ε[2012-04-17-1]ơlingua franca ȤѸˤĤƾܤĴ٤Ƥ椯Ȥˤ롥ޤϡؽױѱѼʸįƤߤ褦
OALD8: a shared language of communication used between people whose main languages are different: English has become a lingua franca in many parts of the world.
LDOCE5: a language used between people whose main languages are different: English is the lingua franca in many countries.
LAAD2: a language used between people whose main languages are different: Swahili is the lingua franca of East Africa.
COBUILD English Dictionary: A lingua franca is a language or way of communicating which is used between people who do not speak one another's native language: English is rapidly becoming the lingua franca of Asia.
CALD3: a language which is used for communication between groups of people who speak different languages but which is not used between members of the same group: The international business community sees English as a lingua franca.
MED2: a language that people use to communicate when they have different first languages: German is a useful lingua franca for tourists in the Czech Republic.
MWALED: a language that is used among people who speak various different languages: English is used as a lingua franca among many airline pilots.
äǡ줬ߤ˰ۤʤԤɤδ֤ǥߥ˥ʤȤѤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥ؽԱѱѼˡʸǤϰŪ˱ѸȤΤ¿LAAD2 MED2 Ǥ Swahili German Ǥ롥ѸǰƬ֤ƤޤȡˤäƤ lingua franca ѹݸȤäªƤޤΤ褦˱Ѹʳθ줬ȤƤʸȡθǥХȤ롥ˡ̤αѱѼεҤƤߤ褦
OED2: 2b. lingua franca [It., = 'Frankish tongue']: a mixed language or jargon used in the Levant, consisting largely of Italian words deprived of their inflexions. Also transf. any mixed jargon formed as a medium of intercourse between people speaking different languages.
Web3: 2. any of various hybrid or other languages that are used over a wide area as common or commercial tongues among peoples of diverse speech (as Hindustani, Swahili).
AHD4: 1. A medium of communication between peoples of different languages.
WordNet 2.0: a common language used by speakers of different languages: Koine is a dialect of ancient Greek that was the lingua franca of the empire of Alexander the Great and was widely spoken throughout the eastern Mediterranean area in Roman times.
ǤϡɬѸӤǤϤʤŪ̩ΩġOED θȾǰŪžѤ줿Ȥ "any mixed jargon . . ." ͿƤΤϡԤˡȿǤƤʤŤҤȤ٤Web3 μݤźäơ"any language or (mixed) jargon . . ." դ꤬ŬΤ褦˻פ롥
