ε#2551. ǰեĤɲá ([2016-04-21-1]) ǡ¤Ūե (structural metaphor) Ūե (orientational metaphor) ˿줿ξԤΰ㤤ϡημˤ롥Ԥϡ복ǰȤޤηϤ̤ΤΤؤΰμˤʤԤϤΤ褦Ūηäʣߤ˷դäƤȤ¿ʤΤ
㤨С"TIME IS MONEY" γǰեϡѸʸˤơ֤ˤʤ館ǧΤͼդƤꡤǧΤȿǤɽ¿ѻ뤳ȤʪäƤ롥֤˴ؤ°ϡˤ⤪褽ΤޤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ¿ϡŪˡֻ֢פΰǤꡤȿФǤϤʤȤФ롥δطŪη (internal systematicity) ȸƤǤ
"HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN" γǰեϡ"TIME IS MONEY" ȤϰۼΤ褦˻פ롥ޤб2Ĥ̿ꡤĤޤ "HAPPY IS UP" "SAD IS DOWN" äƤȤǰۤʤ롥ȤϡǸߤ䴰礦طŪηȸƤǤˡΤ褦ʥڥŪ¹Ūʣ뤳ȤǤȤ⤷㤨Сεǵ褦ˡ"HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN", "CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN", "HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN", "HAVING CONTROL or FORCE IS UP; BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL or FORCE IS DOWN", "MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN", "FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE UP (and AHEAD)", "HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN", "GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN", "VIRTUE IS UP; DEPRAVITY IS DOWN", "RATIONAL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN" ʤɤ롥Υڥߤ˴طƤȻפ졤ΤȤƴطξƤ롥СŪηפȤʣꡤߤǷФƤȤŪե¤Ūեȼ㤦ȤΤϤΤȤǤ롥ԤԤⰵŪ˹⼡ʣηŪǤ롥
Lakoff and Johnson (14) ɽξԤΰ㤤ɽСstructural metaphors Ȥ "one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another" Ǥꡤoritentational metaphors "organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another" Ǥ롥
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
#2548. ǰե ([2016-04-18-1]) ǡǰե (conceptual_metaphor) Ȥơ"ARGUMENT IS WAR" ϡѸγǰեĤɲäޤϡLakoff and Johnson (7--8) ꡥ
TIME IS MONEY
You're wasting my time.
This gadget will save you hours.
I don't have the time to give you.
How do you spend your time these days?
That flat tire cost me an hour.
I've invested a lot of time in her.
I don't have enough time to spare for that.
You're running out of time.
You need to budget your time.
Put aside some time for ping pong.
Is that worth your while?
Do you have much time left?
He's living on borrowed time.
You don't use your time profitably.
I lost a lot of time when I got sick.
Thank you for your time.
ʣŪʳǰե1Ĥˡconduit metaphor ȤΤ롥ϡ"IDEAS (or MEANINGS) ARE OBJECTS", "LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS" "COMMUNICATION IS SENDING" Ȥ3ĤδϢ빽¤Ūʳǰե碌ΤǤ (Lakoff and Johnson 11)
The CONDUIT Metaphor
It's hard to get that idea across to him.
I gave you that idea.
Your reasons came through to us.
It's difficult to put my ideas into words.
When you have a good idea, try to capture it immediately in words.
Try to pack more thought into fewer words.
You can't simply stuff ideas into a sentence any old way.
The meaning is right there in the words.
Don't force your meanings into the wrong words.
His words carry little meaning.
The introduction has a great deal of thought content.
Your words seem hollow.
The sentence is without meaning.
The idea is buried in terribly dense paragraphs.
ʾϹ¤Ūե (structural metaphor) ̼ΤΤȤŪե (orientational metaphor) ȤΤ롥ŵϡľξ岼ä͡°ΩɽȤΤϢΩबΤȤηϤʤƤ褦˸Ǥ롥Lakoff and Johnson (15--17) ˤ
HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN
I'm feeling up. That boosted my spirits. My spirits rose.
You're in high spirits. Thinking about her always gives me a lift. I'm feeling down. I'm depressed. He's really low these days. I fell into a depression. My spirits sank.
CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
Get up. Wake up. I'm up already. He rises early in the morning. He fell asleep. He dropped off to sleep. He's under hypnosis. He sank into a coma.
HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN
He's at the peak of health. Lazarus rose from the dead. He's in top shape. As to his health, he's way up there. He fell ill. He's sinking fast. He came down with the flu. His health is declining. He dropped dead.
