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germanic - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-30 01:44

2022-05-09 Mon

#4760. ʬȸʬͳ礭ۤʤ [infinitive][germanic][morphology][inflection][verb][oe][germanic][indo-european][etymology][suffix]

#4349. ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤ ([2021-03-24-1]) ȤѤʵȴϢơ⤽ξԤͳ褬礭ۤʤˤĤơLass βѤ褦ޤʬˤĤơȤ櫓Ѳưͳ˾Ƥ (Lass 161)

. . . its [= past participle] descent is not always very neat. To begin with, it is historically not really 'part of' the verb paradigm: it is originally an independent thematic adjective (IE o-stem, Gmc a-stem) formed off the verbal root. The basic development would be:
IE PGmc
*ROOT - o - nó->*ROOT - α -nα-


Ѳư˴ؤ¤ꡤʬư캬ˤϤʤȤưѥȤ߹ޤƤʤäȤȤŪˤϡư줫Ωưζΰ㤤ˤ¸
ʬˤϡŪưζΰ㤤˰¸ʤȤ𤬤ä (Lass 163) ˤĤƤϤǤˡ#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã ([2021-03-20-1]) ǰѤȤǤ롥
֤ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤפȤ˸礦äơ⤽ʬȸʬͳ褬礭ۤʤäƤפȤʤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2022-05-09 Mon

#4760. ʬȸʬͳ礭ۤʤ [infinitive][germanic][morphology][inflection][verb][oe][germanic][indo-european][etymology][suffix]

#4349. ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤ ([2021-03-24-1]) ȤѤʵȴϢơ⤽ξԤͳ褬礭ۤʤˤĤơLass βѤ褦ޤʬˤĤơȤ櫓Ѳưͳ˾Ƥ (Lass 161)

. . . its [= past participle] descent is not always very neat. To begin with, it is historically not really 'part of' the verb paradigm: it is originally an independent thematic adjective (IE o-stem, Gmc a-stem) formed off the verbal root. The basic development would be:
IE PGmc
*ROOT - o - nó->*ROOT - α -nα-


Ѳư˴ؤ¤ꡤʬư캬ˤϤʤȤưѥȤ߹ޤƤʤäȤȤŪˤϡư줫Ωưζΰ㤤ˤ¸
ʬˤϡŪưζΰ㤤˰¸ʤȤ𤬤ä (Lass 163) ˤĤƤϤǤˡ#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã ([2021-03-20-1]) ǰѤȤǤ롥
֤ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤפȤ˸礦äơ⤽ʬȸʬͳ褬礭ۤʤäƤפȤʤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2022-05-08 Sun

#4759. to εˬ [infinitive][gerund][germanic][morphology][inflection][verb]

to εˤĤơ#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1]) ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤

to פΤۤϡűѸֻ to ˡҤͿʤ˶ޤ -anne Ȥķ֡ϰ̾ȤäƤ褤ΤʤΤǡ̾줵ʤ˶ޤˤ³


ϡѸˤζʽʤɤǤ褯ŪʵҤ󤷡󼨤ΤǤ롥ȤɬΤǤϤʤ褦Los (144) ˰ۤʤ᤬󼨤ƤꡤΤۤӸŪϤ롥

The etymology of the to-infinitive is often given as a bare infinitive in the complement of a preposition to, but this leaves the gemination ('doubling') of the -n- in the to-infinitive unexplained. The gemination points to the presence of an earlier -j-, probably part of a nominalising suffix. This parallells (sic) the origin of the gerund . . . , and indicates that the to-infinitive is not built on the bare infinitive, which was a much earlier formation, but on a verbal stem, like any other nominalisation:

(57) to (preposition) + ber- (verbal stem) + -anja (derivational suffix) + -i (dative sg) Common Germanic *to beranjōi, Old English: to berenne, Middle English: to beren/bere, PDE: to bear.


Τ˸űѸθ beran ̤̾ȸΩƤͿʤ˶ޤƤ *berane ˤʤ berenne ˤϤʤʤ첻ۤʤ뤷ҲνŤ (gemination) θˤʤФʤʤȤˡƵŤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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2022-03-08 Tue

#4698. ӾӰˡإ衼åѻ硡ؤư٤֥ޥν¯פˤĤ [review][history][germanic]

˲ȤӾӰˤإ衼åѻ硡ؤư١ʴȥ˥ˤɤǤ롥Ȥߺդƽ񤤤˥ܤɤΤ¿ܽ衼åѤܼʬ䤹äƤ롥
ԤϡʸȤƤΥ衼åѡפȤª򤷤Ƥꡤ1012ȾˤΩΥ衼åѤιǤϡ֥ꥷ㡦ޤΡס֥ꥹȶס֥ޥν¯ס֥Ȥ̴ۡפ4Ǥȼĥ (212--13)
ѸˤȤδؤǤϡȤ櫓֥ޥν¯פΩ֤˶̣襤Ƥ롥ʸȤƤΥ衼åѤΤʤDz̤Ƥ֥ޥפϲˤĤơӾ (40--42) Ѥ

ǡ¯䵻ݤˤĤơޥ֥ͤ衼åѡפΤˤĤƤͤƤߤޤ礦衼åѤο͡Ⱦꥹȶ˲褦ˤʤΤϡ۶ȤϤλʪǤǽ̱ΤޤǤοĤΤ俴Ѥ櫓ǤϤޤ󡥰۶Ū¯Ĥȡǧ붵ɤȤĹĹ褤ĤФ礤θ⤺ä³ΤǤ
ޥͤϡҤ¿򿮤Ƥޤϡꥹȶ˲Ƥ⡤ĤϵοäƤꡤɽ̤ΥåääΤǤͿɤʪɤϡ۶Сġ鼫ʪ˽ɤؤεͤޥꥢ¾ͤؤοɤ֤ΤǤˤڤСʤɤ˲Ϥˡ񤬷Ƥ줿ΤǤޤꥹȶʤɤ⡤۶κ׵λ֤ΤǤȤХꥹˤꥹޥϡ¤ϥޤΡԤۡפκ׵֤Ǥ
ꥹȶ񤬡ޥͤν¯Ǥʤˤ뤷ΤϡʡʥꥹȤζˤڤ¿԰٤Ǥϸˡ޺ᵬפȤκʤˤޤȤƵꤵ뤳Ȥˤʤޤʪؤδ꤫ꤤ䡤ǽ»ʤ褦ʹ԰٤񤵤ȳޤ
ϡä뤳ȤΤʤޥޤΤ褦˶ƬޤϲˤޤꡤȤˤɤ褦ʷʮФޤάְ͡üפפϤŵǤ¿̱¯Ȥơդޤ̱á¿Ȥʤä¼Ҳ˻ĤäƤޤ
ۤˡľܥꥹȶڤΤǤϤʤޥͳǤ⤢ޤ²²²Τߤ佬¯ϡȤ˵²Ҳ񡦵μҲΥ١ˤʤäƤäǽפǤޥͤʶˡȤƤ԰٤䡤åڤδ֤Ǥ襤եǡʸҡ²ε̳콲ˤϡȾаʹߤˤĤޤطʤˤ른åڤ̾ǰε²ΤޤĹΨ˰̼ͳ˻Ҥꡤޤޤ£Ϳݸ뤫ˡ緯Τ臘ȤֽפϡŪ罾طȤƻȤޤ
褦ˡ֥ꥷ㡦ޤΡפȤʤǡ֥ޥν¯פ⡤θ塤ˤ衼åѤηȤʤäƤä櫓Ǥ
ʤϤȤ뵻Ѥ̺⡦ϡΤĤʤɤμŪμϤ⤿餷ޤƤʾˡָפפʴͿǤޤζ̸ƥ˥ޥ줬äơ衼åѤγƹ줬ǤäƤΤǤ顥


