ǧθؤθѲ˴ؤǥȤơѴץǥ (usage-based model) ȤΤƤƤ롥ëˤȿ (106, 105) 狼䤹
뤳ȤФˡζȤʤ륹 [A] 顤餫ǰæȤäˡ (B) 롥Ϥᡤ(B) ϥ [A] ˹פʤ(B) ˡ֤夹ˤĤơ(B) [A] ȶˤθΥƥ˼ޤ褦ˤʤ롥ȡ(B) Ǥ餿ʥ [A'] Ф졤ˤä (B) ǧ褦ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥Τ褦ѲΥƥֻѴץǥפ뤤ϡˡץǥ (usage-based model) Ȥ (Langacker 2000) ë106

ޤϽФϡݲǤȤǡʸˡ§ϽФȤӤ롥̾ʸˡ§ŪǤΤФơޤưŪǤꡤǤȤ㤤롥ޤϡæ㤬夹ˤĤơѹƤޤѲβˤơæ㤬夹ٹ礤ˤϸĿͺ뤿ᡤɬŪ˥ΤθĿͺ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѲΤ褦˰֤ŤƤȤ館ѴץǥˤƤϡηϤΤΤήưŪʤΤˤߤ
ޤ٤˸ĿͺȤȤϡѲ® (speed_of_change) ľ뤹뤷θλ (frequency) 䶦 (collocation) ȤϢѴץǥϡδطˤܤƤ롥ѲʥߥåʤΤǤϤ뤬줽ΤΤ˥ʥߥåʤΤǤꡤΥʥߥθλѤΤʤˤȤȤƶĴɾǤ
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ
synaesthesiaˤϡ¿ο͡δؿĤ롥ؤΥߤǤ⡤ǯΤ褦´ֳ롥⤽ synaesthesia ȤϲޤϡBussmann θѸ켭ŵѤ褦
synesthesia [Grk synaísthēsis 'joint perception']
The association of stimuli or the sense (smell, sight, hearing, taste, and touch). The stimulation of one of these senses simultaneously triggers the stimulation of one of the other senses, resulting in phenomena such as hearing colors or seeing sounds. In language, synesthesia is reflected in expressions in which one element is used in a metaphorical sense. Thus, a voice can be 'soft' (sense of touch), 'warm' (sensation of heat), or 'dark' (sense of sight).
Ĥޤꡤ봶Фɽ魯Τˡ̤δФ°ɽѤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥̸Ū˹ѻ븽ݤǤꡤε#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ήǤС̣˴ؤ뷹Ȥˡ§ȸƤ֤٤Τ˶ᤤܸǤ⡤ֽ餫סʿФȻСˡִŤס̣Ф̳СˡֲסʻФİСˤʤ¿롥
ѸǤ嵭ΰŪΤۤʸŪʸ줫 "I see a voice: now will I to the chink, To spy an I can hear my Thisby's face" (Sh., Mids. N. D. 5:1:194--95), "As they smelt music" (Sh., Tempest 4:1:178), "eyes which mutter thickly" (E. E. Cummings), "And taste the music of that vision pale" (Keats) ʤɤɽǤ⸫Ĥ롥
ʸػŪˤСͽۤ뤳Ȥsynaesthesia ϥޥɤλͤˡǤ롥ޥɤνи synaesthesia ϡ̵ǤϤʤɤӤĤƤ롥Ullmann (272--73) ϡ18ȾμҲˤʸػˤŸˡѸˤܳŪʶɽѤεߤƤ롥
In the latter half of the eighteenth century, a number of contributory factors prepared the ground for the romantic vogue of synaesthesia: occult influences (Swedenborg), theories about language origin (Herder), efforts to delimit the various arts (Lessing, Erasmus Darwin), Rousseau's use of sense-metaphors, and various other currents of pre-romantic literature.