HAVING CONTROL or FORCE IS UP; BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL or FORCE IS DOWN
I have control over her. I am on top of the situation. He's in a superior position. He's at the height of his power. He's in the high command. He's in the upper echelon. His power rose. He ranks above me in strength. He is under my control. He fell from power. His power is on the decline. He is my social inferior. He is low man on the totem pole.
MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN
The number of books printed each year keeps going up. His draft number is high. My income rose last year. The amount of artistic activity in this sate has gone down in the past year. The number of errors he made is incredibly low. His income fell last year. He is underage. If you're too hot, turn the heat down.
FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE UP (and AHEAD)
All upcoming events are listed in the paper. What's coming up this week? I'm afraid of what's up ahead of us. What's up?
HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN
He has a lofty position. She'll rise to the top. He's at the peak of his career. He's climbing the ladder. He has little upward mobility. He's at the bottom of the social hierarchy. She fell in status.
GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN
Things are looking up. We hit a peak last year, but it's been downhill ever since. Things are at an all-time low. He does high-quality work.
VIRTUE IS UP; DEPRAVITY IS DOWN
He is high-minded. She has high standards. She is upright. She is an upstanding citizen. That was a low trick. Don't be underhanded. I wouldn't stoop to that. That would be beneath me. He fell into the abyss of depravity. That was a low-down thing to do.
RATIONAL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN
The discussion fell to the emotional level, but I raised it back up to the rational plane. We put our feelings aside and had a high-level intellectual discussion of the matter. He couldn't rise above his emotions.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
ŵȤʤä Lakoff and Johnson ˤꡤǰե (conceptual_metaphor) ȤѸ줬ǧΡ˸ؤǤϹΤ褦ˤʤäǤˡ#2471. ʤޤϵڷʤΤ ([2016-02-01-1]) ǤѸѤǧθؾδܻȤơܵdzǰեҲ𤷤褦
Lakoff and Johnson ǰեιͤϡǤСեȤñˤȤФˤȤɤޤ餺ǧꡤȤ館Υ٥ǤȤȤ̾եȤ "You are my sunshine." Τ褦ˡ"A is B." Τ褦ʹʸŪɽ蘆ȿƤ뤬¤ϤΤ褦ʷȤʤɽΤˡۤȤƴޤޤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ, p. 33ˡ
Lakoff and Johnson ŵˡ"ARGUMENT IS WAR" 롥ѸˤϡȸΩƤȯۤդƤꡤθΩƤɽФƤ롥Lakoff and Johnson (4) ꡤʸ褦
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument.
His criticisms were right on target.
I demolished his argument.
I've never won an argument with him.
You disagree? Okay, shoot!
If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.
He shot down all of my arguments.
ǤϡľŪˤ˴ؤѸȤߤʤ礬ȤƤʤ顤ºݤˤϤ줬˴ؤ뤳ȤФȤƱѤƤ롥ġɽϡ"ARGUMENT IS WAR" Ȥǰե첽줿ΤȲǤȤǤȤΩƤñȯɽˤƤǤϤʤϢɽˤߤ롥
եϡ衤ʸŪʸɽȤŪʵȤ館뷹äºݤˤϤΤ褦θѤ䡤˸첽ǧ٥ˤơˤդ줿ΤǤȤȤLakoff and Johnson ϻŦΤǤ롥
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
סԡˡؿԡǧθإɻŵ١ҡ2013ǯ
ɸ2ĤνŪϡǯǧθؤοŸȤȤˡ2ĤǧΤˡȤư褦ˤʤäƤ2ĤϤФ椵뤬metaphor 2 (similarity) ˴Ťmetonymy 2 (contiguity) ˴ŤȤΤŪˤʤǤ롥Lakoff and Johnson (36) ϡξԤεǽŪʺۤˤܤƤ롥
Metaphor and metonymy are different kinds of processes. Metaphor is principally a way of conceiving of one thing in terms of another, and its primary function is understanding. Metonymy, on the other hand, has primarily a referential function, that is, it allows us to use one entity to stand for another.