ѤκǸʬ˸꤬ФƤ롥Ѹ֥衼åѤγƹפ1ĤǤꡤޤѸʹߡޥŪǤȥƥŪǤκ򤬷㤷äƤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥

Ӿ Ӱ졡إ衼åѻ硡ؤư١ȽŹҴȥ˥ӡ2021ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-10-1]

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2022-02-08 Tue

#4670. ˤ֥եꥸκ [frisian][ethnic_group][germanic][sociolinguistics][language_death][academy]

ӸؤǤϡѸȺǤƤθϲȤХեꥸ (Frisian) ȤȤˤʤäƤ롥ܥ֥ǤϱѸˤμդ͡˰äƤեꥸˤĤƤϡ#787. Frisian ([2011-06-23-1]) #3169. űѸ⳰ˤեꥸͤγ ([2017-12-30-1]) Ǽ夲٤ǡޤܤƤʤä
ǶḽΥեꥸξˤĤ󶡤٤֥եꥸκפꤹ̥Ū1Ѥ (262--63) ̱²߽Ф1Ȥƥեꥸ줬夲Ƥս

줬ϤζΰϤˤäƾǤδˤ餵Ƥ⡤̱²ŪޥΥƥǥƥƥ׵᤹뤳Ȥǡθϰ̤θˤĤʤ뤳Ȥ롥եꥸξ礬Ǥ롥եꥸϡѸƱޥ췲γθ췲̥󥰥եꥸ췲ͤ°Ѹ¿ζäƤ롥θ˸ŤˤäƤꡤޤȴطäƤ衼åѤ̱²θǤ롥ĤƥեꥸüԤϡγȤ襤򼨤ȴαĤߤ򤵤ơؤ⤯äƤDeus mare, Friso litora fecitաֿĤꡤեꥸͤߤĤäפȡȤեꥸäҤȤӤȤϡʥե꡼Ƚȥե˥󥲥󽣤˻͡ˤȥɥġʥǥޡȹ񶭤ܤ륷쥹ҡۥ륷奿󽣡ˡ󽣤Τॹȥإॹϡեδ֤ˤϰ衤ߤȤޤäƤΦȤϤʤۤʤƿ͡ˤΤʬƤޤΤʤǥեꥸˤϿषƤ
ưϽȾФ餹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤΤǤϡեꥸ¼ǤäƤʤä줬ˡΧʸˤƥեꥸˤȤäϤ᤿ɤ⡤ˤʤäơΰĹΤȤƥե꡼Ȥ¸ߤȤϡǥƥƥγä¥ȤϡŪʵϤαդĤġθˤޤȤޤäˡ򤢤褦Ȥˤˤϥեꥸǥߡꡤ¤Ƥ롥եꥸ϶ˡΧΰˤϤޤۤȤƳƤʤɤ⡤廰ǯʹ߾عܤȤƳ졤޻ǯȽǿѤǤ褦ˤʤäȤ򸫤ȡθ򿩤ߤ᤿ŪʹưΤǡեꥸϥ˶Ϥ˰褯ƤȤ̸ά͡


֥եꥸǥߡפʤȿ뤳ȤΤʤäΤǶä졤Ѹ졤ɥĸ졤̲ȤŪˤŪˤҲŪˤ⶯ʽζ֤ˤäơޤӤƤȤΤϴפΤ褦ˤפ롥

ɡˡë 𡦺 ľҡˡض̸ --- 衼åѽᤰء١ҡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-01-08-1] [2022-02-09-1]

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2021-07-11 Sun

#4458. Ūʶ --- ޥκħ [stress][germanic][indo-european]

Ѹϡ² (indo-european) Τʤ1ȶǤ륲ޥ (germanic) °롥ɥĸ졤졤ɸ졤եꥸʤɤƱȶθǤ롥ȶθˤϡ¾ȶˤɬѻʤ̤ħ롥ϡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) ˽Ҥ٤ȤǤȤ櫓פʤΤϡޥˤƤϡ˸ŪʶȤȤ¤Ǥ롥
 ǤϡָŪʶȡפȤϲޤ (stress accent) ˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ȤȤϡ벻ܤȤˡ줬ȯ뤫夯ȯ뤫Ȥͥ륮ζδߤȤΤȤǤ롥ˤϡ⤦1̤˹㥢 (pitch accent) ȤΤ롥ܸ줬㥢ȤθʤΤǡȤȤΰ㤤򤷤䤹Ȼפ뤬פ˶ΤΤȯιʥԥåˤˤäƶ̤륢ȤǤ롥ԥΤαդˤȤСƱΥɤθפ򤿤϶ζʥեƤԥΤˤˤäѤΤȤǤꡤƱɤȤäƤ1㤤ɤȹ⤤ɤȤǸ夹Τ㥢ȤȤä褤ܤϡ#2627. Ȥʬ ([2016-07-06-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
 ˡŪʥȤȤΤϡʤʸ̮ˤƤ⡤ζϸ§ȤƤθηޤäȤȤ㤨Сvisit, visits, visited, visiting ʤɤϡۤʤ޸ĤƤ뤱ɡȤѤʤ1Ƥ롥
 ѸؤǤȡָ˸ŪʶȤפΤ褦˻פΤϼ¤ϱѸȤ⥲ޥΤ˶̤ħʤΤǤ롥ơβŪħϡŪˤ⥲ޥβΤߤʤ餺ˤʱƶͿƤޥŪħ¿¤ϤΥȤ˴ؤħʪȤäƤ褤餤ʤΤǤ롥
 ϡѸ˸ԤĤȤ˶ĴƤȤǤ롥ǶѥѥȤ᤯äƤѸ첻θŵ Prins (33) ˤ⡤μݤεҤäΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
 

One of the chief characteristics of the Germanic languages was and still is their strong dynamic accent. Indo-European was characterised by a musical accent which was not fixed, and though in later time this was often replaced by a dynamic accent which was combined with the musical accent, this accent was still free at the time when the Germanic group of dialects began to differentiate from the other Indo-European dialects. The strong dynamic accent of Germanic was, however, fixed and generally fell on the stem or first syllable. This had important results for the vowels in the weaker-stressed syllables . . . .

 
 Prins "dynamic accent" "musical accent" ȤѸϡơ嵭Ρֶȡפȡֹ㥢ȡפɤؤƺ٤ʤѸ --- ƥޥ --- ˤϡ褽ΡָŪʶȡפ˱̿ŤƤȤäƤ褤ۤɽפħǤ롥

Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.