All these threads were gathered up by the Romantic Movement. There were also some factors peculiar to that generation: the cult of exoticism and the use of drugs like hashish and opium; the part played by certain synaesthetic temperaments, such as E. T. A. Hoffmann; the tightening of social contacts between writers, artists and musicians; and in a more general way, the new code of aesthetics, with its search for novel and imaginative effects, expressiveness, and evocatory power. For the first time in the history of literature synaesthetic metaphor became a fully-fledged poetic device, and its stylistic potentialities were widely exploited. The most frequent settings in which it automatically presented itself were descriptive passages with strong suggestive power, where synaesthesia, like Leibniz's monads, provided several angles from which the same sensation could be viewed; situations where the organic unity of perceptual states had to be stressed; and last but not least, vague, dreamy, or even uncanny and hallucinatory moods where the semi-pathological implications of intersensorial transfer found a congenial expression. So strong was the interest in these 'correspondences', 'harmonies', and 'transpositions', that entire poems were devoted to synaesthetic themes. (273)
ΰѤϡ̣εҤǤȤȤʸػ˾ɾȤʤäƤꡤ¤˶̣Ullmann 夲ȷˤϡByron, Keats, William Morris, Wilde, Dowson, Phillips, Lord Alfred Douglas, Arthur Symons; Longfellow; Leconte de Lisle, Théphile Gautier; and the Hungarian romantic poet Vörösmarty ʤɤ
Ǥϡޥɤλͤ϶ŪˤɤΤ褦ʼ synaesthesia ɽѤΤˤĤƤϡεǡ
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Ullmann, Stephen. The Principles of Semantics. 2nd ed. Glasgow: Jackson, 1957.
[2010-03-04-1]ε#311. girl Ȥ褯 collocate ƻϲפǡȸζ (collocation) ¬ˡ (association measure) ˤϤĤμब뤳ȤѥؤǤϡLog-Likelihood Test ȤˤˡŪ褯ȤƤ뤬줾ηˡˤħΤǡʤ٤ʣˡΤ褤[2010-03-04-1]ƤȽʣʬ⤢뤬BNCweb ǼƤ7ηˡγơˤĤ Hoffmann et al. (149--58) Ȥʤ顤ħѤΥҥȤ
Ƽηˡϡ(a) (frequency of co-occurrence)(b) ͭ (significance of co-occurrence)(c) եȡ (effect-size) 1ġ뤤ʣȤ߹碌˴ŤƤ롥(b) ϡŪͭդǤȤγο٤ɽ魯ɸǤꡤζɽ魯ΤǤϤʤȤդɬפ롥(c) ϡѻ٤ȴ٤ȤδܤȤɸǤ롥
(1) Rank by frequency
ѻ붦٤ΤΤѤ롤ǤñľŪʼ١¾ηˡΤ褦ʣϤۤɤƤ餺ɸȤƤϺǤƤǽɵʤɤ̤뤳Ȥ¿̾ζʬϤˤѤʤ
(2) Log-likelihood
ͭѤ롥BNCweb ΥǥեȤηˡǡѥǹѤƤ롥ǽɵʤɤζˤƹ٤θȤζ䡤դ˶ˤ٤θ1, 2ʤɡˤȤζϤ롥٤ι⤤Ȥ߹碌˹ͿȤħꡤˤդפ롥
(3) Mutual information (MI)
եȡѤ롥ˤ褯ѤƤˡѤäƤ¿դפ롥ǽɵʤɤȤΤդ줿ŪӽƤϤ褤ȿ̡٤ζɽؤФ꤬㤷Фαƶ뤿ˡBNCweb Ǥ "Freq(node, collocate) at least" 10ʾꤹ뤳Ȥ侩롥ˤꡤ"conspicuous and intuitively appealing collocations involving words of intermediate frequency" (Hoffmann et al. 154) ⤭ĦȤʤ롥
(4) T-score
٤ȶͭθˡ٤1ʲ٤εʶɽˤĤƤ Rank by frequency Ȼ褦ʿ٤ι⤤ɽˤĤƤ϶ͭȿǤ롥ޤѻ٤٤ɬ⤯ʤ롥Log-likelihood ̤Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿٤ؤΥХϰضʤ롥ΡɤΤΤ1000礭ˡ̤ȯ뤳Ȥ롥
(5) Z-score
ͭȥեȡθˡ٤ζɽˤϥեȡŻ뤹뤬٤ζɽˤϤޤǥեȡ˴꤫ʤLog-likelihood MI ξħ褦ʡХμ줿ɸǤ롥MI Ʊͤˡ٤ζɽؤΥХߤΤǡ"Freq(node, collocate) at least" 5٤ꤹΤ褤Ȥ롥
(6) MI3
٤ȥեȡθˡMI ΤɽؤнŤ٤Ƥ롥ٶɽˤϥեȡٶɽˤ϶٤Ū褯ȿǤ롥POS ˤȤȤѤȸŪʣ줫ʤѸʤɤμФ˰Ϥȯ롥ΤȤƤϹٶɽؤΥХŪʶʬϤˤϸʤ
(7) Dice coefficient
MI3 Ʊͤˡ٤ȥեȡθˡMI3Ȱۤʤꡤٶɽˤ϶٤ٶɽˤϥեȡ褯ȿǤ졤ξԤڤؤޤʤΤħŪǤ롥ڤؤϡΡɤΤΤ٤ɽ٤10ܤۤɤǵȤ롥иŪˡZ-score Ȼ褦ʷ̤뤬Z-score ۤ٤˴ŤХʤ
ʾΤ褦¿ढäܰܤꤹ뤬Hoffmann et al. θˤСñηˡȤƤ Log-likelihood MI ǡηˡȤƤ Z-score Dice ȤΤȤǤ롥
͡ʷˡˤĤƤϡAssociation measures ȡ
Hoffmann, Sebastian, Stefan Evert, Nicholas Smith, David Lee, and Ylva Berglund Prytz. Corpus Linguistics with BNCweb : A Practical Guide. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2008.