ʤۤɡmetaphor ˤ metonymy ˤ⡤λˤҤͤäȤǽȡؼоݤλѤäΤˤȤǽξˤϰ㤤ʤ줾Υȥåμ礿뵡ǽȤСmetaphor ˴طۤǡmetonymy ϻؼ˴طۤ
metonymy λؼǽˤĤƸϡmetonymy Ѥʤ̾ɽˤؼȰۤʤꡤؼоݤΤɤ¦̤ˤȤ櫓ܤĤĻؼ뤫Ȥ־פξޤޤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Lakoff and Johnson (36) ƤС"The Times hasn't arrived at the press conference yet." ˤơ"The Times" λؼоݤϡƱ̾οʹΤȤǤʤСʹҤΤΤΤȤǤʤʹҤɽƻԤǤ롥ˤƻԤ̾Ƥ⡤ؼоݤѤ餺ʸỤ̄Ѥʤ metonymy Ѥ "The Times" ɽ뤳ȤˤäơؼоݤƻԤƱʹҤɽԤǤǤԤǤȤȤƤΤǤ롥ľ̾ѤƤޤСξʤLakoff and Johnson (37) ۩
[Metonymy] allows us to focus more specifically on certain aspects of what is being referred to.
metaphor metonymy ˤĤƤϡ#2187. ΰ̣եǤ ([2015-04-23-1])#2406. metonymy ([2015-11-28-1])#2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
ޤ˸¤ʤޤǤϡΤΤ졤鸽ߤ˸äƻޤعߤƤΤǤ롥ܤη (stemma)ʸˡι¤ڡʪηޡȷϿޤʤɡ⤳̾ޤȤƤФ졤ڤˤʤ館ˤϡϵڤʤΤǤ롥¿οͤϤ˸Ƥ뤬褯ͤƤߤȤʤʤΤȤ䤬롥ߤˡ#1339. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡʾ岼ȿžǡˡ ([2012-12-26-1]) ̾ΰ²ηޤ岼ȿžΤƤߤʤѤʴ롥
ǧθؤǤ복ǰե (conceptual metaphor) ˤС̸Ūˤ褯ѻǧΥѥ1Ĥ "EARLIER IS UP" 롥ܸǡֲˤΤܤסֻפȤ褦ˡŤۤǡۤȤФ롥ǧκˤϡή졤ާнϤʢˤäϡָˤϻޤήƤƤϤǤ롥οǰƬˤСŪԤΤϾ塤³ΤϲȤΤϡǧΤλǤ롥
ήϤΤ褦ʪˡ§§äʪˤĤƤС"EARLIER IS UP" γǰեΩ뤬֤ȤȤĹʪǰƬˤȡष "LATER IS UP" Ȥǰե⤢ΤǤϤʤĹСʬؤ⤯ʤ뤫Ǥ롥ʹ֤ưʪǤʤμڤɤɤؾ椬ӤƤ櫓ǤꡤäΤ벼ŤΤȤǧˡäƤ褵
äơǰե˰͵¤ꡤ塤ޤξ줦ϤºݤˤϵڷΤ̤Ǥ롥δȤФ̤δޤäϲäΤ
ʲϲ¬Ǥ롥ޤġʲΤΡˤ㫤Ȥ̣礤ΤǤϤʤϡο͡ǯĹԤ夲Ȥȯۤ쥢ŪʼȯۤǤȸ줽Ȥ櫓ŪǤȤˤϤľŪ뤯餤ˤŪǤȻפŤΡǯμԤϰΤ˰֤٤ʤΤȤȤŪˤϡαɸĴ鸽ߤϢʤҿŪ˼롤Ȥ̤⤢̤ȤƤϡ𤷤ߤζĴȤʤäƤ褦˻פ롥
Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ǡβϻνפȤȯۤ⤢롥ष˰֤Τˤ뤹٤ƤΤΤ٤Ƥ롤鲼ΤΤΤΤȤͤǤ롥ϡषߤ𤷤ζĴȤ̤褦˴뤬ɤ
ɤˤƸޤȤϡѤ˴Ѥ˴ؤǤ롥ϢơδѸ˵ҤˤĤͤ#253. Ѹ˵ҤĤˡ ([2010-01-05-1])#1340. Strang αѸˤ̵Ūҡ ([2012-12-27-1]) Ȥ줿
ޤڤ¾Ȥ뤳ȤˤĤ͡ʸΤǡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1])#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1])#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) դεĺ
εϡ岼γǰե椷Ƥ饤ԥ졼ơɮʤ꤬Ȥˡ
³ɸɽˤĤơQuirk et al. (1284--85) ˤιʸ⤵Ƥ롥ʲ˺Ƹ褦
A special case of prepositional apposition is offered by singular count nouns where the of-phrase is subjective . . ., eg:
the fool of a policeman
an angel of a girl
this jewel of an island
This structure consisting of determiner + noun (N2) + of + indefinite article + noun (N1) is not a regular prepositional postmodification, since N1 is notionally the head, as can be seen in the paraphrases:
The policeman is a fool. [note the AmE informal variant some fool policeman]
The girl is an angel.
This island is a jewel.
The whole part N2 + of + a corresponds to an adjective:
the foolish policeman
an angelic girl
this jewel-like island
The natural segmentation is reflected in variant spellings, as in the familiar AmE expression a hell of a guy (nonstandard spelling: a helluva guy).