ơlingua franca ΰ̣⤭ĦˤʤäƤǤפϡlingua franca üԤˤϡȤüԤޤޤƤʤȤȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ줬եȤƸڤʸ̮ǤϡѸüԤΥʤΰ̣ǤϡELF (English as a Lingua Franca) Ȥ ENL (English as a Native Language) ФѸȤʤ롥ơαѸѤ ELF δ鸫ȡlingua franca ϡֱѸüԳפȤꤹӤӤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥䤬ŬڤɾפפȤ϶䤫lingua franca ϡǫɤäƹԤȡΤ褦ʶĥˤĤʤꤦ롥ѸüԳĬήˤĤƤϡ[2009-10-07-1]ε#163. ɤαѸΤäȤ깽!?פ[2010-01-24-1]ε#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥפȤ줿
Ѹ줬 lingua franca ʥեˤǤȤ ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) Ȥɽˤʹ褦ˤʤäΤϡ[2011-09-11-1]ε#867. Barber ǡѸθѲˤߤ뷹פǿ줿褦ˡ1990ǯȾаʹߤΤȤǤʤ¾elf γƵ lingua franca ޤƵȡˡEIL (English as an International Language) Ȥɽʹ뤳ȤäǶǤϤޤʹʤ"international language" ǤȤ¦̤⡤"lingua franca" ǤȤ¦̤ĴƤơǶǤϤŪ "global language" λѤƤƤ롥
ˤ븽Ѹͤǡlingua franca ȤѸԲķˤŬڤʤرѸˤDzۤѸθǤϡp. 12 lingua franca Τˡֺפ̸ֶפȤȤäƤ롥
lingua franca 17˥ꥢѤѸɽǡϡ֥ե²θפΰդǤ롥θϥꥢ졤ե졤ꥷ졤ڥ졤ӥ줫ʤ뺮ǡĤ泤ϰζ̸ȤƵǽˡ֥եפϸ˰Ū˶̸ؤƾΤȤʤäեϤȤʤԤɤפʤɤμŪŪ˻Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ߡѸϤǤޤˤΤ褦ŪѤƤΤǤꡤǺǤƶϤΤեȸƤǺ٤ʤ
¾Ǥ֥եס֥եס֥եפʤɤȥʸФ뤳Ȥ¿¼ϸФȡ̸ֶסס֡ʺ̾סֺססֺݸספʤɤΩƤ롥ϡñȤΤǤСסդ꤬ŬڤǤϤʤȹͤƤ뤬 ELF Ƥʸ̮Ǥϡ̸ֶפ뤤ϾˤäƤϡפȤۤƱ˲ᤵƤΤǤϤʤ̸ֶפɬŬڤǤϤʤܸǤϽɽܸζ̸פȤѸ줪ӳǰ夷Ƥ뤳Ȥ䡤lingua franca ˤϡ̸ֶפɬäƤʤޤߤȤȤ顤ǤϤʤޤפϤޤ "global language" "world language" ª٤
ʤlingua franca θ츻Ǥ֥ե²θפˤĤư19ޤ泤ϰäƤ Lingua Franca ʤϥꥢʤɥ衼åѤθäȤƤᡤӥͤʤɤˤȤäƤϥ衼åŪʸˤۤʤʤä餯ˤȤäƤϡ franca Ȥϥޥ̱²ΰɤȤƤΥե²ؤǤϤʤ衼åѽä̱²ؤäΤǤϤʤ
εǤ lingua franca ΰ̣õꡤѸƤ椯
Baugh and Cable ϡŵŪ̾ǤѸˡ5ǡˤ1ϤǡѸιŪȤ "econo-technical superiority" ̩ܤʴط⤤Ƥ롥Ѹ줬ݸȤʤäطʤˤĤƤԤιͤϡҤȤ˸쳰μҲŪװ椨ǤȤƤꡤǤ[2012-04-13-1]ε#1082. ʤѸȤʤä (1)פDz⤷ Crystal βȰפƤ (Baugh and Cable, pp. 3, 11) Baugh and Cable ϡ"econo-technical superiority" ΤߤθݸؤȻ餷ŪװǤ櫓ǤϤʤ٤Ĺˤ錄벼ѤߤˤפǤȤƤ롥DZѸ椵ƤΤ "econo-technical superiority" ĤȤܸǤ롥
If "econo-technical superiority" is what counts, we might wonder about the relative status of English and Japanese. Although spoken by 125 million people in Japan, a country that has risen to economic and technical dominance since World War II, the Japanese language has yet few of the roles in international affairs that are played by English or French. The reasons are rooted in the histories of these languages. Natural languages are not like programming languages such as Fortran or LISP, which have gained or lost international currency over a period of a decade or two. Japan went through a two-century period of isolation from the West (between 1640 and 1854) during which time several European languages were establishing the base of their subsequent expansion. (5)
ݸȤƺդˤϡ٤Ĺˤ錄äνϰ˱ƶϤԻȤݻȯŸƤ椯ɬפȤϡΤˤ̤Ȼפԥ塼Ƹ꤬û֤ǵΤФơʹ֤θƸäȤäꤷΤǤȤŦⶽ̣ʹ֤θϡԥ塼Τ褦ˡŪʥץκȤ1ĤŪòƤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿¿ͤʵǽäƤ뤷[2012-04-02-1]ڤ function_of_language νȡˡüԶƱΤμҲŪˤǻȿǤƤ롥Τ褦ʿʹ֤θϡȤݥߥ˥ȤŪŪΤѤȤƤ⡤û֤Ǥ뤯ȼؤ뤳Ȥ⤷ݴطή줬ߤäȷ㤷ʤꡤƳޤ뤷Ÿ褦ʼҲˤʤСȯŸԥ塼ȤθΤ褦ˡʹ֤θιŪƸ⡤û֤Ǥ뤯ȸؤǽϤ롥QŪˤϡʹ֤θ줬Ū˺դƤ椯ˤϡλ֤ȼƤλ֤ɬפǤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤
Baugh and Cable ξεϡĤǵ䤬롥ܡʸˤ econo-technical superiority ȤȤơȱѸιŪȤӤƤΤˤ⤫餺ܸ줬κޤǤä̤餻Ƥͳ狼ʤѸΤμ줬λ֤ƹŪŸФƤΤФơܸΤ60ǯ֤ʤäȤΤǤСѤߤˤĹȤӤƤȤǤԤ17ˤνιŪΩܸβͶιŪΩӤƤޤäƤ롥
ޤBaugh and Cable ܤ "a two-century period of isolation from the West" ܸιݲˤȤäװäȹͤƤ褦ΤȤδط䤷ȤʤܸιݲƻĤΤȤɬʤ䡤̤ǤϤ̤꤫⤷ʤλˤμƳôäƤΤϳΤνǤꡤȲ餫δطФʤŸԲǽä褦˻פ롥Ÿʸ̤ªΤǤΤȤδطɬܤäˤʤˤʤäƤΤϹŪ٤ǤꡤɬоݤȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤʸαѸǤʤĤƤȤϷ褷Ƹʤˡ쥢Ȥ˸¤Сľλ塤濴Ȥ̾ʤǡܤϤषϰθפμƳȲƤꡤ쥢ǤιݲϻƤΤǤ롥äƤ⡤Τ̾ιȤƤϥ˸¤äΤΡȤϸפ³ڹΰȤ̿ƤǤ⺿ˤΤȤƸꤵ줿̾ǤäȤϡꤷ褦ʤΤȤδط䤬ʤܸιݲƻĤΤ褦ʵϡ濴ŪʸǤ롥
⤦1Baugh and Cable Ϻ1640--1854ǯȤƤ뤬δϡۤʿͤ˶ž졤٤ƤγǰפĹ˽椵줿1641ǯȤΤܻˤǤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ˤѸν¤פˤĤƤϡelf γƵ䡤Ȥ櫓 statistics elf γƵǼ夲ƤѸϸ߿ʹǤꡤѸ˴ؤ¤פѲκˤ뤿ˡǿξΤª뤳Ȥǯ٤졤ˤäƤϿǯ٤ξȤ˸䤷̤ȤȤˤʤ꤬Ǥ롥ޤ¿θԤ䵡ؤ¤פĴƤΤΡ̤ξ̤˸ɽˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥ¿뤳Ȥ
ʲΰϡ2006ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Schmitt and Marsden (2--3) ˵ƤѸν¤פνܤԤ⤤褦 "In many cases, the most current information available dates from the 1990s, or even the 1980s." (2) Ǥ롥ޤǻͻΤ褦˰ƤǤϤ롥ʤʸǤϡƹܤŵƤꡤɬפ˱ƻȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
English is the principal language of intercontinental telephone communication.
Perhaps as much as 75 percent of mail around the world is written in English.
About half of the world's newspapers are published in English.
Twenty-eight percent of the books published annually are in English.
The majority of academic journals with international readership are in English.
The majority, and perhaps even more than two-thirds, of international scientists write in English. For example, nearly two-thirds of the publications produced by French scientists were in English in the early 1980s. Likewise, English was the major working language for German academics surveyed in the early 1990s. In 13 out of 20 disciplines, at least 40 percent claimed to work in English, and for psychology, biology, chemistry, and physics, the figures ranged from 81 to 98 percent. One can only suspect that these figures are even higher today.
Ninety percent of Internet hosts were based in English-speaking countries in the mid-1998s.
Close to 80 percent of the world's computer data available on the Internet was stored in English in the 1990s, which is not surprising considering that English-speaking countries took the lead in developing the Internet. However, as other countries rapidly increase their use of the Internet, the use of non-English languages is rising. Still, English sites on the Internet continue to attract a disproportionately high percentage of hits.