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2021-06-30 Wed

#4447. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ [german][germanic][borrowing][loan_word]

Ѹˤˤƹϥɥĸ (german) о줹뵡˾ʤϡ̣Ǥ϶ä٤Ȥ⤷ʤѸɥĸƱޥɤ°Ūˤ⥤ꥹȥɥĤϤۤɳ֤äƤ櫓ǤʤΤ顤äŪʸήäȤ⤪ʤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƥɥĸȤܿȤʤäƤΤϡäƤΤȤǤ롥Ѹȥɥĸδ֤ˤϡΤ˥ޥɤ֤ȤƤΡַطפ졤ֱƶطפäȤäƤ褤ʷȱƶζ̤ German Germanic ζ̤νˤĤƤϡ#369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#4380. ѸΥ롼ĤϥƥǤɥĸǤʤ ([2021-04-24-1])#4411. German Germanic ΰ㤤 --- 䤳̾ ([2021-05-25-1]) 򻲾ȡ
嵭λǡܥ֥Ǥɥĸ¸ߴ#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])#2621. ɥĸαѸؤܳŪ׸19 ([2016-06-30-1])#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι׸ ([2009-09-24-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ٤Ǥ롥
ϢѤƤ Hendriks ʸΥȥ "English in Contact: German and Dutch" ǤꡤGerman Dutch ΩäƤ櫓High German ΰϡ1/3ڡˤʤ1Τߡʲˤ٤ƤѤƤޤ٤ʬ̤Ǥ롥ʤHendriks (1660) κǽƤ̤ꡤ1117ޤǤθܿǤꡤ18ʹߤζḽˤϹθ鳰Ƥ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥

4.3 Influence from High German
The 16th century is frequently noted as the starting point for lexical influence from High German (Serjeantson 1961: 179; Viereck 1993: 70; Nielsen 2005: 182). During this period, German miners were brought to England to develop the mineral resources industry; it has been suggested (Luu 2005: 31) that the necessary contacts required to recruit southern German miners were established in the late 15th/early 16th century in the commercial center of Antwerp. Some of the words having entered the language as a result of this connection are zinc, cobalt, shale, and quartz. Regarding German influence on English dialects, Wakelin (1977: 23) states: "There has been contact with Germany since the Middle Ages, but from the dialectal point of view it is not until the seventeenth century that there is much to note". Again, this is a reference to mineralogy. A detailed, OED-based study of High German lexical influence on English is Carr (1934). Briefly noting loans prior to 1600, the study focuses primarily on cultural loans in English from the 17th-19th centuries. The words identified are frequently technical scientific terms or are from other domains of influence such as religion, the military, philosophy and music.


16˥ɥĤιפۻѤ٤󥰥ɤˤäƤȤȡޤΤξȾεȥפˤǤƤȤȤϽΤä
ˤѸˤˤƤϡ塤¼ŪˤϸԤʤСɥĸϤޤȤ˸ƤʤȤäƤ褵

Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.

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2021-06-12 Sat

#4429. third d fourth th δط [indo-european][germanic][numeral][grimms_law][verners_law][suffix][metathesis]

62ꡤۿץåȥե Voicy ˤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ꤹͥ򥪡ץ󤷤Ƥޤ10ʬαѸˤۿƤޤϡthird three + the ѷʤΤǽ൬§ŪפȤ夲ޤcf. #92. third βžϤĵä ([2009-07-28-1])#93. third βžϤĵä (2) ([2009-07-29-1])#60. ž ( metathesis ) ([2009-06-27-1])ˡˤĤŪ­äȻפޤ



third -d fourth ʤ4ʾν˸ -th ȵŪƱʪǤꡤ줬ѷΤǤȤݤäޤ绨Ĥˤо嵭̤򤷤ƤƤ褤ΤǤ̩˵Фʤ˹ä𤬤ޤ
²νθˤϤĤμबꡤѸ -th ϢʤͣΤΤǤϤޤǤ3νˤĤƤСƷ줿֤ȤƤϡ-th Ϣʤޤ *tri-to- ⤢С̤ *triy-o Ȥ֤⤢ޤˤʣʺȹͤ *t(e)r(e)tiyo- ⤢ޤκǸΤΤѸ third (< OE þridda) Ϥ뤳Ȥˤʤޤäơthird d -th εǤ *-to- ľϤδطˤϤʤޤǡֺפͳƤδŪʴطȤΤΤʤȤǤŵȤơMallory and Adams (311) ѤƤޤ

The number 'three', *tréyes (neuter: triha), is also marked by different forms for the different genders and was declined as an -i-stem plural (e.g. OIr trī, Lat trēs, NE three, Lith trỹs, OCS trije [m.], tri [f./nt.], Alb tre [m.], tri [f.], Grk treîs, Arm erek ̔, Hit tēri-, Av θrayō [m./f.], θri [nt.], Skr tráyas [m./f.], trī [nt.], Toch B trai [m.], tarya ([f.]). In some languages we have reflections of a very unusual feminine form, *t(r)is(o)res, i.e. OIr teōir, Av tišrō, Skt tisrás. The underlying derivation of *tréyes is generally sought in either *ter 'further', i.e. the number beyond 'two', or from a *ter- 'middle, top, protruding', i.e. the middle finger, assuming one counted on one's fingers in Proto-Indo-European. Again, the probability that either suggestion is correct is very low. The ordinal number is indicated by a variety of forms similar to *triy-o (e.g. Arm eri 'third', Hit teriyan 'third', tariyanalli- '± third officer'), or *tri-to- (e.g. Alb tretê, Grk trítos, Skt tritá-, Toch B trite), or finally *t(e)r(e)tiyo- (e.g. NWels tryddyd, Lat teritius, NE third, Lith trẽčias, Rus trétij, Av θritiya-, Skt tr̥tíya-) which is presumably a conflation of sorts, in various ways, of the previous two while *tris supplies the multiplicative (e.g. Lat ter, Grk trís, Av θriš, Skt tríṣ; despite its apparent phonetic similarity, NE thrice is of a different origin.


嵭̤ꡤѸ third ƸűѸ tridda ķ *t(e)r(e)tiyo- ˤäꤵ졤θλҲ t äȤˤʤޤλҲϽȯãХˡ§ (grimms_law) ˤ θ ȯãƤϤꤵޤ³ƤƱȯã֥å졤ͥˡ§ (verners_law) ˽äͭ ð Ȥʤꡤ줬æ໤ d ȤʤޤΰϢήϡűѸ fæder (> PDE father) d ǧΤȤޤäƱήǤcf. #480. father ȥͥˡ§ ([2010-08-20-1])ˡˤĤƤ Lass (214) ѤƤޤ礦

3rd. Go þridja, OE þridda, OIc þriþe. This is not entirely suppletive, as it still obviously contains the root for '3'. But the formation is different from that of the other ordinals, involving a suffix */-tjo:-/ (cf. L ter-ti-us). The E, WGmc forms must go back to a variant with an accented suffix, hence the voiced dental from Verner's Law. ModE third is metathesized from þridda (cf. bird < OE bridd, dirt < Osc drit).