In this construction, the determiner of N1 must be the indefinite article, but there is no such constraint on the determiner of N2:
''a'' ''a policeman'' ''the'' ''fool of'' *''the policeman'' ''this'' *''policeman'' ''that''
Also, N2 must be singular:
?*those fools of policemen
The possessive determiner actually notionally determines N1, not N2:
her brute of a brother ['Her brother was a brute..']
Both N2 and N1 can be premodified:
a little mothy wisp of a man
this gigantic earthquake of a piece of music
a dreadful ragbag of a British musical
this crescent-shaped jewel of a South Sea island
Ǹ this crescent-shaped jewel of a South Sea island Τ褦ˡN1 N2 ξֽƤ褦Ǥϡ̾Τˤ濴ɤʤΤۣǤ롥ϤŪʼỌ̇̄ŪʽſϰפƤΤݤỌ̇̄бط붦ŪϻĤˤ衤̻ŪˤߤСϸι¤ξΩ⤦Ͽ¤ξΩäƤ뤫Τ褦ǤꡤΩ褫ŪɽȤʤäƤΤ⤷
ʸˡȤƤʬϤǧθؤ佤ؤȤƤϤξʤ̣ʸǤ롥̻ŪɤΤ褦˿ޤƤĴΤȥԥåΤ褦˻פ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ֻ of ˡ1ĤȤơɸΤ褦㤬롥an angel of a girl ϰ̣Ū "a girl like an angel" ȥѥե졼졤ľȤɽȤʤ롥ʤΤ褦ʰ̣Τ
Ǥ of ˡϹ̣ǡƱʡ (apposition) ȤäƤ褤OED ˤȡof θ23 "Between two nouns which are in virtual apposition" Ȥꡤθβ˺ʬ줿23bˤƤˡƤ롥
b. In the form of, in the guise of.
The leading noun is the latter, to which the preceding noun with of stands as a qualification, equivalent to an adjective; thus 'that fool of a man' = that foolish man, that man who deserves to be called 'fool'; 'that beast of a place' = that beastly place.
Quot. ?c1200 is placed here by Middle Eng. Dict.; however the of-phrase seems to complement the verb and its object . . . rather than the preceding noun only as in later examples.
[?c1200 Ormulum (Burchfield transcript) l. 11695 Þeȝȝ hallȝhenn cristess flæsh off bræd & cristess blod teȝȝ hallȝenn. Off win.
a1375 William of Palerne (1867) 226 (MED), So fair a siȝt of seg ne sawe he neuer are.
. . . .
1992 Vanity Fair (N.Y.) Feb. 144/3 The Schramsberg offers a whirlwind of a mousse, tasting of lemon and yeast.
MED Ƥ㤬ΤǡMED of (prep.) ȤƤߤȡƱͤ "quasi-appositional relationship" ɽ魯ˡȤƸ19b(b) "in the form of (sth. or sb.)" Ȥߤ롥ʬʸ⤢ꤽ15ȾФ "a faire body of a woman" Ȥ餫ʳߤȡ٤ȤѸˤƱˡȯãƤȤϳΤǤ롥
"a faire body of a woman" ϸ֤ΡʻѤΡפǤꡤ of ֤Ω body ΤϤäȤȤ³뤦ˡbody of a βΤȤƸ³̾ woman 褦˴褦ˤʤäƤΤɸ an angel of a girl ǤСϸ־ΡʻѤŷȡפ̣ɽäȻפ뤬angel of a βΤȤƷƻ angelic ۤɤεǽơ³ girl ˤäƤΤȤŪ˺ʬ (reanalysis) 줿
ŪˤСa [X] of a [Y] ι¤ˤơŪˤ [X] äʬϤФ [Y] Ȥʤꡤ"a [X]-like Y" ۤɤ̣褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥Ūʹ¤ϡOED ǤϰʲΤ褦˸23aˤưƤꡤߤޤǤѵȤʤäƤ롥
a. In the person of; in respect of being; to be; for. Obs.
The leading noun is the former, of the qualification of which the phrase introduced by of constitutes a limitation; thus 'he was the greatest traveller of a prince', i.e. the greatest traveller in the person of a prince, or so far as princes are concerned. The sense often merges with that of the partitive genitive. . . . .
c1275 (?a1200) Laȝamon Brut (Calig.) (1963) 3434 Þe hǣhste eorles..curen heom enne king of ane cnihte þe wes kene.
c1300 (?a1200) Laȝamon Brut (Otho) 4980 Hadden hii anne heuedling of on heȝe ibore man.
a1470 Malory Morte Darthur (Winch. Coll.) 119 He was a ryght good knyght of a yonge man.