Forty percent of the people online on the Internet speak English (228 million people), though this may eventually drop to around 30 percent. The next highest language is Chinese at 9.8 percent (55.5 million people).
The most influential software company, Microsoft, is based in an English-speaking country: the United States.
Most of the largest advertising agencies are based in the United States.
Eighty-five percent of world institutions use English as their language, or as one of their languages; for example, it is the official language of the Olympics and the World Council of Churches.
The official international language for both aviation and maritime use is English.
English is the dominant language of international trade, with about 40 percent of the business deals made in English.
The most influential movies and modern music come from English-speaking countries.
In 1994, 80 percent of all feature films that were shown in cinemas worldwide were in English.
About 85 percent of the global movie market was controlled by the United States in 1995.
The fact that large numbers of people are learning English as a second language is reflected by the large number of people taking the TOEFL® Test (about 689,000 people in 215 countries) and University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) tests (more than 1 million people in more than 130 countries) every year.
1997ǯ˽Ǥ Graddol 2003ǯ˽Ǥ Crystal ʤϤŤˤμƤ롥Ϣơ#48. Ū˱Ѹ줬Ѥפʬ ([2009-06-15-1]) #716. ѸˤΥȥ2011ǯǡˤȤβ ([2011-04-13-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϸ̤˾åץǡȤǤФ褤Τ˾ѤΤǡǤե륿ǤλŻˤʤäƤޤΤ褦ʹܰϡŤȤǧĤġ˻ȤäƤ椯Τ褤
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ؤδŪʹܤ˴Ϣܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲Ƥեι¤ؼ André Martinet (1908--99) ѸαƺˤĤͤ1995ǯʸȯΤɤǤߤ (see André Martinet)
衼åѤǤŪ˱ѸγؽȤХꥹѼ郎ǤꥢꥫѸȤƤŪŪʸŪˤ̩Ǥ륤ꥹػظΤϼȤмǤ롥Ѹ˸¤餺衼åѤ˵ꥫΦؤ礷衼åѤμˤĤƤƱǧ롥衼åѿͤˤȤäơڥȤѼǤϤʤڥѼݥȥȤХ֥饸ѼǤϤʤݥȥѼեȤХ٥åѼǤϤʤեѼ
Ѹۤ lingua franca ȤƤ䤬礭ʤäƤȡѼκ⤿餹礭ʤäƤ롥ȤФˤĤƤϡ¾塤ʤȤäƤ褤äȤФˤĤƤȯϻ˸ˤʤ롥Martinet ϡȤηиȤơꥫǽпϤʹ줿Ȥ France [frɑːns] ȥꥹȯȤFlorence ʹְ㤨줿Τǡʹߤ [fræns] ȯ褦ȤԥɤҤ٤Ƥ (124)
Martinet ϡ餷ˤĤƳڴŪǤ롥Ѥ˴ؤƺѤƤĴǽȲ褷ƤȤͤߤΥߥ˥̩ˤʤäƤƤ븽ߡۤʤˡФ봲ƤȤμ« (convergence) μ¤˿ʹԤƤꡤ餺Ŭڤʲߤȡ
Comme toutes les langues évoluent à chaque instant pour satisfaire aux besoins changeants de ceux qui les emploient, nous sommes tous, sans nous en douter, dressés à comprendre et à accepter des formes et des valeurs que nous ne pratiquons plus ou que nous n'avons jamais pratiquées, mais que nous avons entendues et identifiées depuis notre enfance. (126)
٤ƤθϡλѼԤѤ椯˱٤˿ʲƤ椯Τ顤䤿Ϥߤʡ˵դȤ⡤Ϥʤäꡤ٤ȤΤʤ֤ͤǤϤʤҶκʹƤǧƤ֤ͤǤƤ롥
Crystal ͽ WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) ϡꥫѸäȤФߤȤʤäơαѸüԤĴäƤ椯ȤȯŸƤ椯ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ뤬 Martinet ΰѤϤŪʻͿƤȤ뤫⤷ʤ (see wsse )
Ѽ convergence 뤤 conversion ˤĤƤϡ[2010-10-09-1]ε#530. ꥫѸ conversion / diversionפȡ
Martinet, André. "Quelle sorte d'anglais pour les plurilingues à venir?" International Journal of the Sociology of Language 109 (1994): 121--27.