ʤĸ٥ǤϡѸ -th Ϣʤ */-to-/ 456νΤߤƤϤޤꡤޥˤ7ʾνˤդ褦ˤʤäΤϡ (analogy) ˤΤǤ (Lass 215) ѸǤ4ʾν -th Ǥ줤·äƤ褦˸ޤȤȤϤǤϤʤäȤˤʤޤ

Mallory, J. P. and D. Q. Adams. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-17-1]

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2021-05-25 Tue

#4411. German Germanic ΰ㤤 --- 䤳̾ [onomastics][khelf_hel_intro_2021][sobokunagimon][german][germanic][comparative_linguistics][terminology][language_myth]

ѸˤϤ䤳̱²̱̾̾̾¿ޤ̱²̱⤿ƤʣʸͭˤäƤƤΤǡɽ魯䤳ʤäƤޤΤפΤʤȤ⤷ޤ󡥤ɸ2ϤˤƤ򾷤䤹ǤϺDZ˰֤ŤڥȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦#4380. ѸΥ롼ĤϥƥǤɥĸǤʤ ([2021-04-24-1]) ǿ줿褦ʸޤΤ̵̤ȤǤ
θƾΤȤƤ German ϡ֥ɥĸפؤޤGermanic ӸŪ˺Ʒ줿֥ޥġ˸ (= Proto-Germanic) ؤޤƻȤƤϡԤϡ֥ޥġ˸Ρפ뤤ϡΥޥġ˸줫췲θؤơ֥ޥɤΡפۤɤ̣ޤ
ֱѸƳ2021꺣Ҳ𤹤륳ƥĤϡޤˤ2Τ䤳˾ƤˤA Succinct Account of German and GermanicǤѸˤ벻ƥĤȤʤäƤޤ
¼ŵˤ German ϡ֥ɥĿ͡ɥĸ졨ɥĤΡפۤɡGermanic ϡ֥ޥġ˸졨ޥϤΡɥŪʡפۤɤȤʤޤǤˤλʬˤǤ͡ؽѱѱѼŵ OALD8 ˤȡơ褽̤Ǥ

German
   adjective:
      from or connected with Germany
   noun:
      1 [countable] a person from Germany
      2 [uncountable] the language of Germany, Austria and parts of Switzerland

Germanic
   adjective:
      1 connected with or considered typical of Germany or its people
      2 connected with the language family that includes German, English, Dutch and Swedish among others


ƻȤƤϡ"connected with Germany" ̹ȤʤäƤޤϤʬä褦ʬʤ褦ʶ̤Ǥ
ξζ̤򤹤ǻͤˤʤΤϳƸνǯǤGerman νФϡ̾ȤƤ1387ǯƻȤƤ1536ǯǡŤȤޤGermanic ϤޤƻȤ1539ǯ˽Ф֥ޥġ˸פ̣̾ȤƤϤ٤1718ǯΤȤǤĤޤ֥ޥġ˸פθϡѸȤƤθդθʬޤ
դǤФȯζߤ褫Ƹ򾷤ʤ̤ѸǤ餤äȤǤ䡤¤ΤȤӸؤǤϡ֥ޥĸפؤΤ Teutonic (cf. Ѹ Dutch, ɥĸ Deutsch) Ȥ̤ѸѤ봷ŤϤäΤǤˡʶ路 Germanic ɤΤȤ夷ƤޤäȤȸ虜ޤ
Ϣơ#3744. German λؼоݤŪѲȸ츻 ([2019-07-28-1]) ȡ#864. Ʒ줿̾ ([2011-09-08-1]) ⤴ɤ

ʸ嵭2021/05/26(Wed)Ҳ𤷤ƥĤʸǤ'German' 'Germanic' ˤĤƤγнȤƸɽޤΤǡ⤷Ƥޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-30-1]

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2021-05-08 Sat

#4394. ֵ2פαѸ [khelf_hel_intro_2021][etymology][comparative_linguistics][indo-european][oe][lexicology][loan_word][germanic][italic][latin][french][edd][grimms_law][etymological_respelling][lexicology][semantic_field]

²Ǥϡֵפȡ2פ̩ܤʴطˤޤܸǤ󿴤򤤤סʡʿġˤȤ褦ˡ2Ĥδ֤ɤưɽݤˡ2פؤäƤȤΤǤ뵤ޤǤξԤδطϤϤ뤫ǻ̩ǡäΥ٥ηŪ˸߲ƤΤǤ
ֱѸƳ2021Τر줿ֵϤĤ 2 ġϡλ¤ˤĤӸؤδܺ٤˲⤷ƥĤǤӸؤ츻˴ؿΤɼԤˤȤäơ˳ڤƤȤʤäƤޤ
嵭ƥɤСθäΤʤˡֵפȡ2פǻ̩ʴط򸫽ФȤǤޤǵ䤬ͯޤʤ²ΰǤѸθäˤϡΤ褦ʴطۤȤɸʤΤǤ礦ƥĤ1ˡΤ褦ˤޤ

ɸŪʱѸˤϥޥΡ2ͳΡֵפ̣ñϻĤäƤʤEnglish Dialect Dictionary Online ˤХ󥰥Υåեɥ㡼٤Υåץ㡼 tweag/tweagle ֵǡפȤñ줬ĤäƤ롥


ǸΡĤäƤפ˥ҥȤޤƥǤ⿨ƤȤꡤŤϱѸˤɥĸ¾ΥޥΤ褦 "two" ˤȤŤֵפδϢ줬̤¸ߤΤǤűѸ켭򳫤ȡäȼΤ褦ʸФ򸫤Ĥ뤳ȤǤޤ

twēo "doubt, ambiguity"
twēogende "doubting"
twēogendlic "doubtful, uncertain"
twēolic "doubtful, ambiguous, equivocal"
twēon "to doubt, hesitate"
twēonian "to doubt, be uncertain, hesitate"
twēonigend, twēoniendlic "doubtful, expressing doubt"
twēonigendlīce "perhaps"
twēonol "doubtful"
twīendlīce "doubtingly"

ΤĤϽѸޤѤƤޤθ塤٤ƻ¾ѤȤʤäƤޤͳϡ1066ǯΥΥޥ;ȤǡȵŪˤƱǤƥե󥹸줫μѸˡä֤ƤޤäǤޥŪ "two" 󤫤饤åŪ "duo" ء줤äѤñۤȤ櫓Ǥ/t/ /d/ δطˤĤƤˡ§ (grimms_law) 򻲾ȡˡѸǡֵ2פ򼨤󤲤Ƥߤȡ

doubt, doubtable, doubtful, doubting, doubtingly, dubiety, dubious, dubitate, dubitation, dubitative, indubitably


