶޤο캬ξפ Meillet Ѥ1ĤϡָƬζ캬˿ʽͿפȤǤꡤ⤦1ĤϡָοबޤפǤ뤳Ȥ2Ĥװϡݲ1ĤκŪħؤȴԸ롥ʶȡˤ1ȤħǤ롥
ָ촴1˶פȤޥħˤĤƤϡ֥ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]), 1˥ȤΤʤűѸñ ([2009-10-31-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤMeillet ϡޥħȾΤ뤤ĤΤʤǤǤפħǤǸ롥ơħĸˤϸʤäȤ顤ޥ²ˤ뤽ȯϳ̿Ūä⤹ΤǤ롥ĤǰѤ롥
L'introduction de l'accent d'intensité à une place fixe, l'initiale, a été une révolution, et rien ne caractérise davantage le germanique. (72)
ƬȤꤷ֤ؤζȤƳϳ̿äΤǤꡤʾ˥ޥħŤΤϤʤ
Ȥĸϰ²⳰ˤ¸ߤ롥²Ǥϡ㤨Х䥢ɸʤɤ롥²ΤȤƤħͭΤϥޥ²ΤߤǤꡤʤΤ Meillet Ϥ
En germanique,... l'accent sur l'initiale est une propriété du groupe tout entier, et il a une force singulière qui a manifesté ses effets durant tout le développement historique de ce groupe. (73)
ޥˤƤϡƬȤϸ²ΤȤƤħǤꡤ²Ūȯã̤Ƹ̤路ƤðۤϤäƤΤǤ롥
Ǥϡγ̿ŪħϤɤΤ褦˥ޥ²ˤ⤿餵줿ΤMeillet ϴظƶ ( substratum theory ) Ƥ (75) ˥ޥȤʤ轻̱θħȤγˤĤƤ[2010-06-17-1]εSecond Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤäפ[2011-02-06-1]ε֥˥ȥˡ§פǤ줿ȿǽ餳̥Ū˶ޥ²ۤħȤȤϡѸΤۤƤħȤ櫓ǤꡤˤϱѸ̤ۤħȤȤˤʤΤ
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1]εǡ̾ưפεäƤε[2011-07-07-1]Ǥϡ̾פʬϥޥߤƬη뤬ưפٻưŤޤǤȤʸϤĤ
ˤϤưŤ褦˻פ롥̾ưȯζ̲Ǥ롥̾ưʤ diatones Υڥ[2009-11-01-1]εȤ¿뤬ֻ϶̤ĤʤΤΡȯΤ˶̤롥ʻž (conversion; see [2009-11-03-1]) դȤѸΤȤǤ뤫顤ȤƱȯζ̤ĤʤȤŪ˺ȤϤʤǤΰ֤ʻζ̤ĤʤС˱ۤȤϤʤȤȤǤϤʤ
[2011-02-11-1]εֶޤο캬ξפǽҤ٤̤ꡤѸˤ϶פȤ drift ˤäȯ캬ȤǤ⤤٤ħ롥캬 conversion Ȥβ¥ʤƤȤϳΤʻζ̤ѶŪˤʤȤظƤΤǤϤʤʣʸФʻžȤ˸ƤΤǤꡤʻζ̤ۣˤ뤳ȤȤ櫓ʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤʻζ̤ݤäޤޡĺǾ¤θǡ㤨С̾줫ưǤ̯ˡС˱ۤȤϤʤơξ˱̯ˡȤơ̾ưȤʬԤ߽Ф줿ΤǤϤʤ̾ǤưǤ캬Ʊưƶ̤ݤ --- ̯ˡȸƤФƲȸƤܤconversion ¥ʤ륲ޥŪ drift Ť˵դ餦ʵǽŪ (functionalist) Ĭή --- Ѹ̾ưθݤΤ褦ª뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1]εǡ̾ưפε˴ϢơޥȤƤطʤϢϡ[2011-04-15-1]εֱѸζѥѸѼפǤⰷä
Ѹ¿¿ʼȤƥƥեѸˤǶʬۤ̾ưȤʤ뤳θݤˤĤơBolinger ̾ʤӷƻˤưʸǤΰ֤κۤȤƤ롥ʲ˴ϢսѤ롥