1697 K. Chetwood Life Virgil in Dryden tr. Virgil Wks. sig. *4v, Cæsar..the greatest Traveller, of a Prince, that had ever been.
1748 Ld. Chesterfield Let. 20 Dec. (1932) (modernized text) IV. 1278 Allowed to be the best scholar of a gentleman in England.
ʬ23aȸ23bˡʸ̮Τ˶̤뤳Ȥ褦˻פ롥ŪʴߤСŪξǧ߽ФƤ褦ˤפ롥̤ȤơƱ˷ƻ콤Ǥ⤢ľȤǤ⤢걣ȤǤ⤢ԻĤɽޤƤ롥صŪ an angelic girl Ȥϥѥե졼ǤΤΡan angel of a girl Ϳ뽤Ṳ̄礭ۤʤ롥
ŪʬϤ㡤ڤؤˤĤƤϡ#2333. a lot of ([2015-09-16-1]) ȡ#2343. 19ˤ a lot of ȯ ([2015-09-26-1]) ȡ
#2187. ΰ̣եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) ǥե (metaphor) ˤĤƲ⤷Фȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ˤĤƤϡƽǿʤ⡤⤹뵡ʤäΤǡLuján (291--92) ʤɤ˵ʤ餳ǾҲ𤷤
ŪʽؤǤϡִȡפȤΤƤǯǧθؤ̣ǤϲʸΤޤޡ֥ȥ˥ߡפȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹϡꥷ metōnimía (change of name) ̤롥ʽŪܤСե2 (similarity) ˴ŤΤФơȥ˥ߡ2 (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ롥եǤϡ2Ϥ줾ۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ƥ뤬餫ˤäξԤФ롥ȥ˥ߡǤϡ2ƱΥɥᥤ°ƤꡤDz餫ˤäξԤФ롥̩˶̤ǤΤȤŪʵ⤢ΤΡ̤ϤǤ褤 (cf. #2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]))
ȥ˥ߡܼʤˤϡ͡ʼब롥ʬΡä (synecdoche) ȸƤФˡƴơʪʡ֤ȽȤˤʪȷ̤ʤɡ餫ͭŪʴطС٤ƥȥ˥ߡμȤʤ롥äợѰۤѲˤơܶʲǤ롥֤䤫ʨƤפȤȤΡ֤䤫פƴƴ˴ޤޤֿפ̣롥glass ֥饹פȤؤκǤǤʤǤ֥饹פ̣롥ƥ sexta (sixth (hour)) Ϥ֤ɽ路ƤΥڥȯŸ siesta Ϥλ֤ˤȤ̣褦ˤʤäֱĮפ Capitol Hill Ͼ̾줾ּ괱šפȡƹIJפ̣롥µǨ餹פȤ֤ϵ㤯Ȥ٤η̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ顤ֵ㤯פ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads Ȥˤơ beads ϡֵפ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ֿ̡פΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäϡʪˡ§˴Ť̴طʸˤ˶¸λ˻ޤǡ餫ͭŪʴطΩȤǡϰϤ
Saeed (365--66) ꡤѸ줫ŵṲ̄˵褦
PART FOR WHOLE (synecdoche): All hands on deck.
WHOLE FOR PART (synecdoche): Brazil won the world cup.
CONTAINER FOR CONTENT: I don't drink more than two bottles.
MATERIAL FOR OBJECT: She needs a glass.
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT: I'll buy you that Rembrandt.
PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Downing Street has made no comment.
INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE: The Senate isn't happy with this bill.
PLACE FOR EVENT: Hiroshima changed our view of war.
CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: All the hospitals are on strike.
CAUSE FOR EFFECT: His native tongue is Hausa.
Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
ΩѴdzŤƤޥåŸ13ǯ֤ŸȤ
René Magritte (1898--1967ˤϥ٥륮ι̱ŪȤǡΥȤǥˤ礭ʱƶͿ쥢ꥹεǤ롥դȥꡤ뤤ϵˤ³ȤǡޥåȤγϡָŪˡ״վޤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥
ޥåȤ metaphor metonymy ռŪ¿Ѥ¿ѤȤϡΥơޤȤƷǤƤmetaphor metonymy ȤդΤ˻ߡܤ˸Ĥޤꡤܤ˸ηݽѲȤǤ롥
̣ˤ metaphor (similarity) ˴Ťmetonymy (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ졤2Ĥ֤뤳Ȥ¿֤طǤϤʤȤ⤷Фʹ롥ޥåȤ⡤Τʤ metaphor metonymy ΩȤϡФƱ蘆ͻ礵뤳Ȥˤäơε˻äƤ뤫Τ褦Ǥ롥
㤨СޥåȤγˤϡܤڤΩƤ줿դسԤȤƤΤ⤢롥ڤդδطΤʬδطǤꡤŵŪ metonymy ƱξԤسԤƤȤˤơγ metaphor ȤʤäƤ롥įƤȡmetonymy Ǥ⤢ metaphor Ǥ⤢ȤԻĤʴФƤΤ⤦1ȡLe Viol ͿˤȤʤǤϡζΤޤδȤ⸫褦Ƥ롥ΤȴȤϾ岼˸ߤܤƤ metonymy δطʤγˤƤϤȤ⸫뤳ȤǤȤ metaphor Ǥ⤢롥Dubnick (417) ˤСޥåȤϡγΤʤǻŪ metaphor metonymy ɽΤߤʤ餺ƱظǸͷӤ⤷ƤȤ
Le Viol (The Rape, 1934) which substitutes a woman's torso for her face, is predominantly metonymic though relationships of similarity are also important. The breasts are substituted for eyes, the navel for the nose, and perhaps a risqué pun on the word labia is intended. This monstrous image is both funny and grotesque. But even though this image may convey a metaphorical and moral message about the sexual basis of a woman's identity, especially in the eyes of the rapist, the core of the painting is really the vulgar synecdoche which replaces the word "woman" with a slang term for a female's genitals. Thus, this is both a verbal and a visual pun.
Dubnick (418) ϡؼ Roman Jakobson 礤˽Фʤ顤ޥåȤΤ褦ɾɾäƤ롥
Jakobson's linguistic theories about metaphor and metonymy suggest that the phrase "visible poetry" was not an empty metaphor for Magritte, who created figures of speech with paint.
Dubnick, Randa. "Visible Poetry: Metaphor and Metonymy in the Paintings of René Magritte." Contemporary Literature 21.3 (1980): 407--19.
դΤ (figure of speech) ΤʤǤ⡤ԤȤΤ (metaphor) Ǥ롥ưʪǤʤΤ˰ػҤΡ֤פȤȤǤʤΤ˿͵μؤơ֥פȤȤʤƤߤ櫓ǤϤʤΤˡִŤȤȤȤѤƤ롥ɽޤ˸ŤƾȤʤäȤˤϡȤκѤۤȤɴʤʤꡤե (dead metaphor) ȸƤФ롥ܸˤѸˤեդƤꡤΰ̣եǤȤޤǸʤۤɤ
metaphor ˤƤϡӤδȤʤ source ӤŬѤ target 2ĤɬפǤ롥ػҤΰǤСsource Ͽʹ֤ưʪεӤǤꡤtarget ϰػҤλ٤ʬǤ롥ʪΤΡȶΤΤǤǡsource target 2Ĥΰۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ȥ롥2Ĥϸߤ˴طΤʤΩɥᥤ֤פʤΤβˤäΤ٤ΤΡפȤ塤ǽζ̹ˤꡤξɥᥤ֤˶ͤ롥Τ褦ˡmetaphor ˤɬ餫 (similarity) 롥
#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) Ƥ줿 Williams ϡmetaphor ˭٤ͿƤƤ (184--85) ʲθäϡ츫Ȥ metaphor ȰռʤΤФθŪȯŸޤǤ롥줾ˤĤơ source Dz target ʤΤ2ĤΥɥᥤϤ줾첿ϤȤʤäƤ붦̹ϲõäƤ餤ե˶ᤤΡ˺ƤȤܤΤˤĤƤϡθȤθ줾첿ˤĤƥҥȤͿƤʤä f. ȤΤϸɽ魯ˤΤǡȤʤθ줿
1. abstract (f. draw away from)
2. advert (f. turn to)
3. affirm (f. make firm)
4. analysis (f. separate into parts)
5. animal (You animal!)
6. bright (a bright idea)
7. bitter (sharp to the taste: He is a bitter person)
8. brow (the brow of a hill)
9. bewitch (a bewitching aroma)
10. bat (You old bat!)
11. bread (I have no bread to spend)
12. blast (We had a blast at the party)
13. blow up (He blew up in anger)
14. cold (She was cold to me)
15. cool (Cool it,man)
16. conceive (f. to catch)
17. conclude (f. to enclose)
18. concrete (f. to grow together)
19. connect (f. to tie together)
20. cut (She cut me dead)
21. crane (the derrick that resembles the bird)
22. compose (f. to put together)
23. comprehend (f. seize)
24. cat (She's a cat)
25. dig (I dig that idea)
26. deep (deep thoughts)
27. dark (I'm in the dark on that)
28. define (f. place limits on)
29. depend (f. hang from)
30. dog (You dog!)