ʤɡˤ٤ /d/ ǻϤޤ륤åϼѸǤΤʤ dubious Τ褦ֻ <b> ̤ /b/ ȯ륱ȡdoubt Τ褦 <b> ȯʤʤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling)ˤߤƤΤѸŪˤϤ⤷Ǥ (cf. #3333. ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ b Τ ([2018-06-12-1]
Τ褦˥ޥϤθűѸñ줬Ѹʹߤ˥åϤμѸ֤줿ȤΤϡѸ˾Ϥդ줿ݤǤΥ⤷ΤϡñȯǤ֤ǤϤʤϢ줬ä֤줿ȤǤŪˤϤؤ̣ݤȹͤƤޤ (cf. #648. űѸθäѸ ([2011-02-04-1]
ƸѸǤ "two" ǡֵ2פɽ魯ϤۤȤɸʤʤäΤǤǸ1ĤοѤɽȤ be in/of two minds about sb/sth (= to be unable to decide what you think about sb/sth, or whether to do sth or not) Ҳ𤷤Ƥޤ礦ʸȤ I was in two minds about the book. (= I didn't know if I liked it or not) ʤɡ

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2021-04-24 Sat

#4380. ѸΥ롼ĤϥƥǤɥĸǤʤ [indo-european][language_family][language_myth][latin][german][germanic][comparative_linguistics][khelf_hel_intro_2021]

ǯٽΥ٥ȤȤΩ夲ֱѸƳ2021ǤϡѸˤ˴ؤ륳ƥĤåפƤ롥ϱˤֱѸ --- English --- Ȥϡɽ줿ѸΥ롼ĤĸˤΤܤ뤳ȤҲ𤹤롤ޤ˱ѸƳƥĤǤ롥
ܥ֥ˬƤɼԤ¿ˤȤäƤΤȤȻפ뤬Ѹϥޥɤ°1Ǥ롥̤ˤϱѸ줬ƥʥåɤ1ˤޤ줿Ȥä̢䤷ƤΤ¤Ǥ롥ƥ϶ʹߤäषƤȤϤѸȤȴ̾٤ؤäƤꡤƱΤθȤƱѸȴϢˤʤȻפƤ뤫
Ѹˤ򤫤ȡѸˤϥƥ줫μѸ줬䤿¿ȤȤʹΤǡξθäˤ϶̤ΤΤ¿ʤ̤Υ롼ĤĤΤȤ¤ϤޤäŪǤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ䤹
ѸϥޥϤθǤȤȤʹȤȡ⤦1̤θ䤹Ѹϥɥĸ줫ޤ줿ȤѸǥɥĸɽ魯 German ȥޥɽ魯 Germanic ƱǤ뤳Ȥ⡤θ֤򤫤롥
ܥ֥ɼԤ¿ˤȤäơ嵭Τ褦ʸ̢䤷Ƥ뤳ȤϿʤȤˤʤǤϡΤ褦ʸƤͤ򸫤Ĥ顤ɤΤ褦ˤθ򤤤ƤФ褤ΤñʤΤϡ嵭ƥǤ⼨Ƥ줿褦˰ޤ󼨤뤳Ȥ
λ礫顤Τ褦ʷޤïκ˴ŤƺäΤʤΤȵռ䤵줿顤ɤФ褤ϼ¤ΤȤؽŪʤΤǤ롥19ӸؼԤƷ (reconstruction) ȤʤʤƺäΤȲ뤳ȤϤǤƷȤϤɤˤ뤫ȤοʵȤʤȡ⤦̤θԤμˤ館ʤγؽѾοǰ˶ᤤΤǤ⤢뤫ǤʤСֱѸΥ롼ĤϡǤʤƢפȤĥΤΤ⡤¸ΩפȤȤˤʤʤͤͤȡä䤤ʤΤ
ֱѸƳ2021ΥڡȤΤˡ񤷤ä򤷤Ƥޤäष˶̣ͯȤϡʲεʤɤɤ

#369. ˤȱƶ ([2010-05-01-1])
#371. ȱƶɬ̤Ǥʤ ([2010-05-03-1])
#862. Ʒϼºߤݤ (1) ([2011-09-06-1])
#863. Ʒϼºߤݤ (2) ([2011-09-07-1])
#2308. Ʒϼºߤݤ (3) ([2015-08-22-1])
#864. Ʒ줿̾ ([2011-09-08-1])
#2120. ƷϵǤ ([2015-02-15-1])
#3146. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (1) ([2017-12-07-1])
#3147. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (2) ([2017-12-08-1])
#3148. ˤְŪطפδñ̤ϸΤ狼 ([2017-12-09-1])
#3149. ʤŪʬहΤ ([2017-12-10-1])
#3020. οҤȤƤӸ (1) ([2017-08-03-1])
#3021. οҤȤƤӸ (2) ([2017-08-04-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-30-1] [2021-05-25-1]

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2021-03-20 Sat

#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã [oe][germanic][indo-european][etymology][suffix][participle][i-mutaton][grimms_law][verners_law][verb][sound_change]

ε#4344. -in' -ing ξάǤϤʤ ([2021-03-19-1]) Ǹʬ夲Ǵñˤ򿶤֤äޤǸűѸȯã˿줿٤ä Lass (163) ˰͵򤷤ơĸ줫饲ޥĸФƸűѸ˻ޤǤηֲȯãҲ𤷤褦

The present participle is morphologically the same in both strong and weak verbs in OE: present stem (if different from the preterite) + -ende (ber-ende, luf-i-ende. etc.). All Gmc dialects have related forms: Go -and-s, OIc -andi, OHG -anti. The source is an IE o-stem verbal adjective, of the type seen in Gr phér-o-nt- 'bearing', with a following accented */-í/, probably an original feminine ending. This provides the environment for Verner's Law, hence the sequence */-o-nt-í/ > */-ɑ-nθ-í/ > */-ɑ-nð-í/, with accent shift and later hardening */-ɑ-nd-í/, then IU to /-æ-nd-i/, and finally /-e-nd-e/ with lowering. The /-i/ remains in the earliest OE forms, with are -ændi, -endi.


͡ʲѲ (sound_change) ФƸűѸ -ende ˤɤĤȤʬ롥ʬϡΤ褦˲ȤƤܤޤ뤷ѲƤ褦Τؤղäλ䵡ǽ˴ؤƤСषꤷƤ褦ˤߤ롥ΰȡƱ줬˹ߤ뤳ȤϢưƤ褦˻פ롥
ޤѲˤƤ⡤Τܤޤ뤷ϤΤΡʤ٤ -nd- ȤҲϢݻƤȤܤͤ롥ϤȤȶ */-í/ ³ˡŪפȤ䤹äǤϤʤˤǤ롥ޤθΤ촴β˱ƶͿ뤳ȤʤäˤդƱʬǤ⡤ʬȤϤʤ𤬰ۤʤΤ
űѸʹߤѸ˻ޤǡ -nd- λҲϢϸ§Ȥݻ줿䤬Ƹʬ -ing ִ褦ˤʤäο -ing ȤơȤȤ /ɪŋɡ/ Τ褦˻ҲϢäƤȤ϶̣/ŋɡ/ λҲϢ⡤Ѹʹߤ /ŋ/ ؤȽñ㲽ƤǤϰĸβˤߤ줿ҲϢϡϢȤ߹碌褦ǤɸŪˤݻƤʤcf. #1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1]

