ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥
(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.
ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼
1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)
ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦
the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)
ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥
As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.
Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλűѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸ϤΤʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդƤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ε#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1]) ǡɸѸȯŸ¿ο͡ˤŪ (selections) βǤȤ Hope ΰոǤϡȤϰռŪʤΤʤΤ̵ռŪʤΤʤΤԼʤΤʤΤ̾ĿͤϰռŪǤԼǤȤ⤤뤬¿ˤȤʤ̵ռŪǤ꼫ǤȤ⤤롥
Hope ϡɸѸȯŸΤġΥӥХȤħˤĤơΤ褦˹ͤƤ롥ɸಽβϡ͡νĤ̵ռŪʸѤ˶ư "a 'natural' linguistic process" 뤤 "a language-internal phenomenon" (51) Ǥ롥ϡФɸಽȰ勞˰뤬¤оȤʤƤ뵬ϼȤΤ "language-external: a cultural, ideological phenomenon" (52) ǤΤ椵롥̤˼ҲŪǤȹͤƤɸಽ "natural" "language-internal" ȤߤʤΤϵ;Ϥϼȶ̤ǤϡԤʬϤǤϤʤʽŪ̵ռȤϡKeller θѲˤָפε۵롥invisible_hand γƵȡ
Hope (50) ϡѸɸಽȵϼδطԤԤΩĴطǤ롥
One of the paradoxes of the relationship between standardisation and prescriptivism is that prescriptivism always follows, rather than precedes, standardisation. It is therefore wrong to see prescriptivism as the ideological wing of standardisation: standardisation can be initiated, and can run virtually to completion (as in the case of English in the early seventeenth century), in the absence of prescriptivist comment. In fact, it is arguable that prescriptivism is impossible until standardisation has done most of its work --- since it is only in a a relatively standardised context that some language users become conscious of, and resistant to, variation.
18εʸˡǻŦƤε§㤨С¿ζػߡˤϡǤˤٴѤȤɸಽƤ餳ŦΤǤäơФиƤ褦ˡʸˡȤǤиä櫓ǤɬʤθϡɸಽȵϼƱƤ롤뤤Ʊ˺Ѥδְ㤨ƤȤ館Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥ɸಽȵϼȤ2Ĥβ̤ξԤδطǧ뤳ȤפǤ롥
Hope, Jonathan. "Rats, Bats, Sparrows and Dogs: Biology, Linguistics and the Nature of Standard English." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 49--56.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
ڥ ( Esperanto )Ȥ줬롥1887ǯ˥ݡɤΰեۥ(Zamenhof)ˤäƹȤʤ٤ͰƤ줿Ǥ롥λˤϡEsperantoޤʣι줬³ȹͰƤ줿ǺǤǤꡤ10ͰʾüԤȤ롥ʸˡäϥ衼åѤθ졤ä˥ޥϤƤ뤬ñ㲽Ƥꡤ⤫ĤƤäȤΤưפǤʢޤƤʤȤȤˡܤǤܥڥȳزȤɽؤΤǡؿΤϻȤ줿
Esperantoֿ(artificial language)ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ˰ϤʤǤܸѸʤɤ̾θϡּ(natural language)ȸƤǤ褤Τ˿ؤιֵȤΤ褦˸äƤΤפФֿʹ֤ФΤǤʾ塤ʤɤȤΤϤꤨʤϤ٤ƿǤ롥
EsperantoȱѸֿפȤư勞ˤˤϡϤ롥ʤΤ
ǡ[2009-05-07-1]ˡָ̽ڤȸѲפȤƼ夲KellerƤӰ礤˽ФΤˤϼʪȿʪ뤬ԤˤϿŪʪȼŪʪबȤȤȤ˿Ƥߤ롥
things natural artificial(?) artificial natural the Alps Esperanto English flowers paper flowers traffic jam waterfalls euro 'grown' towns bee language satellite cities the Latin alphabet the Morse alphabet Buddhism
緿Ϣ٤Ǥϡ߹®̤ǡƻϩ60kmĶ۾ʽڤȤʤä褦ϲȤǤΤӤȤäΤﳲȤ줿ҤɤܤˤäɼԤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
ơ̽ڤȤݤˤĤƹͤȤ⤽⡤ʤ̽ڤϵΤΡ߹®פȤüʥ̤ˤƤ⡤̤ͳʤʾ˽ڤ뤳Ȥ褯롥ȳǤϤ "traffic jam out of nowhere" Ȥ餷¤Ϥ "traffic jam out of nowhere" θѲϤᡤҲ٤Ҳ̤ˤƱͤ˸뤳ȤŦƤ롥ʲˤKellerȤ(Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language . Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.)
"traffic jam out of nowhere" θ̽ڤϼΤ褦˵롥®100kmäƤƬA餫ͳǥ֥졼ڤƧߡ㤨СʿƸꡤ̥塼ꡤĴˡ®95kmȤʤ롥Ϥ®100kmäƤ³BϡA®٤ȤΤơ®90kmޤȤBϼºݤˤϻ®95kmޤȤǰʤΤAɤ줯餤®ΤʬʤΤǡѿ;פ˥֥졼ƧǤΤǤ롥Ʊͤ˸³CDEѿ;ʬ˥֥졼ƧࡥơS˻äƴ˥ȥåפ롥ơSʹߤϽڤˤϤޤäƤޤȤˤʤ롥
θݤϡAޤᡤïڤФȤտޤäƤʤȤBʹߤθġμ֤αžΰտޤȹư϶̤Ƥ롥Լ֤ʤ褦ѿɬװʾ˥֥졼ƧȤȤġͤȤƤϽڤФȤտޤϤʤΤΡΤȤƤϽڤ˹ƤޤäƤ롥Ĥޤꡤߥΰտޤȥޥη̤δ֤ˡġλĶ֥ۤåܥåŪϤƯƤΤǤ롥Υ֥åܥåŪϤ ( invisible hand )ȸƤФƤꡤкѳؤʤɤǤ褯ΤƤ롥
KellerˤȡѲθ⤳ invisible hand ˽ȤġüԤϸѲȤտޤƬʤ礦ɱž꤬Τ;ʬ˥֥졼ƧǤȹͤΤƱ褦ˡ˶̤ؿ˴ŤưĤȤƵȤ ˤꡤѲ̤Ȥ߽ФȤ櫓ǤϡѲξ硤ֳ˶̤ؿ˴ŤưפȤϲѲΥˤäưۤʤ㤨ĹñάȯȤ夨ƥեåʥ֥ʳΤۤѤȤäüԴ֤ǹͭ줦ߵͤ롥
invisible hand theory ϸѲͤǤ˽פʤΤǡˤϤޤ줿
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
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