31. dirty (a dirty mind)
32. dough (money)
33. drip (He's a drip)
34. drag (This class is a drag)
35. eye (the eye of a hurricane)
36. exist (f. stand out)
37. explain (f. make flat)
38. enthrall (f. to make a slave of)
39. foot (foot of a mountain)
40. fuzzy (I'm fuzzy headed)
41. finger (a finger of land)
42. fascinate (f. enchant by witchcraft)
43. flat (a flat note)
44. get (I don't get it)
45. grasp (I grasped the concept)
46. guts (He has a lot of guts)
47. groove (I'm in the groove)
48. gas (It was a gasser)
49. grab (How does the idea grab you?)
50. high (He got high on dope)
51. hang (He's always hung up)
52. heavy (I had a heavy time)
53. hot (a hot idea)
54. heart (the heart of the problem)
55. head (head of the line)
56. hands (hands of the clock)
57. home (drive the point home)
58. jazz (f. sexual activity)
59. jive (I don't dig this jive)
60. intelligent (f. bring together)
61. keen (f. intelligent)
62. load (a load off my mind)
63. long (a long lime)
64. loud (a loud color)
65. lip (lip of the glass)
66. lamb (She's a lamb)
67. mouth (mouth of a cave)
68. mouse (You're a mouse)
69. milk (He milked the job dry)
70. pagan (f. civilian, in distinction to Christians, who called themselves soldiers of Christ)
71. pig (You pig)
72. quiet (a quiet color)
73. rip-off (It was a big rip-off)
74. rough (a rough voice)
75. ribs (the ribs of a ship)
76. report (f. to carry back)
77. result (f. to spring back)
78. shallow (shallow ideas)
79. soft (a soft wind)
80. sharp (a sharp dresser)
81. smooth (a smooth operator)
82. solve (f. to break up)
83. spirit (f. breath)
84. snake (You snake!)
85. straight (He's a straight guy)
86. square (He's a square)
87. split (Let's split)
88. turn on (He turns me on)
89. trip (It was a bad (drug) trip)
90. thick (a voice thick with anger)
91. thin (a thin sound)
92. tongue (a tongue of land)
93. translate (f. carry across)
94. warm (a warm color)
95. wrestle (I wrestled with the problem)
96. wild (a wild idea)
ƥͳθ줬¿ޤޤƤ뤬̤¿ǤʤƥѸϡαѸǤϡʸŵƥˤƤ˸ȤѤ⡤ŪȯŸѤ뤳ȤΤۤ¿Τ̤ưʪɽ魯Ȥ source Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ (synaesthesia) λ¿ޤŪʸ¯Ūʶ⾯ʤʤ
Τ褦ȤˤϤħ졤̸Ūˤѻ뤳Ȥ顤̣ѲΰŪ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1])#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) ʤɤεȡ
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
͡ʼΰ̣ѲʬहߤϿ¿ʤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤹Ǥˡ#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) ʤɤƤϰ̣Υå semantic change Ȥܤ˵ƤʬʤҲ𤹤롥Ūˤ Cruse Ѹ콸Ǥ롥
(1) γȾü (gain and loss of meaning) ԥ塼νиˤꡤmouse ϽưʪΥͥߤΰդ˲äơԥ塼ޥΰդäޤJane Austen λˤ direction ϰ̾ (address) ΰ̣ѤƤߤϤΰ̣ϼƤ롥γȾüˤ metaphor metonymy ѤƤ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ǥեȸѲ (change of default meaning) 礿ŪʸȤʤäꡤŪʸ礿ˤʤ륱100ǯ expire μ礿̣ϡֻ̡פäߤϡֻ̡פŪʸؤȹ߳ʤˡˤʤפ礿̣ؤȾʤintercourse Ρָήפΰ̣Ʊͤ˼礿ϰ̤߳ʤפ˼äƤ롥
(3) ̣Ūɺή (semantic drift) ƥΥץȥŪȤȤѤäƤΤϢưץȥŪʸѤäƤȡweapon vehicle ϡˤäƤŵŪʻؼоݤȤʤΤѤƤStern ΰ̣ѲʬǤ (substitution) 롥