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2020-08-08 Sat

#4121. ʤ she νͭʤŪʤ her ƱˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][personal_pronoun][case][germanic]

hellog 饸14ϡѸؼԤ󤻤줿ѤʵǤ;̾ˤƽͭʤŪʤϤ褽ۤʤ֤Ȥޤñ she ˴ؤƤΤ her ȤƱ֤ѤޤǤϳؤ֤Τ˺𤹤ΤǤϤʤȤ䤫Ȼפޤ



Ʊ֤Ǥʤ2İۤʤ뵡ǽôȤΤϡ츫ȳΤ˺𤷤Ǥºݾ塤Ȥʤ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤޤ󡥼ʤŪʤη֤ǹͤƤߤСyou it Ʊ֤ȤäƤޤǺ𤷤ȤȤʹޤ
⡤Ѹˤ򿶤֤äƤߤСۤʤ뵡ǽˤ⤫餺Ʊ֤Ȥ褦ˤʤäȤѲӤǤ㤨иο;̾ΡŪʡפϡȤȤгʤͿʤȤ̡η֡ǽ򼨤ƤΤˤβƱ֤˼̤Ƥޤä̤λѤǤޤŤѸǤ2;̾ñʣȤǷ֤̤ƤޤѸʹߤ you ˹줷ƤޤäȤаޤޤcf. #3099. Ϣ10֤ʤ you ϡ֤ʤפǤ⤢֤ʤפǤ⤢Τס ([2017-10-21-1])ˡ⤷Τ褦Ѳ˿äʤСѸ餱θȤȤˤʤäƤޤޤѸܲǤޤȤ˱ѤƤ褦Ǥ
ɸѸ줫ΥƱѸܤܤС she ˽ͭʡŪʤη֤б er Ѥǧޤcf. #793. she --- 奤󥰥ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#3502. pronoun exchange ([2018-11-28-1])ˡΤ褦ѤƲʤ褷ƤüԤΤ褦ˤ櫓Ǥ
ʪ¤ŪˤȤ館뽬ΤĤƤ븽ͤˤȤäơηϤǤʾ塤ǽۤʤз֤ۤʤϤ֤ۤʤеǽۤʤϤȹͤΤϼǤˤΤʤʣѲޤĤĸߤλѤˤʤäƤ櫓ǤΤǡɬɽŪˤ줤ʹ¤򼨤ƤʤȤ¿ΤǤ
εϡ¤ѤǤʤ⡤¤2000ǯȤĹּǰƬ˥ץ٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򶵤Ƥ뵮Ť䤤Ȼפޤ
ȤμդˤĤƤϡ##4080,3099,793,3502εå

Referrer (Inside): [2025-02-28-1]

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2020-06-28 Sun

#4080. ʤ she νͭʤŪʤ her ƱˤʤΤǤ [sobokunagimon][personal_pronoun][case][germanic]

Ѹ춵鸽󤻤ƤäѤʵǤΤ¾ο;̾ͤȡ٤ƽͭʤŪʤη֤ۤʤäƤޤmy/me, your/you, his/him, its/it, our/us, their/them ΤȤǤ̾ˤĤƤͭʤŪʡʡ̳ʡˤ boy's/boy, Mary's/Mary Τ褦˸§ȤưۤʤޤĤޤꡤ3;νñ̾ she ϡͭʤŪʤη֤ƱȤʤǡ̾ȤΤʤǤߤƤˡ¸ߤʤΤǤɸѤʵϡƼ䤤ȤȤˤʤޤ
䤤˰ʤСȤȤϰۤʤä֤ȤäƤΤβѲη̡ޤƱ˹줷ƤޤäȤȤˤʤޤŤβѲΤʤ虜ȤȤǤ
ǯʾäƤűѸˤΤܤäƤߤޤ礦her ϡǤꡤͭʡΡ°ʡסˤŪʡΡͿʡסˤ hi(e)re ȤƱ֤򼨤ƤޤȤȤϡѤʵϱѸˤˤȤɤޤäƤƤϲǤʤȤˤʤޤ
ǡűѸŤʳθξ֤ȿǤƤȤѸָ졤ʤޥɤνͻҤƤߤޤ礦ťŹϥɥĸǤϡ3;νñ̾°ʤ iraͿʤ iru Ǥꡤ̯ʤ֤̤ƤޤťΥɸǤ°ʤ hennar, Ϳʤ henne ȰۤʤäƤޤȸǤƱͤ°ʤ izōs, Ϳʤ izai Ǥ
ĤޤꡤűѸŤʳǤϡ3;νñ̾°ʤͿʤϡ¾̾ξƱͤˡ̤줿֤ȤäƤȹͤޤ̤ƤȤϤζϤʰ㤤ˤäƶ̤Ƥˤʬ夯ȯƤޤС̤ˤǤ⼺ƤޤǽϤǤޤơºݤˤ줬űѸޤǤ˵äƤޤäƤΤǤ
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡѸ my/me your/you դߤ˻̤äƤΤǡȤдΤ⤷ޤ󡥼ºݡ®ȯǤϹ줷Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ礦her ˴ؤƤϡδβǽ¾ᤤʳǸ²Ƥޤäˤޤ̾ΤΤʤǤðۤʡ֤ϤŪ¸ߤȤʤäƤޤޤˤζΤޤΤǤ顤ΤȤͥäƤޤ礦

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2020-06-02 Tue

#4054. Ϳڤڤ hew, hay, hoe? [etymology][youtube][germanic][indo-european][cognate]

ε#4053. ʴɡǮϤʤΤ hay fever ([2020-06-01-1]) hay fever ε夲ޤʤʴɤˡǮפطΤ̤ΤޤޤǤĴ٤餷ʪޤɸ3ΤߤȤʸ츻ŪǤ
hay ʴˤϸűѸˤ hēġ, hīeġ ȤƸŤǡڤ줿줿פ̣ޤ֡ࡦʤɤǡڤפȤư hēawan ȤƤꡤ줬Ѹ hew ʤڤ롤ڤݤˤϢʤäƤޤڤƻȤƤ hoe ֺꡤĤϤפϡűѸˤޤ󤬡Źϥɥĸ줫ʩä houe Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ΤǡϤꥲޥĸθ캬̤ޤޥĸưȤ *χawwan ƷƤޤޥ캬餵̤Сĸθ캬 *kau- (to hew, strike) ˤɤ夭ޤ嵭3첻ѰۡѲƤޤ1ĤȤȤˤʤޤ
to hew hay ʴ򴢤ˤȤɽ⤢Τǡto hew hay with a hoe Ȥɽ̴ǤϤޤ󡥤ȤʤСפФˤʤΤ֤̾ʤǤ绰ϺͿ˹碌ơ֤Ҥ塼ؤۥפȲΤäƤߤޤ礦
ˤƤ⡤츻ŪˤޤǤλǤ͡