ε[2012-05-05-1]˰³ grey eyes ꡥϡѸޥ grey eyes ˤĤƹͤζɽϸˤ³Ƥ롥BNCWeb ǡ"(grey|gray) {eye/N}" ȤƸȡ287㤬ҥåȤgrey eyes ̤ηƻԤƤߤȡclear, dark, deep, pale Ū¿beautiful bright 鷺ʤ餢ä
Τ褦㤫ȽǤȡgrey Τϵ̵ͭɽ魯̣ôƤʤ褦˻פ롥⤷ôƤȤСष pale ΡΤʤפȤ˰ѱѼdzǧ¤ꡤѸ grey ΰŪʸ촶ϡܸΤȤ褯ơnegative ϷǯµͫݵŷΥäơѸ grey eyes ϡnegative ʥ˥奢ä˴ްդʤɤߤȤʤС˿ȤƤΡֳפ뤤ϡĤߤΤ֤äפɽ魯Τȹͤ롥뤤ϡgrey eyes ϡ̣ޤäɽȤѤƤˤʤȤǽ⤢뤫⤷ʤ
ȡޤޤѸŵṲ̄ȤƤ grey eyes 狼ʤ⤷MED Silverstein Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѸ grey ɽ路ΤȤСѸεΤʤ grey 180٤ΰ̣ѲФȤˤʤ롥
gradation ΤǤꡤĤʤäƤϰϤ̣ꤷ뤳ȤϡʤʤѸΤߤʤ餺ܸˤƤ⡤̸Ǥ롥
ʤŵṲ̄ƤBrewer (258) ϡMatthew of Vandôme ˤ Helen of Troy ̤ʲ̤ꡤ1ĤηǤȤƤ롥
. . . her hair is golden, forehead white as paper, eyebrows black and thin. The space between the eyes (in contrast to the Greek ideal) is white and clear, a 'milky way'; the face is a shining star; the eyes are like stars. She has a little smile, a nose neither too big nor too small. Her face is rosy, her colouring white and red, like rose and snow. Teeth are like ivory, lips are small, slightly swelling, honeyed. Her mouth smells like a rose, her neck is smooth, shoulders radiant, well-spaced (dispatiati), breasts small, and figure incomparable.
ʽǤ礦ҲäƤߤ
Silverstein, Theodore, ed. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
Brewer, D. S. "The Ideal of Feminine Beauty in Medieval Literature, Especially 'Harley Lyrics', Chaucer, and Some Elizabethans." The Modern Language Review 50 (1955): 257--69.
COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) Ĥ Mark Davies ǯˡCOCA١Ǹ˴ؤǤ륵ӥ WORD AND PHRASE . INFO lemma ٤Ǿ60,000˸¤ˤϤȡ뤴Ȥ٤䤽Υ饤ϤȤꡤWordNet ˴Ť췲ޤǤ̾˸롥ۤȤɤιܤåǽǡʤ뵡ǽؤȥǤ롥եľŪǻȤ䤹
츦 collocation ˤΩĻͤˤʤäΤǤϤʤ㤨Сsemantic_prosody ä[2011-03-12-1]ε#684. semantic prosody ʸˡƥפǡո utterly, absolutely, perfectly, totally, completely, entirely, thoroughly ˤĤƤθҲ𤷤WORD AND PHRASE . INFO utterly ϤС췲ɥ˰롥ȤϡƸåƤ椯ǡ٤ collocation ξܺ٤롥Τ褦ĤΤ˸̤ȯ

##953,954,955 εǡǶ줿 COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) n-gram ǡ١ѤƤߤCOCA ˸ 2-grams, 3-grams, 4-grams, 5-grams ˤĤơ줾100ɽǡ١ǡ긵ˤƤС COCA ΥեǤϸˤɽθǽȤʤ롥
n-gram Υǡ١ϡᥬХȤ̤ΥƥȥեǡľܸˤϽŤǡSQLite ǡ١ؤȳǼSQL ʸˤ븡ǽȤʤ褦˸ץȤʲϡ̤κǽ10ԤϤ CGI Ǥ롥
# 1-grams ǡֻٽ˼Фʤcase-sensitive ʤΤǺƽפɬס
select * from one where pos1 like "i%" order by freq desc;
# 2-grams ǡϥʤΤٽ˼Ф
select * from two where word1 = "handsome" and pos1 = "jj" and pos2 like "nn_" order by freq desc;
# 2-grams ǡ"absolutely (adj.)" ǶĴƻٽ˼Ф[2011-03-12-1]ε#684. semantic prosody ʸˡƥפȡ
select * from two where word1 = "absolutely" and pos2 = "jj" order by freq desc;
# 3-grams ǡ٤ as ... as ɽФ
select * from three where word1 = "as" and word3 = "as" order by freq desc;
# 4-grams ǡ٤ from ... to ... ɽФ
select * from four where word1 = "from" and pos1 = "ii" and word3 = "to" and pos3 = "ii" order by freq desc;
# 5-grams ǡõ롨 "die of" "die from" ɤѻ
select * from five where word1 in ("die", "dies", "died", "dying") and pos1 like "vv%" and word2 in ("of", "from") and pos2 like "i%" order by word3;
n-gram ǡ١¤˻ȤʤˤϡΤ褦ˤ줿̤Ȥˤ˾ʤꡤʣθ̤դ碌ʤɤιפɬפ
[2011-12-06-1], [2011-12-07-1]εǡCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) 3-gram ǡ١ФѸˤƬƧ2।ǥ (binomial) ȵӱƧ2।ǥƤʬϤʤǡξꥹȤΤʤǽʣ2।ǥब줿ΤǡФƤߤ줾ƬȵӱξͤʤʸϤ碌ȤƤζɽǤ롥ʸ̤ƥȥե50ɽ褦
Saturday and Sunday, personal and professional, himself or herself, quantity and quality, morbidity and mortality, quantitative and qualitative, security and stability, best and brightest, latitude and longitude, sixteenth and seventeenth, whenever and wherever, sensitivity and specificity, watching and waiting, majority and minority, basketball and baseball, fight or flight, ranting and raving, forties and fifties, cooperation and coordination, nature and nurture, pushing and pulling, tossing and turning, twisting and turning, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, skiers and snowboarders, communication and collaboration, cooking and cleaning, psychiatrists and psychologists, biggest and best, development and deployment, slipping and sliding, communication and cooperation, Dungeons and Dragons, heterosexual and homosexual, healthier and happier, grandmother and grandfather, stopping and starting, sixteen or seventeen, hooting and hollering, competence and confidence, stalactites and stalagmites, waxing and waning, positive and productive, reading and rereading, patience and perseverance, bedroom and bathroom, consultation and collaboration, going and getting, grandfather and grandmother, protection and promotion
¿ϡƬȵӱϤȤƶ˰פȹͤϡ촴ɤ˸츻ŪʴϢ뤬椨ƬƧǤΤǤꡤƱѤƤ뤬椨˵ӱƧǤΤȲ᤹٤