(4) ü첽Ȱ̲ (specialisation and generalisation) ĤƤ doctor Ϲֶաؼԡפ̣ߤǤϼȤü첽ְԡפθѤ롥actor ϽϡͥפΤߤ̣̤֡ˤ餺ͥפȤѤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ü첽Ȱ̲ϡ[2010-08-13-1]ʬǤ夲
(5) ɲ (pejoration and amelioration) interfere ϸŤϡֲߤ (intervene) ΰ̣ɾˤĤƤΩŪѤƤߤǤɾӤӤּ⤹פΰ̣ѤƤ롥typical ɾӤӤ֤褯褦˰פΰ̣Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ɽ魯줬Ф䤹ȤˤĤƤϡ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1]) ȡ#1909. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (2) ([2014-07-19-1]) Ǽ夲ΤǻȤ줿ɲŪʤ֤֤äܤʡ˽ʡפΰ̣äΤ֤ޤʡפΰ̣ؤѲʤɤ롥ɲϡ[2010-08-13-1]ʬǤ夲
(6) ɺ (bleaching) to make a phone call ˤơmake Ρֺפΰ̣ɺ֤롤ʤפȤۤɤΰŪʰ̣ؤޤäƤ롥awful, terrible, fantastic ʤɤζո줬դäƤɺǤ (cf. #992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1])#1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]))
ϰ̣Ѳװ̤ʤʣδˤȤŤʬǤꡤʬȤϲվ˶ᤤ̣ѲΥݥȤΤϡĤŤ
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1]) ǡۤʤδް (implicature) ΤʤǤäߤζ̤ȤʤΤϡGrice particularized conversational implicature, generalized conversational implicature, conventional implicature 3Ǥ롥δްդϡνǷ֤ȤηӤĤʤꡤ뤤ϥɲٹ礤⤯ʤ롥
ȤǡθŪʴްդỌ̇̄Ѳ¿Ȥ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥̣Ѳ¿ϡ֡ʤǤϸˤȤˤȷӤĤƤ¸θˡդääꡤŤüƤǤ롥̣ѲŪʲˤ2Ĥ (Kearns 123)
(1) Fa > Fab: Form F with sense a acquires an additional sense b
(2) Fab > Fb: Form F with senses a and b loses sense a
(1) Ϥ F ˷ӤĤ줿 a ˡ b ä(2) Ϥ F ˷ӤĤ줿 a b a (1) (2) ѵС̤Ȥ Fa Fb ؤȸܤȤˤʤ롥ä˽פʤΤϡ餷ä (1) βǤ롥ˤơF ȴϢŤ줿 a ξ b äΤ
Ǿ嵭μδްդ˻äƤ餪particularized conversational implicature Ǥϡʸ̤ΰ̣ a Ȥˡˤäƴްաʤ a Ȥϰۤʤ̣ b ƳФ롥ϲäˤñȯδްդˤ֤ȤηӤĤϼ夤ᡤ꼰 F ȼʤa > abפȤconventional implicature ϡ֤ȶӤĤްաäȤи˥ɲ줿̣Ǥ뤫顤̣ѲδϡѲλΰꤷ֡Ǥ Fab Ȥ֤б롥Ǥϡ2Ĥδ֤̣ѲưŪʲʤ (1) 꼰줿Fa > FabפβбΤϲ generalized conversational implicature Ǥ롥generalized conversational implicature ϡ̣Ѳβ1ʳ˴ؤפʼδްդȤȤˤʤ롥
ŪްդỌ̇̄ѲϤۤˤ⤢롥㤨С̣ѲŵŪʥѥǤ̲ (generalisation) ü첽 (specialisation) (cf. #473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])) ϡĴθ§ (cooperative principle) ˴ŤްդȤ뤳ȤǤ롥Grice ƶĴθ§ȯŸ Grice (neo-Gricean) Horn ϡ̲㳰ʤü첽Ȥ R[elation]-principle ("Make your contribution necessary.") ˤäȤ (Kearns 129--31)
Kearns ϡimplicature metonymy metaphor ȤδطˤĤƤƤ롥ợѲˤ implicature ˤĤơΤ褦äƤ롥
. . . if implicature is construed broadly to subsume all the inferential processes available in language use, then most, perhaps all of the major types of semantic change can be attributed to implicature. Differentiating more finely, metaphor and metonymy (which are themselves not always readily distinguishable) produce the ambiguity or polysemy pattern of added meaning, in contrast to the merger pattern, which is commonly attributed to information-strengthening generalized conversational implicature . . . . On an alternative view, implicature (narrowly construed) and metonymy are grouped together in contrast to metaphor, on the grounds that the two former mechanisms are based on sense contiguity, while metaphor is based on sense comparison or analogy. (139)
Kearns, Kate. "Implicature and Language Change" Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 123--40.
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