. . . stress patterns are apt to congeal in the way position in the sentence may predispose them, which means that nouns and adjectives will tend to be forestressed, verbs to be end-stressed, and ultimately, in many cases, to carry this stress with them regardless of position. (164)
English seems to be more averse to postponing the first of the two major accents than to anticipating the second. While nouns and adjectives are certainly free to occur in terminal positions, their somewhat greater frequency early in the sentence brings them under the influence of this more consistent pull to the left. The pull to the right at the end is weaker, except in emphatic utterances, but since verbs are less free to roam they are more apt to it. (164fn)
Bolinger εʤȯŸȼΤ褦ˤʤŪ12¿ϡǥեȤǤϸƬ1ۤ롥ϡѸʤȤ⥲ޥˤζʤȿǤΤǤ (see [2009-10-26-1]) ä̾ƻ줬ʤȿǤΤϡʸŪᤤʳǸΨ⤤Ǥ롥̾ƻ¾θ٤ʸǤΰ֤¤ξʤǤꡤʸˤƸ뤳ȤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨ư٤ʸƬˤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ȤȤǤ롥
ưϾҤʤŪ˽ˤưʸǤΰ֤̾ƻۤɼͳǤϤʤʸˤΨ⤤ѸȥѥǤʸκǸˤ붯ˤȤʤΤǡʸ֤䤹ưθۤ2岽Ψ㤤̾ƻФơ2ݤ䤹ΤϤΤǤ롥 associate, duplicate, estimate ʤɤ -ate ĸ¿ϡ̾ǤϺǽ첻ۣ첻Ȥʤ뤬ưǤ2ݤƤ뤳Ȥա
ʸΤɤΰ֤Ū˸䤹ȤǤ̾졦ƻưκۤ줾ʻˤ2οκۤˤĤʤäƤȤ϶̣ޤǤεȤС̾ưʬۤˤɤĤޤǤȰǤ롥̾ζǸǤޤäưϤޤ2ĤäƤ롥줬1˳ʾ夲줵СưפȤʤ롥Ǥϡγʾ夲ưŤϲäΤBolinger ϤޤǤϽҤ٤Ƥʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
[2009-06-17-1]ε֥ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤͷӤǡפ˷Ǥޤ䡤[2009-05-08-1]ε֥ȸGothicˤȱѸˡפ˷Ǥޥɤηޤʬ褦ˡŪ˱Ѹ˺Ǥᤤեꥸ (Frisian) Ǥ롥̤ˤϤۤȤǧΤƤʤθ줬Ūʸ줿Ѹ˺ǤᤤȸƤԥʤȻפ롥Ϥ Frisian ȤˤĤƳ⤹롥
Frisian ϡProto-Indo European -> Germanic -> West Germanic -> Low Germanic -> Anglo-Frisian ȤȯãϩѸȶͭƤ롥Ǹ Anglo-Frisian ȤʬϡҤ뤤ĤβħξǶͭƤ뤳Ȥ˴Ťʬꤹ븫⤢롥ξˤϡOld Frisian Old English Low Germanic ľ˥եåȤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ߤ Frisian ʬۤϿdzǧ褽ĤǰϤäʬ Frisian ιԤʤƤϰǤ롥ʥʬξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue θʬϿ⻲ȡ