ε#958. Ūʹݿ줬٤ ([2011-12-12-1]) κǸ˿줿Charles Kay Ogden (1889--1857) ˤ Basic English ˤĤƼ夲롥
19ȾϤޤäݿؤǮ ([2011-12-11-1]) ϡ͡ʸ¤ˤ뤽ۤܺäȤȤˡ20ʤˤĤƤݥߥ˥μפϷƤꡤݶ̸ɬפȯŪ˹ޤäƤϰƤ˼ä٤ǥϡԤʤƤ¸μñ㲽ȤΤäפθϤ٤ơΤ褦˴ά줿 "modified natural language" ƤߤΤʤǺǤͭ̾ʻߤ"British American Scientific International Commercial" acronym ƬˤȤä Basic English Ǥ롥
ѹκȡؼ Ogden ˤä1926--30ǯˤƹͰƤ줿δάǤαѸϡ850θ600̾졤150ηƻ졤100ˤäƤ롥ư18Ĥʤ¾θȤηӤĤˤꡤɸѸ4,000ưȤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥assemble 夨 put together, invent 夨 make up, photograph 夨 take pictures ǡǤ롥
1940ǯˤϡChurchill Roosevelt ʤɤȤ̾ͤˤäƤٻ줿äʤʬʣ칽¤ʤФʤʤäȡǥबʤäȤʤɤͳ⤢ꡤ䤬ƿषȤä٤ñ㲽ȤƤ⡤Τˤạ̈ؤηΤȤƤϤषԷкѤȤʤ뤳Ȥ¤˴줿ΤʴϢơ[2010-02-14-1]ε#293. ٤¬뤫פȡˡ
Basic English ϸߤǤŪʰյĤΤߤȤʤäƤ뤬αѸ춵ΤʤȿǤƤ롥¤줿ΤäƤȤ߹碌ˤʣʳǰɽǽϤ䡤ܸʿפɽ뵻̤ȤˤĤ뤳Ȥϡ춵ˤƤϽפʲǤ롥ǯγؽѱѱѼŵؽˤƺѤƤ "defining vocabulary" ιͤ⡤Basic English λۤαĹˤȤ롥ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ɸѸȤƾΤʹ褦ˤʤäƤBasic English ȤߤΤΤǤϤʤˤ衤ιͤϡͭȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤ
ʾεϡCrystal (358) Basic-English Institute εҤͤˤƼɮ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997. 199--205.
ǶᡤѸθѲηˤĤĴ٤뵡äϢϡޤǤˤʲΤ褦ʵʤȤĥƤεˤǰäƤ
#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])
#795. ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])
#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1])
#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ ([2011-01-09-1])
#339. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ ([2010-04-01-1])
#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1])
ʰʾ礷##860,795,625,622,339,386 ɤ
Ū˽äƸѸ20ʹߤȤȡȾȸȾȤǤϱѸ괬ĶϷѤƤ롥ޤ1990ǯȾаʹߤˤϡELF (English as a Lingua Franca) Ȥɽʹ褦ˤʤꡤǤαѸΰ֤Ťϡ21ꤹ뤳ȤϤʤޤޤѲƤ椯ΤȻפ롥ѸμҲŪΩ줬ѲˤĤơѸ줬ŪˤƤƤ椯ȤȤưפ褦
Barber ϡ20ȾФλǤαѸʼȤब "Received Standard" ȸƤ֥ꥹɸѸˤθѲˤĤƹͻƤ뤬ˤ2ĤĬήǧȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
On the one hand, there has been a trend towards greater uniformity, a levelling out of differences; on the other hand, there has been an increased reluctance to accept as a norm what has hitherto been considered the standard form of the spoken language. In sum the effect has been to make the language more mixed. (16)
ɸѼޤ͡ʥꥹѸѼħŪäܤɸѼؤǦӹǤƤȤĬήȡɸѼϰ̤ΤΤ㲼ƤƤȤĬήǤ롥ϡɸɸब礷ʤ⡤2dzä褦ƱŪѼ郎ޤĤĤȤƶɤƶ¬Ǥ뤳ȤϡɸѸƤѲʤΰˤϡɸѸ˸ꤵ줿餹пѲȤߤʤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤƸСñɸѼˤǤ¸ߤƤܤɸѼذƤȤȤ⤢ꤽȤȤǤ롥ϡ (dialectal borrowing) Ȥ˶ᤤBarber ȤɽǸСΰѤֻǼ褦 "changes in acceptance" ʼƤѲˤȤȤˤʤ롥