ñʤϤͷӤȤʤ졥嵭ϡỌ̇̄Ĵ¤䤪ʤ2δ֤˰ɬƤӵΤ褦ʡ٤˽ŪɽȤfight or flight, nature and nurture, competence and confidence, positive and productive ʤɤϡñʤ٤ζɽǤȤʾˡŪȤ虜ŪǤ餢롥
ε#953. ƬƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-06-1]) ˰³ϡӱƧ٤ binomial COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) n-gram ǡ١ˤ꽦ФƱͤˡ3-gram Ѥ"A and/but/or B" ηζɽǡ A B ӱƧǤ褦̤Ǽƥȥե
̤įƤƺʤ鵤դȤʤΤӱƬ٤ƥѥĤ䤹ä˸ʤΤϡӱ¿촴θ˰¸ƤȤϡ˰¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ-ing, -ed, -ly, -al, -y, -ion, -er ʤɤζƤ롥
positive and negative, national and international, internal and external, Friday and Saturday, teaching and learning, gifted and talented, elementary and secondary, hunting and fishing, personal and professional, presence or absence, reliability and validity, coming and going, winners and losers, physical and psychological, formal and informal, directly and indirectly, advantages and disadvantages, rising and falling, physically and mentally, buyers and sellers
ޤͤƤߤС⤢ʤȤʤΤʣ2ǤƱǤѤ뤳Ȥˤ걤ƧǤ¿ self-rhyme ǤϤ롥
Friday and Saturday, children and grandchildren, Saturday and Sunday, hardware and software, himself or herself, formal and informal, parents and grandparents, direct and indirect, buyers and sellers, mother and grandmother, father and grandfather, Afghanistan and Pakistan, anything and everything, football and basketball, indoor and outdoor, direct or indirect, servicemen and women, likes and dislikes, urban and suburban, indoor and outdoor
¿Ѥޤ right-headed ʣѸˤƤϡӱѤ2।ǥηưפǤꡤˤǤ뤳ȤϡǤդ鸫С촴θƬѤƬ2।ǥηϡŪȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ
[2011-07-26-1]ε#820. ʩƱפǡ2।ǥ (binomial idiom) Ҳ𤷤and, but, or ʤɤ³ǷФ2फʤɽϸѸǤ⸲ߤǤꡤ褯ΤˤϡϤΤ褤 (euphony) ¿ѸˤƸϤɤȤС[2011-11-26-1]ε#943. ƬˤפǼ夲Ƭ (alliteration) ŵ1ĤȤƵ롥
Ȥǡ1122ˡ絬ϥ饤ѥ COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ʤɤΤ륳ѥؼ Mark Davies COCA ˴Ť n-gram ̵Ǹ2, 3, 4, 5줫ʤ롤줾100ζɽ (collocation) ٿȤȤǡ١ǡɤƥե饤Ǽͳ˽Ǥ롥
Visit N-GRAMS: from the COCA and COHA corpora of American English. For downloading, directly visit Free lists.
Also visit Word frequency lists and dictionary: from the Corpus of Contemporary American English for other COCA-derived n-grams and frequency lists.
ǡCOCA n-gram 鸽Ѹ2।ǥ˸ƬõƽФƤߤ褦ȻפΩä3-gram ǡ١Ѥ"A and/but/or B" ηζɽõäüԤΰռƤʤȤǤ⡤ƬɽΤʤѤƤϤȤͽۤΤȤǤθäºݤ¿ФȤǤ̤Υƥȥե2θƬλҲפƤΤФʤΤǡ줬ɽ魯ҲפƤȤϸ¤餺դɬפǤ롥Ǥ⡤ŪƬФȤǤ
̤̾ˤϡhis or her, four or five, six or seven, this or that, Saturday and Sunday ʤɡʤۤɤȤϻפ碌뤬ۤɶ̣ʤ㤬ʤʤǥŪʤΤ⤦Τ褦ʶɽ⼡ȵꡤι夬ä
public and private, rules and regulations, pots and pans, command and control, flora and fauna, free and fair, death and destruction, go and get, safety and security, signs and symptoms, fame and fortune, families and friends, fresh or frozen, peace and prosperity, past and present, quantity and quality, morbidity and mortality, slowly but surely, professional and personal, name and number, facts and figures, pencil and paper, state and society, small but significant, clear and convincing
n-gram ˤĤƤϡ[2010-12-25-1]ε#607. Google Books Ngram Viewerפ⻲ȡ
ε[2011-03-02-1]Ǽꤢ semantic prosody ˴Ϣꡥȸζطˤ4Ĥμब̤롥ʲMcEnery et al. (84--85, 149--52) Ȥơ٤㤤Τ⤤Τؤ¤١줾γפ
(1) collocation: ùܤȸùܤȤδط
(2) colligation: ùܤʸˡƥȤδط
(3) semantic preference: ùܤȡ̣Ū˴Ϣ췲Ȥδط