Ethnologue: Frisian in Family Tree ˤȤꡤFrisian Ū3Ĥؤȶʬ롥֤뤤κۤϤޤޤǡǽǤʤȤ¿3ΤʤǼפ Western Frisian Ǥ롥Ethnologue: Western Frisian Ƥ2001ǯĴˤȡ̳פ Friesland ޤˤ濴Ȥ47ͤüԤ¸ߤ롥Ʊο70% Western Frisian äۤȤɤȤѼԤǤ롥20 "Frisian movement" ˤ West Frisian θŪϰ̤Ͼ徺ƤƤꡤθѸ1ĤȤƤοưϿʤǤƤ롥
Friesland ˹ɥĤαϰ褫ǥޡˤƹԤʤƤΤFrisian ̤νǤ롥ɥĤ Saterland 5000٤ä Saterfriesisch ˤ䡤ɥĤ Schleswig-Holstein α礦1٤üԤˤäƻѤƤ Northern Frisian ̤ˤʤǤˡƱɥĤ Ostfriesland, Lower Saxony ʤɤ2000٤üԤͭ Eastern Frisian ȸƤФ줬뤬̾Τʶ路Ȥˡ̩ˤ Frisian 1ѼȤ Low German 1ѼȤۤŬڤȤ롥
Frisian κǸŤʸϡʬŪ11̤ˡΧʸǡ13μܤǸ¸Ƥ롥ɽ蘆Ƥ Old Frisian ʳ16Ⱦޤ³1573ǯΤΤȤʸǸˡʹ3δ Frisian ǻĤ줿ʸϤۤȤɤߤĤäƤʤ19ˤʤȡRomanticism ˤ̱²ȤƤ Frisian ܤ졤1938ǯ Frisian Academy Ω졤1943ǯˤǤ줿 Frisian ưϾˤҤ٤Ȥꡤ˥ȤȤˤäƻٻƤ Western Frisian ˤäǤꡤʳνˤɸʤ˺¸³βǽȹͤƤ롥
Frisian ȱѸ˶̤벻ħȤƤϡ(1) Germanic *f, *þ, *s Ԥɡξü ( ex. OFr fīf "five" ( < Germanic *fimf ), OFr mūth "mouth" ( < Germanic *munþ- ), OFr ūs "us" ( < Germanic *uns ) ) 䡤(2) 첻Ԥ Germanic *g θ ( ex. OFr tzin "chin" ( < Germanic *kinn ), OFr lētza "leech, physician" ( < Germanic *lēkj- ) ) ʤɤ롥
[2009-11-04-1]εָűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫פǡޥΡ֥ޥ١פӤӤδϡȤƷŪʴ Lass ӽФ10Ĥιܤˤ롥10ܤޥ٤λɸȤƤɤΤ餤ҴŪʤΤɤΤ褦ӽФ줿ΤʤɤϤ뤬ӸԤʤݤΤȤƤ˻ͤˤʤ롥Lass (26) ꡤ10ܤƤ
(1) root-initial accent
(2) at least three distinct vowel qualities in weak inflectional syllables
(3) a dual
(4) grammatical gender
(5) four vowel-grades in (certain) strong verbs
(6) distinct dative in at least some nouns
(7) inflected definite article (or proto-article)
(8) adjective inflection
(9) infinitive suffix
(10) person and number marking on the verb
δϡޥɤӤ˸¤餺㤨ѸɤӡˤѸθġΥƥȤθӤˤѤǤ롥ºݤΤȤ¿ѸƥȤδܤΥȥˤ褦ʸŪҤϡ嵭10ܤΤ٤ƤǤʤȤܤ夲Τ̤Ǥ롥
ѸƥȤӤ˸¤ΤǤСĿŪˤ "nominal plural formation" äȤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 7--41.
Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia ꡤѸˤ˴ϢͭפʸϿޤĤȤǤ롥ǤΤǥץ쥼ʲ˥ĥäƤ
Approximate locations of Indo-European languages in contemporary Eurasia ʴϢư²ηޤϡ[2009-06-17-1], [2010-07-26-1]ȡ *
Distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe ʴϢƥޥɤηޤϡ[2009-10-26-1]ȡ *
Distribution of Romance languages in Europe *
Distribution of the Slavic languages in Europe *
The distribution of Old English dialects *
The distribution of Middle English dialects ѸʬˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-04-1]ȡ *
English Language Imperialism: The English Language Across the World ˤѸιˤĤƤϡ[2010-05-08-1]ȡ *
[2009-10-26-1]ε (1) ǿ줿褦ˡޥɤħ1Ĥˡƻ줬Ѳ ( strong or indefinite declension ) ȼѲ ( weak or definite declension ) 2ζޤȤΤ롥ζ̤ϸѸǤϼƤ뤬űѸ丽ɥĸǤΤǧ롥ξޤλȤʬϸ§ȤŪ˷졤ƻ줬ؼ ( demonstrative ) θѤˤϼѲޤʳξˤ϶ѲޤʸűѸѲѲΥѥȡޤѸηƻޤȤδϢ[2010-10-11-1]ȡ
ޥɤħȤȤʬ褦ˡĸǤϤζ̤ϤʤäĸǤϡƻͭζޤ⤿̾˽सʤˤäƶޤƤƻ֤̾ȹͤƤΤǤ롥ȤޥĸʳǷƻϷŪ̾줫Υ졤ΩηϤݻƤؼȿ¤褦ˤʤ롥줬űѸʤɤ˸붯ѲޤεǤ롥ºݤ˸űѸǶɽ٤ȡƻζѲ þes ɽؼζϸ褯Ƥ롥
ؼȷƻ줬Ʊ褦ʶޤȤȤϡֻؼܷƻ̾פΤ褦ξԤ³ƸˤƱϢ³뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ뤵㤨С"to this good man" бűѸɽ *þissum gōdum men ȤƸ뤳Ȥˤʤä⤷ʤʼºݤθűѸʸˡ§ þissum gōdan men ˡMeillet (183) ˤСޥϤΡֽŶ줷 ( "lourd" or "choquant" ) ؼ˸³ƻΤˡޤŶ줷ʤޤȤơ褯ȯãƤ̾μѲڤƤơŪˤäƶ̤2ηƻޤޥɤ˸ͭħȤȯãΤǤ롥 Meillet ΡֽŶ줷ײ¾ˤʣװäȹͤ뤬̤Ĵ
űѸμפʻδʰɽˤĤƤϡ[2010-01-02-1]ǥĥä OE Inflection Magic Sheet ⻲ȡ
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
[2011-01-28-1]εǡѸǶΤ벻κǽˤ s+ ̵פλҲϢ© ( aspiration ) ȼʤȤ夲ħϸΥޥ˶̤Ƹ뤳Ȥ饲ޥĸˤΤܤħȹͤ졤ĸ줫ʬȤ Grimm's Law ( see [2009-08-08-1], grimms_law ) 䡤˹ϥޥȤ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ( see [2010-06-06-1] ) ʤɤλҲܤ˴ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤä
⤽⡤Ѹʤ¾Υޥˤˤ s Ԥ p, t, k ̵ȤʤΤʤʤΤˤĤ[2011-01-28-1]ŪäƱνβؼԤ˳ǧäƤߤȤ˾ɬפȤʤäΤǵƤǤϡֵ©ϡγ٤ƸƵϳȤݤ/s/ ϤȤȸƵϳȼäƤ뤿ˡľǸƵäߤᡤ餿٤餻ϳ餹ȤȤˤפȤѸ /s/ ʵ©Ȥߤʤۤɶ˸ƵϳȼäƤȤΤΤʵҤǤϤʤä/s/ Τ aspirated ǤϤʤƱνŪϴˤǤʤäΤΡ s Ĵľθεξ֤³ aspiration ˺ѤפȤȤϵƤȤ
ǡɬŪǤϤʤȤ⤢Ȥs Ԥ줿̵©ȤȤĴ뤳ȤϷ褷ԲǽǤϤʤñ˸줴Ȥΰ۲ʬۤꡤ ( phonotactics ) ǤȤ⤢ȤŪɤΤ餤Ǥ뤫ȽǤˤϹ̸Ū˲ʬۤߤɬפΤ