Because of the change which is going on in the concept of standard English, and because of the social changes of the post-war period, some of the linguistic changes which we shall note will be changes in acceptance, rather than changes in actual usage. Usages which are not new, but which have previously been considered non-standard, are now coming to be accepted as standard by increasing numbers of educated speakers (though not always by the speaker of R. S. [Received Standard] proper). (28--29)
Barber ⤯奤ꥹɸѸθѲĬήϡǤ "dialectal mixing" ηǤ뤬ãϡ20ȾФȤŪᤤʳǡƱĬήꥹɸѸǤʤѸˤѻ뤳ȤŦ˸롥ʥꥫѸϤʴפȤʤαѸѼ郎礤ˤ䤫˶Ѱ첽ƤΤǤϤʤȤѻǤ롥
[W]ith the great increase in world-wide communications, it is probable that the various forms of English spoken in the world are now influencing one another more than formerly, and that the trend to greater dialectal mixing is therefore taking place in English on a world scale. (21)
ϡCrystal WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) ˶ᤤͤǤ롥[2010-10-09-1]ε֥ꥫѸ conversion / diversionפǿ줿褦ˡȿ뷹αѸ줬¤ˤʤäƹԤ diversion η̵뤹櫓ˤϤʤELF ܻۤؤƤɸѸγΩȤϡBarber 1964ǯδѻľɾͤȹͤ롥
Barber, Charles. Linguistic Change in Present-Day English. Alabama: U of Alabama P, 1964.
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ʪο𡤱ѸǤġƥ
ǯ֡ƥ˸¤Ƥʪοȯ𤬱ѸǤǤ褦ˤʤäȥꥢܥdz줿ݿʪزĤޤϻΤǤʤŻҽǤʸǧ뤳Ȥˤ
ʪؤǤϣǯ˹ݥ롼뤬Ǥϡ֥ƥΤߡפǡΤ˷Ǻܤ줿Τ˸¤äƤβʸȯɽ®졤ưפˤʤȴԤ롥
̿̾ѰѰĹΥɥ顦ʥåΡʱѹʪۡˤϡֿʪʳؤˤȤä礭ʰ⡥Ǥľ̤Ƥ뺣郎Ͽ졤õ䤹ʤΤư礤ΩĤϤפäȯɽ
2005ǯΥĤDz줿ݿʪ̿̾ (ICBN) 36ˤСпʪοʬෲ̿̾ˤϥƥˤ뵭ܤ̳ŤƤICBN βƤ6ǯ˰ٳŤݿʪĤǵķ褵뤬Υܥġ2011ǯ723?30ˤǤϡ˴٤ƤƤݷ褵Ƥ֥ƥ̳űѡפĤ˵ķ褵줿XVIII International Botanical Congress ˷ǺܤƤ Congress Resolutions ǡ𤬤ʤƤ롥ʲϢʬžܡֻϰѼԡˡ
Resolution 5
The XVIII International Botanical Congress, in Melbourne, Australia, resolves that the decisions of its Nomenclature Section with respect to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (now to be the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants), noting with interest that specified types of electronic publication are now effective for nomenclatural purposes, that descriptions of new taxa may now appear in English or Latin, that, for valid publication, new names of fungi must include citation of an identifier issued by a recognized repository that will register the name, and that the Code will henceforth provide for a single name for all fungi and for all fossils falling under its provisions, as well as the appointment of officers and members of the nomenclature committees, made by that section during its meetings on 18-22 July, be accepted.