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2020-04-13 Mon

#4004. űѸ3;̾θƬ h [h][oe][personal_pronoun][indo-european][germanic][etymology][paradigm][number][gender]

űѸ3;̾ζɽˤĤơ#155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1]) ǤߤȤñǤʣǤ⡤鷺η֤ h- ǻϤޤ롥ŪˤߤСűѸ h- 3;̾ޡεǽ̤ƤȤäƤ褤礦ɸѸ th- ŪؼŪʸΥޡǤꡤwh- ɽ魯ΥޡǤΤƱ褦
ʬ䤹ħǤϤ뤬ʤȤˡħѸˤ3;̾ζηϤȺ⤿餷ʤΤǤ롥űѸǤϡh- ³ʬ첻ΰ㤤ˤʤ򤢤ٶ̤Ƥ䤬ƶ޸οʿȡʤζ̤ƤޤäȤиűѸ (he), hēo (she), hīe (they) ѸǤϡˤ뤬ˤ hi ʤɤη֤˼̤Ƥޤäh- ΤΤѲʤäˡäƺ褿Ȥˤʤä櫓ĤƤϡʬ䤹ħפä h- षո̤ȤʤäƤޤäȤˤʤ롥
ǡ褹٤Υᥫ˥बưh- ǤϤʤ̤λҲƬˤ she ñʤˡϤۤʤҲƬˤ they ʣʤ˿ʽФѸޤǤ˸ŷ֤ΤǤʤ˴ؤ̤ˤĤƤϡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵͡ ([2011-04-10-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲ ([2011-12-27-1])#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])#2331. Ѹˤ3;ʣ̾ʳŪ th- ([2015-09-14-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ơűѸˤ h- ϶Ūˤ3;̾ޡäȽҤ٤̻Ūˤߤȡɤñ h- ʣ h- ϵۤʤ褦Ĥޤꡤh- ϸűѸޤǤ˷Ūˡʬ䤹ħפȤʤäˤˤξϱ郎ʤäΤȤLass (141) 򻲾Ȥ Marsh (15) ϡñ h- ϰĸľ *k- ˤΤܤꡤʣ h- ϰĸλؼ̾ *ei- ? -i- ˤΤܤȤԤԤ˴Ť (analogy) ˤꡤ夫 h- դ­ȤȤ餷ĹŪˤߤСѤϸűѸˤƤͭѤʥޡȤƲä⤿餷ѸˤƤϤषǤѤȲǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤǽҤ٤ƤȤ̷⤹뤬#467. ;̾ it θƬ /h/ äݤ ([2010-08-07-1]) Ȥ⤢ΤǤ⻲ȡ

Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-02-28-1]

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2020-04-12 Sun

#4003. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ (2) [adjective][inflection][oe][germanic][indo-european][comparative_linguistics][grammaticalisation][paradigm]

ѸˤϤߤʤ²¿θǤϷƻ (adjective) ˶ (inflection) ߤ롥˥ޥɤνˤƤϡƻޤ˴ؤợŪʴ鶯Ѳ (strong declension) ȼѲ (weak declension) 2ζ̤ߤʳơξˤĤƤϡ#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡΤ褦ʶζ̤ϡޥɤħ1ĤȤƤꡤӸŪ˶̣cf. #182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]
ѸǤϡűѸˤϤζ̤Τˤߤ줿Ѹˤƶ޸οʿʹԤȡƱ̤ϤθˤƼƤäcf. #688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1])#2436. ƻʣޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-28-1]) ˡѸϡƻζޤζ̤ϤޤΤΤ򼺤äƤꡤʬޥŪǤŪǤʤʤäƤȤ롥
űѸˤƻζѲȼѲζޤ򡤡#250. űѸζɽΥ祳 ([2010-01-02-1]) ȴФƤ

The Adjectival Declensions of Old English

ǤϡʤűѸ䤽¾ΥޥˤϷƻζޤ˶ζ̤Τ񤷤޷ΰ㤤ܤ뤳Ȥˤꡤƶ뤳ȤǤ롥ѲޥѥįƤߤȡ̾춯ѲޤȻؼ̾ޤξѥ󤬺ߤƤ뤳Ȥ˵դϡƻ줬Ȥ֤̾ȤơʶѲ̾Ūʶޤ򼨤ƤȤˡؼ̾ζޥѥʬŪ˿ƤΤȹͤʤ⤦ܤϡ#2560. űѸηƻ춯Ѳޤ̾̾κѥ ([2016-04-30-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ѲζޥѥϡħŪ n ޤǼѲ̾ζޥѥˤäǤ롥Ϥƻ̩̾ܤʴطˤäΤѲ̾ζޤŵŪˤߤ n εϰĸ *-en-/-on- ˤȤ졤ϥƥ䥮ꥷ̾ˤФи (ex. Cato(nis) "smart/shrewd (one)", Strabōn "squint-eyed (one)") Τ褦ʸͭ̾Ѥ뤳Ȥ顤ɤѲޤϸ̲εǽ̤褦Ǥ롥ȤȡűѸηƻѲޤȼ se blinda mann "the blind man" ȤϡȤ "the blind one, a man" ۤɤƱŪʶäȹͤ롥줬䤬ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ޤȤʸˡƤȤ߹ޤƤȤˤʤäΤ
ʾ塤Marsh (13--14) 򻲾Ȥơʤޥɤηƻ˶2ζޤΤ˴ؤ1ĤҲ𤷤

Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.

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2020-04-04 Sat

#3995. Ruthwell Cross "on rodi" [ruthwell_cross][oe][dative][case][syncretism][germanic][inscription][manuscript]

Dumfriesshire Ruthwell Cross ϡűѻ The Dream of the Rood Ҥ롼ʸǹޤ줿ͭ̾Ǥ롥8ƬΤΤȹͤƤ롥˸űѸ쥢ե٥åȤž "kristwæsonrodi" ɤʸ󤬤롥ʬ񤭤򤹤 "krist wæs on rodi" (Crist was on the rood) Ȥʤ롥űѸʸˡˤСǸֻ̾ on ˻ۤƤꡤǤͿʷ rode ȤʤϤºݤˤη rodi ѤƤΤǡʸؾȤƤ10 Vercelli Book ˼ƤƱʤбսǤϡ̤ on rode Ȥˡʤ rodi η֤ȤʤäƤ롥
ʸν񤭴ְ㤤Ħְ㤤Ȥ٤ˤǤϤʤȤո⤢С¾̾쥯饹η֤ǤϤʤȤޤѶŪ˸õȤߤ⤢äƤ夲 Lass ϡ̤γ٤ rodi ʬˤ֤Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤷ε#3994. űѸͿʷε ([2020-04-03-1]) ǤѤ褦ˡLass ϥޥγʤͻ (syncretism) βʣäȹͤƤ롥Ȥ櫓 Ruthwell Cross ˤߤ褦ʺǽθűѸʸˤơθŵŪűѸʸˡͽ¬Ǥʤ֤ȤȤϽʬˤ뤷षʤۤȼĥ롥θԤϡ龯Ǥæ֤ϥ顼ȹͤƤޤޤǤŵ줿űѸʸˡκˤʤäƤꡤ¤θѰۤ¿˻פڤ뤳Ȥ˺ƤޤäƤΤǤϤʤȸĴƤLass (400) Ϥλ "classicism" ȸƤǤˡ˴ؤ Lass (401) ηϼ̤ꡥ