λҲϢʤ̵ȤʤΤϤΤ褦̤Τޤޤˡ§ȤδϢǤϡ䤤˺ˤФɬפϤʤͳʬʤ⤷ʤޥĸ줬¾ΰɤʬ졤s ԤݻΤΡǤʤȼηηŪ˿ܤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤΤǤ롥
ε[2011-02-12-1]Ǥ夲ޥɤΰŪħ⤷ Meillet ϡѸ줬²ΤʤǤðۤѲ뤲Ǥ뤫⤷Ƥ롥ޥˤϰĸθΰæˤǤꡤΤʤǤѸä˰æ٤㤷ȤФ餯 Meillet Caracteres ɤǤǸ1ڡ˾嵭ΥޥѡѸѤŽ̤Ƥ롥"CONCLUSION GÉNÉRALE" ĤǰѤ褦
Le germanique commun, fait à peu près tout entier d'éléments indo-européens, et dont l'aspect est à beaucoup d'égards encore tout indo-européen, était déjà en réalité un système nouveau. En développant les innovations qu'il présentait, les dialectes en lesquels il s'est différencié ont abouti à des états de choses qui s'éloignent de plus en plus de l'indo-européen. Le groupe de tous le plus conservateur, le groupe allemand, a pourtant une grammaire tout autre que la grammaire indo-européenne et un vocabulaire pénétré de mots étrangers, de valeurs étrangères de mots. Et, là où les circonstances historiques ont hâté le développement, presque rien n'est resté du type indo-européen de la langue : en anglais, la prononciation est éminemment singulière, la grammaire est d'un type qui est le plus loin possible du type indo-européen, et le vocabulaire ne laisse presque plus apparaître que bien peu de termes anciens avec leur sens ancien. A l'indo-européen, l'anglais est lié par une continuité historique; mais il n'a presque rien gardé du fonds indo-européen. (Meillet 221)
ޥĸϡۤȤɤ٤ưǤʤäƤꡤħ¿Ǥޤ˰ŪǤäºݾϤǤ˿ηϤǤäޥĸ줫ʬϡĸ줬ƤȯŸʤ顤ޤޤĸ줫ЪΥ줿֤ãΤʤǺǤݼŪʸ췲Ǥɥĸ췲Ǥ顤ĸʸˡȤϤޤäۤʤʸˡäƤꡤñȳθ줿ääƤ롥ơŪʾˤꤽȯŸ¥ʤ줿Ǥϡ쥿פħϤۤȤɻĤƤʤΤǤ롥˱ѸǤϡȯäǤꡤʸˡϰ쥿פǽʸ¤꤫ΥƤꡤäϸṬ̌äŤۤζϤФɽ魯ˤʤѸŪ³ˤäƳΤ˰ĸ˷դƤ롥ѸϰĸܼۤȤɲݤäƤʤΤǤ롥
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
ѸʸˡˤˤơޤοβϺǤ礭ȸäƤ褤⤷ʤűѸѸˤޤοˤꡤѸŪʸ ( synthetic language ) ʬŪʸ ( analytic language ) ؤ礭ɤڤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ѸʳΥޥǤ٤κϤƱϸ졤ϤФ drift ɺήήפȸƤФ롥䡤¤ drift ϰΤ˹ѻ礭ĬήǤꡤޥ˸ꤵ٤ǤϤʤȤϤޥǤȤ櫓 drift ѻ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥ơΥޥΤʤǤ⡤Ѹ줬Ǥ⸲ drift θ̤ΤǤ롥
Ѹ줬 "the most drifty Indo-European language" Ǥ뤳Ȥˤϡϸ¸Τ줾ˤĤƤɤ drift ʹԤƤΤĴȤȤɬפ⤤ʤΤǺϸҤ礤˽ФƺѤޤƤ