(4) semantic prosody: Ụ߽̄Фùܤζط
(1) collocation ñ˸ȸ줬ȤطؤŪˤŪʳǰȹͤƤ롥ɤ٤٤äƶ "collocate" ƤȸʤȤǤΤ˴ؤơԤΤŪʴϰۤʤ see [2010-03-23-1], [2010-03-04-1] ) ̾ϡQŪˡֹ١פǤ collocation ȸƤǤ褦
(2) ̾ house ȺǤ٤Ƕ the a ʤɤδ줬뤬 collocation 椹Ǥޤ̣ͭǤʤ̾ǤдȶΤϼǤꡤhouse ˸ꤵ줿äǤϤʤcollocation ̣ͭʽѸȤݤĤˤϡhouse ȴΤ褦ʡʸˡƥδطɽ魯Ѹ줬ɬפȤʤ롥줬 colligation Ǥ롥
(3) semantic preference ϡ̣Ūͭ롤٤Ƕν˴ؤطǤ롥㤨Сlarge Ͽ̡Ϥɽ魯췲 ( ex. number(s), scale, part, quantities, amount(s) ) ȶutterly ħηǡ֤Ѳɽ魯췲 ( ex. helpless, useless, unable, forgotten; changed, different ) ȶ롥large utterly ϶ΰ̣ϰϤǤ롥
(4) semantic prosody Ϻε[2011-03-02-1]ǵ̤ǡ٤ɾȤäŪʰ̣߽ФطؤüԤΰռ˾ʤ줿ްդǤ뤳Ȥ¿semantic preference üʸȸ뤳ȤǤζܤɬΤǤϤʤ
μζǤ졤˴ؤܺ٤ʸŻҥѥǰ٤¿ʸ褦ˤʤäȤˤȯŸƤsemantic prosody θϡ̣ȯŸ˹뤳ȤϤޤǤʤ֤ζ̤餫ˤΤΩĤȤޤΤǸض伭ؤʬˤ뤳Ȥˤʤޤμθϸ̣ȶӤĤ븦ǤϤ뤬 utterly ȤδϢǼħηǡ֤ѲפȤ̣δͿͤȡpolarity modality ȤäʸˡƥȤδϢ⼨졤Ȥ⸫ơ֤뤳Ȥˤΰ̣夷Ƥ椯Ȥ˾ƤС̻Ūʸоݤˤʤ롥
semantic prosody ϡΤ褦˹ϤʱѤԤǤǤ롥McEnery et al. (84) ˺Ƕθν郎ΤǡͤޤǤ˰ʲƤ
Hunston, S. Corpora in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002.
Louw, B. "Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodies." Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair. Eds. M. Baker, G. Francis and E. Tognini-Bonelli. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1993. 157--76.
Louw, B. 2000. "Contextual Prosodic Theory: Bringing Semantic Prosodies to Life." Words in Context: A Tribute to John Sinclair on his Retirement. Eds. C. Heffer, H. Sauntson and G. Fox. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 2000.
Partington, A. Patterns and Meanings. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998.
Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.
Schmitt, N. and R. Carter "Formulaic Sequences in Action: An Introduction." Formulaic Sequences. Ed. N. Schmitt. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2004. 1--22.
Stubbs, M. "Collocations and Semantic Profiles: On the Cause of the Trouble with Quantitative Methods." Function of Language 2.1 (1995): 1--33.
Stubbs, M. "Texts, Corpora, and Problems of Interpretation: A Response to Widdowson." Applied Linguistics 22.2 (2001): 149--72.
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
semantic prosody ϡǯΥѥؤζδˤä߽Ф줿ǰǤꡤȤƤܤ褦ˤʤäƤƱѥؤˤäܤ褦ˤʤä collocation ȤϢƤ롥Louw (57) ˤСsemantic prosody "a form of meaning which is established through the proximity of a consistent series of collocates" Ǥ롥⤦ʬ䤹Ȥ Crystal Ѥ褦
A term sometimes used in corpus-based lexicology to describe a word which typically co-occurs with other words that belong to a particular semantic set. For example, utterly co-occurs regularly with words of negative evaluation (e.g. utterly appalling). (428)
Ȥ utterly appalling Ƥ褦ˡutterly ȤդϾˡŪɽ魯Ĵ롥¾ˡhappen set in ȤʶưԲʽɽ魯̾ȶ뤳Ȥ¿semantic prosody Ȥϡˤäƶ뤳Τ褦ʡְ̣βפΤȤؤμ礿뵡ǽüԤ٤ɾɽ魯ȤǤ롥¿Ūɾ˴ؤΤǤꡤŪɾϾʤʸԤȤƤϡŪʶ utterly ФƹŪʶ perfectly 褦ˡsemantic prosody collocation ȶӤĤƤ뤳ȤϡMcEnery et al. (83) εƤ personal price 㤫餫Ǥ롥personal price ñȤǤϤɾΩŪ̾Ūʰ̣βȼ
ζˤä semantic prosody 줬ʬ夷Ƥȡζΰդ˰æ뤳Ȥˤä桼⥢ʤɤüʸ̤ɽ魯ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥㤨СCobuild written corpus ˼Τ褦ʸ롥
Their relationship in fact was so complete that they were utterly content in each other's company.