A final verdict then on rodi: not only does it not stand in need of special 'explanation', we ought to be very surprised if it or something like it didn't turn up in the early materials, and probably assume that the paucity of such remains is a function of the paucity of data. The fact that a given declension will show perhaps both -i and -æ datives (or even -i and -æ and -e) in very early inscriptions and glosses is a matter of profound historical interest. We have as it were caught a practicing bricoleur in the act, experimenting with different ways of cobbling together a noun paradigm out of the materials at hand. Morphological change is not neogrammarian, declensions are not stable or water-tight (they leak, as Sapir said of grammars), and --- most important --- the reconstruction of a new system out of the disjecta membra of an old and more complex one is bound to be marked by false starts and afterthoughts, and therefore a certain amount of 'irregularity'. It is also bound to take time, and the shape we encounter will depend on where in its trajectory of change we happen to catch it. Systems in process of reformation will be messy until a final mopping-up can be effected.


εθդ򷫤֤С pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ

Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.

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2020-04-03 Fri

#3994. űѸͿʷε [oe][dative][germanic][indo-european][case][syncretism][instrumental][suppletion][exaptation]

ε#3993. Ǥư쥫ƥ꡼κ̾ⵯ䤹ä ([2020-04-02-1]) ǡűѸ̾Ϳ (dative) ε˿줿Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤȤˤо˴ؤ4Ĥγʤͻ (syncretism) ơʡͿʡפȤޤѤäȤȤäˤĤơLass (Old English 128--29) ˤʹƤߤ褦

The transition from late IE to PGmc involved a collapse and reformation of the case system; nominative, genitive and accusative remained more or less intact, but all the locational/movement cases merged into a single 'fourth case', which is conventionally called 'dative', but in fact often represents an IE locative or instrumental. This codes pretty much all the functions of the original dative, locative, ablative and instrumental. A few WGmc dialects do still have a distinct instrumental sg for some noun classes, e.g. OS dag-u, OHG tag-u for 'day' vs. dat sg dag-e, tag-e; OE has collapsed both into dative (along with locative, instrumental and ablative), though some traces of an instrumental remain in the pronouns . . .


ʤͻä䤳ʤ꤬ʤΤϡͻ礹˶̤ƤʣγʤΤ1Ĥ̾Фơͻ1ĤȤʤäΤ˳Ƥ뷹뤫űѸξˤ⡤Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤͻ礷1ĤˤʤäȤΤʬ뤬ʤʳʤϡͿʡפ̾դ뤳ȤˤʤäΤŪˤСͿʷϸŤͿʷʬŪˤϼѤǤ뤬षʷκפǻ
ŪˤСͿʣŵŪʶ޸ -um ζʣͳ褹롥ͿñˤĤƤϡޥįƤߤȡ̾Υ饹ˤäƵʣ褷ƤΤͿʷˤΤܤΤ⤢Сʷ̳ʷˤΤܤΤ⤢롥űѸͿñˤĤƤС褽ͿʷˤΤܤȹͤƤ褵ˤƤⵯ˹äƤ롥
Lass ̤ͤǿͿʤ "local" ("Data" 398) ȤǤƤۤ褤󵯤Ĥġޥĸʸʣʷаޤ򤶤äƤƤ ("Data" 399)

. . . all the dialects have generalized an old instrumental in */-m-/ for 'dative' plural (Gothic -am/-om/-im, OE -um, etc. . . ). But the 'dative' singular is a different matter: traces of dative, locative and instrumental morphology remain scattered throughout the existing materials.


פˡűѸ䥲ޥͿʤϡ֤νпȤõʤСִ󤻽ӡפȤäƤ褤ʪǤ롥󤻽ӤȤȤǤС#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷ be ưξȰۤʤʤbe ư͡ʷ֤⡤4Ĥΰۤʤ캬줿ΤޤƼ佼ˡ (suppletion) ƱͤǤ롥 pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-01-1] [2020-04-04-1]

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2020-03-18 Wed

#3978. ̤Ƥ٤2Ĥ "Old Norse" [old_norse][terminology][germanic][variety]

ѸˤˤơָťΥɸפ뤤 "Old Norse" (old_norse) Ȥ̾ȤȤդʤФʤʤΤϡ̾2ĤΰۤʤؼоݤȤȤ
1Ĥϡ̥ޥ췲Τ¸ǸŤλȤƤθťɸ12ʹߡˤƱ췲ɽȤƻؤˡ⤦1ĤϡȤ櫓Ѹ˸ʸ̮ˤơ8ȾФ11ˤƱѸȤ륢󥰥ͤ쥤󥰥ɤܿ󥰤ؤˡǤ롥
2ĤλؼоݤϡޤäƻʤȤ1ʾۤʤ롥ޤŪˤԤϥɡԤ̥ޥ췲Τʤξ롼פˤޤΤΡ§Ȥƥ󥸥ʥӥȾǤ롥OED οǤǤϤѸκ򤱤뤿ˡԤʸȤǡ˶Ū "Old Icelandic" ȡԤʸʤȤǡˤŪ "early Scandinavian" ȸƤʬƤ褦θ̩ʻȤʬϳΤΤפѸˤʤΤǡʸ̮ΤǤС⤳ޤ̤ "Old Norse" ȸƤǤƤ⺹٤Ϥʤ̤ռƤɬפϤ
Durkin (175) Ū˻ŦƤ伫ȤϤޤ2Ĥ "Old Norse" ΤȤ̤ƤȻפŪ˶̤٤ȤʹƥϥäȤ

One important, albeit slightly arcane, initial question concerns terminology. Traditionally, the term 'Old Norse' has been used to denote two different things: (i) the language of the earliest substantial documents in any Scandinavian language, namely the rich literature largely preserved in Icelandic manuscripts dating from the twelfth century and (mostly) later; and (ii) the language that was in contact with English in the British Isles. In fact this is somewhat misleading, since English was in contact with the ancestor varieties of both West Norse (Norwegian and Icelandic) and East Norse (Danish and Swedish), but at a time earlier than our earliest substantial surviving documents for any of the Scandinavian languages, and at a time when the differences between West and East Norse were still very slight. Thus it is only rarely that English words can be attributed to either West or East Norse influence with any confidence. In this book I follow the terminology used in the new edition of the OED, using 'early Scandinavian' as a catch-all for the early West Norse and East Norse varieties which were in contact with English, and distinguishing this from 'Old Icelandic' denoting the language of the early Icelandic texts, and from 'Old Norwegian', 'Old Danish', 'Old Swedish' denoting the oldest literary records of each of these languages.


̾ȤΤϤȤ˥ȥåǡդƤʤФʤʤ롥Ϣơ#3558. ȸ̾ε ([2019-01-23-1])#864. Ʒ줿̾ ([2011-09-08-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

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