La tendance à remplacer la flexion par l'ordre des mots et par des mots accessoires est chose universelle en indo-européen. Nulle part elle ne se manifeste plus fortement que dans les langues germaniques, bien que le germanique conserve encore un aspect alchaique. Nulle part elle n'a abouti plus complètement qu'elle n'a fait en anglais. L'anglais représente le terme extrême d'un développement: il offre un type linguistique différent du type indo-européen commun et n'a presque rien gardé de la morphologie indo-européenne. (Meillet 191--92)
ޤտ֤뷹ϡǤŪʤȤǤ롥ޥĸϤޤ˸ħݻƤȤϤޥʾ˷㤷ηθϤʤѸʾ˴ˤηϤʤΤѸϤȯãεˤνƤ롥ѸϰĸηȤϰۤʤäηƤΤǤꡤŪʷۤȤݤäƤʤΤ
տפ des mots accessoires ϡMeillet ˤСűѸ ge- ʤɤưƬ̲ -sk Τ褦ʺƵ̾ŪưˤĤؼ줫ȯãȤäؤ
Ȱ鷺ѸϰȤΰüǤ뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥ롥äȤ⡤ԥѸ ( see [2010-08-03-1] ) ʤɤޤСѸ⤵ɺήŪʸϤ
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
ѸθħȤʻž ( conversion ) ǤȤȤ롥ʻžˤĤƤ[2009-11-03-1], [2009-11-01-1]εʤɤǽҤ٤줬Ū˲ǽȤʤäΤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƵäοʿȤ³ü椨Ǥ롥űѸǤϡ̾ưϼ̣Ūʵǽ˱ƶ̤ζȤäβפʤˤĤ졤ζ̤Ĥʤʤäοϡ٤κϤ졤1˥Ȥħĥޥ˶̤θݤǤ ( see [2009-10-26-1] (4) )
Ѹˤʻžȯϡ嵭Τ褦˥ޥ˶̤οࡤɺή ( drift ) αĹˤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ϲŪȤ⤦1ĤȤƤϡ[2010-01-16-1]εǿ줿褦ˡ絬§γΩȴϢŤΤ롥Ѹʹߡ礬褽ޤäȤˤꡤ㤨ư̾ζ̤Ϸ֤ˤ餺ȤˤäƤĤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäΤȤʻžȯ˹Ū˺ѤȤ롥ϡŪȤ롥
ޤŦ줿ȤϤʤ褦˻פ뤬⤦1ġ̣Ū롥νȯϡƤӥޥ˶̤Ҥ drift Ǥ롥ޥˤ drift ν϶ޤοˤȲᤵ뤳Ȥ¿֤ȤƱ餤פʤΤϡỤ̄ô캬˾Ƥ뤳ȤˤʤäȤǤ롥ˤäơ㤨 love ϡʸǤŪϲϲǤ뤫ʤɤβѤξɸô졤ְפȤỤ̄ɸ뤳Ȥ˽椹뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤälove Ȥ֤ϡְפȤŪɽ魯Τò֤Ǥꡤ줬ʸ̾ȤơְפȤѤΤưȤơְפȤѤƤΤϡŪǤʤʻ줫줬ꤷƤ롥ޤοȤŪʲˤϡ캬ξȤ̣Ūʴߤտ路ƤȤȤܤͤ
Le développement grammatical du germanique est donc commandé par deux grands faits: l'intensité initiale a donné aux radicaux une importance nouvelle, la dégradation des finales a tendu à ruiner la flexion, et l'a en effet ruinée dans des langues comme l'anglais et le danois. (Meillet 100)
äơޥʸˡȯã2Ĥνפʻ¤˻ۤƤ롥1ĤϸƬζ캬˿ʽͿȤȤǤꡤ⤦1ĤϸοबޤǤꡤºݤ˱ѸǥޡʤɤθǤƤޤäȤȤǤ롥
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
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