semantic prosody ˴ؤ뤳ȤΤǤʤϡȸζˤäƤʤβʼŪʲˤΤ뤤Ū˳ƤΤȤǤ롥utterly ϤʤŪʲӤӤΤ䤤ФơŪʸȶ뤳Ȥ¿ä utterly ΤβӤӤ褦ˤʤäȤ뤫⤷ʤ⤽Ūʸȶ뤳Ȥ¿äΤϤʤʤΤ utterly ΤŪŪʲӤӤƤǤϤʤޤ˷ܤ褫褫˴٤äƤޤΤ褦ʾξȤơ(1) ŪŪ (2) ŪʸȤˤʶȤ2Ĥװߤ˺Ѥ̤ȤäȤⲺ⤷ʤŪǶᡤ -ish ŪʴްդγˤĤŪʸԤʤäˤȤäƤϡǺޤǤ롥McEnery et al. (84) ⤳˿Ƥ롥
It might be argued that the negative (or less frequently positive) prosody that belongs to an item is the result of the interplay between the item and its typical collocates. On the one hand, the item does not appear to have an affective meaning until it is in the context of its typical collocates. On the other hand, if a word has typical collocates with an affective meaning, it may take on that affective meaning even when used with atypical collocates. As the Chinese saying goes, 'he who stays near vermilion gets stained red, and he who stays near ink gets stained black' --- one takes on the colour of one's company --- the consequence of a word frequently keeping 'bad company' is that the use of the word alone may become enough to indicate something unfavourable . . . .
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Louw, B. 2000. "Contextual Prosodic Theory: Bringing Semantic Prosodies to Life." Words in Context: A Tribute to John Sinclair on his Retirement. Eds. C. Heffer, H. Sauntson and G. Fox. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 2000.
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
Chaucer 桤knight Ȥ90ʾ塤ӱս˸Ƥ롥бӱĴ١˥ɥǽ줿2ĤΥޥ Kyng Alisaunder Arthur and Merlin ǤƱͤĴ٤Ƥߤȡˤ⤷¤⤫Ӿ夬롥
Chaucer knight ȵӱƧȤ5ʾ帽Τˡmight (32), wight (22), night (9), right (8), bright (5) 롥Kyng Alisaunder ǤϹ٤ΤΤˤ wiȝth, fiȝth, riȝth / miȝth ꡤƱ Arthur and Merlin Ǥ ''fiȝt, riȝt, riȝth 롥ӱʬۤޤȤΤʲοޤǤBurnley, p. 130 οޤȤ˺ˡ

Chaucer εӱϡ٤ΤΤ濴ȤȾ¾2ĤΥޥʤȽʣƤꡤΤȤѸޥŪʵӱѤǤȲǤ롥ǡChaucer ΤߤѤƤӱ⤤Ĥǧ졤ͤεӱι롥
ӤˤäƤʤ˶̣¤롥¾Υޥ2ʡҤƤѸޥΤȤơǤ٤⤤ӱȤߤʤƤ褤Ȼפ fight Chaucer ˤϰ٤⸽ʤΤǤ롥knight fight ϱǤꡤcollocation ٹ礤⤤ȤϼǤ뤫顤Chaucer ˤԺߤԼȤפ롥Burnley (131) ϡӱȤƤ fight ԺߤϡChaucer ȤδϢ⤢뤫⤷ʤ餯 Chaucer "a hackneyed rhyme" ֻȤŤ줿ӱפȤߤʤưռŪȤ
Although he [Chaucer] was often content to employ familiar and traditional rhymes, there is also evidence of resourcefulness in seeking unusual rhymes, as well as of avoiding rhymes which might have proved unacceptable to his audience. (Burnley 131)
ͤѤӱǤϤʤѤʤäӱŦ뤳ȤǡλͤħθФ٤⤭Ħˤʤꤦ빥Ǥ롥ԺߤʤΤѤʤäΤΤˤϡ¾ӤʤФʤʤоݤܼΤˤϡ줬֤ƤĶϤɬפ롥ʸؤο褦ʰŪǤ롥
ʤߤˡknight fight collocation ϶ä˰㤤ʤȽҤ٤ǤäǤ롥Ѹˤξ collocation BNCweb Ĵ٤ȤۤɸǤϤʤ̾ knight 5 fight ٤ϥѥ10Ǥ롥[2010-03-23-1]εǿ줿 MI T-score ͤȡ줾 3.5415, 2.8907 Ǥꡤcollocation ǧƤ褤ǤϤ롥
Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983. 13--15.
ܥ֥Ǥϡ饤ѤǤ븽ѸΥѥȤơؤ˻Ȥ BNC ( The British National Corpus )ܳŪ˻Ȥ BNCWeb̵ϿˤҲ𤷤ƤBNC Ϥ̾ǡꥹѸΥѥǡۤ1975ǯʹߤαѸ줬1줪Ƥ롥Τ9Ͻա1äդȤǤ롥ߥ饤ѤǤεϤαѸ쥳ѥǤ롥
ϤǤСä礭ʱѸ쥳ѥ¸ߤ롥˳³˥ѥ The Bank of English ǤꡤεϤ55000ˤޤã롥BNC ȰۤʤꡤꥹѸǤʤꥫѸޤ¾Ѽ⥫СƤ롥
Τΰ5600줬 Cobuild Concordance and Collocations Sampler Ȥƥ饤̵ǸƤ롥饤40ԤޤǡΥ100̤ޤǤϤʤ֥ǥǡפǤϤ뤬˴ñʥ꤬ǤʤɡڤŪǤнʬ˻Ȥͤͭ Collins WordbanksOnline ⤢ˡ
ΥȤƤϡT-score MI ( Mutual Information ) ٤롥[2010-03-04-1]Ǥ줿줾Υħñ˽Ҥ٤롥
MI (mutual information): 2줬Ị̇Ū˾Ƥ뷹롥Ѷ硤Ȥ虜ʣ졤Ѹʤäθ˹⤤ͤͿ롥ѥΥ˰¸ʤ3ʾͤä collocate ƤȤߤʤȤ롥ȤƤϡϢۥŪʸȸδط餫ˤʤȹͤȤ褤 ( = lexical collocation )ٸ줬Ĵ뷹ꡤäǤ⤷̤ˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥
T-score: collocation ٤ΤΤλɸȤ⡤ߤ˴Ϣȸڤο٤λɸѥΥƤƤ롥̾ϡ2ʾͤǤ collocation ŪͭդȤߤʤ롥2ζ٤˾Ƥ뤿ᡤɤˤֻ졤Ѳ졤;̾졤ʤɤʸˡ¤θΤۤȤŤƤޤäȡޤʸʤɤ줬̤˥롥ȤƤϡʸ䵡ǽϢ餫ˤʤȹͤȤ褤 ( = grammatical collocation )
䥳νϤϡѸθؽΤǤʤѤȯۥġ롤ϢۥġȤƤȤ롥㤨Сoctopus Υ MI ͤФƤߤȡ̤ squid, dried, october ʤɤ롥̣襤
ˡܲ עؼѥء١ˡ1998ǯ113--15ǡ
ѥȤä collocation ¿ʬǤϹԤäȤʤäΤǡMcEnery et al. (56--57, 210--20) ͤˤĤġ餪ķǤ collocation ΤƤߤä collocation ˤ͡ɸħդƤߤ
ϡgirl Ȥ褯 collocate ƻϲסѤ륳ѥ BNCWeb girl κ¦3ޤǤ˸ƻоݤȤcollocation ζ٤͡ʻɸФơɸȤ˾20ĤޤǤηƻˤΤɽǤ롥
| Rank | raw frequency | observed/expected | t-score | z-score | log-likelihood | MI | MI3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | little | 15-year-old | little | little | little | 15-year-old | little |
| 2 | young | 16-year-old | young | young | young | 16-year-old | young |
| 3 | that | dark-haired | good | 15-year-old | good | dark-haired | good |
| 4 | this | 13-year-old | that | dark-haired | clever | 13-year-old | clever |
| 5 | good | nine-year-old | this | 16-year-old | poor | nine-year-old | pretty |
| 6 | one | 14-year-old | old | clever | pretty | 14-year-old | that |
| 7 | old | four-year-old | poor | pretty | old | four-year-old | 15-year-old |
| 8 | other | year-old | other | teenage | that | year-old | dark-haired |
| 9 | poor | clever | clever | 13-year-old | beautiful | clever | poor |
| 10 | clever | teenage | one | nine-year-old | lovely | teenage | 16-year-old |
| 11 | beautiful | blonde | pretty | four-year-old | golden | blonde | this |
| 12 | pretty | pretty | beautiful | head | nice | pretty | old |
| 13 | small | head | nice | 14-year-old | 15-year-old | head | beautiful |
| 14 | any | little | lovely | poor | teenage | little | teenage |
| 15 | nice | wee | big | blonde | dark-haired | wee | lovely |
| 16 | big | eldest | small | good | head | eldest | head |
| 17 | another | brave | golden | golden | 16-year-old | brave | golden |
| 18 | lovely | golden | tall | beautiful | tall | golden | nice |
| 19 | new | silly | dear | lovely | this | silly | tall |
| 20 | golden | young | teenage | year-old | dear | young | blonde |
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