糰ʤΤǿʪؤʬෲ̿̾δˤĤƤϾܤΤʤεķϡˤƥʿƥʸɤϡʪؤθŵƥǽƤ뤳ȡƥθʤʥեޥåȤ椨˰ľʿʬෲܤ뤳ȡƥ줬ŪʸǤ뤳ȡʤɤͳ˵Ƥ뤬ͳǤϲڤʤۤɤ˥ƥ䤬ƤȤȤޤεķϱѸ줬ĤƤΥƥƱεǽô褦ˤʤäƤƤڵǤ⤢롥
ƥˤƤѸˤƤ⡤Ū˰ŪʸȤΤ¸ߤΤɤϵ路Ȥ˸ʤʵϤ줿ȤƤ⡤ϼΤȤȤѲ뤳ȤϤ롥ޤθ줬ҿݤ³뤫ɤϼҲ˰¸뤬ҲȤϻȤȤѤΤǤ롥ҲŪǽˤƱѸ줬ĤƤΥƥ˼ääƤƤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤѸ줬塤ĤƤΥƥĶƹŪ˰ŪʸȤʤȤͽ¬ϵ;Ϥ
Ϣơ̾ (scientific name) ˤĤơ[2010-09-21-1]εֳ̾פȡ
2011ǯ53դǹϢ World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision ɽ줿ץ쥹PDF
ˤȡϺǯ10ޤǤ70ͤã2050ǯˤ93͡2100ǯˤ101ͤãȤ롥夲Ϲ⤤Ψǡˤϥեꥫ399˥6ƥꥫ4ޤޤȤ
ʹοͤȡܤο2010ǯ12600ͤ2100ǯˤ9130ͤظο1925ǯ139500ͤԡˡ2100ǯˤ94100ͤظɤοϡ1925ǯɤȴ1960ǯˤ171796ͤã2100ǯˤ155000ͤظ
絬Ϥʿͽ¬ˤ¿ޤޤƤ롥㤨Сץ쥹ɸˤ⤢褦 "if Fertility in all Countries Converges to Replacement Level" Ȥ롥äƲˤդפ뤬ѸüԿפǤ⡤Τ褦ͤϺǽפǤ롥[2010-05-07-1]εּ ENLESL οΨפǼ夲ENL7ͤȤܤɲáˤESL13ˤˤĤơ2100ǯޤǤοܡ medium variant ˴ŤˤղƤߤ


ENLϥꥫƺ¤ͽ¬ESLϺȾФˤƿĹȾꤨˤɤͤȴƤꡤʥꥢѥ˥ܤĥΤ롥
̤οͽ¬Ȥ̤αѸüԤοͽ¬뤳ȤñʺȤǤϤʤʤȤESLοȯϤŪͽ¬˴ŤƻŪ˳ǧ줿ȤϤ
ѸüԿˤĤƤϡ[2010-06-28-1], [2010-06-15-1], [2010-05-29-1]ε⻲ȡ
ޤǤʤѸ (a global language or world language) 뤤ե (a lingua franca) ȾΤθ1ĤǤ롥˾塤ۤ¿ξǤۤ¿οͤäƤϤʤäǤäȤ٤ι⤤Ǥꡤ¾ "the global language" 괧ĤƸƤФ줿ȤƤ⡤¿ܿͤˤȤäư´ʤȤƤθѸݤˤϡ괧 "a global language" 뤤ʣδĶ "one of the global languages" ȤѤΤŬڤǤ롥
¿θؼԤѸ1ġפȹɽƤ뤬1ĤˤϾŪʱѸѤδްդȤŪ롥äȶŪˤСȿѸԤռΩŪʸոǤȤͤ롥äȤƤαѸˤݤˤɬŪˤʤˤŪȼ虜ʤŪްդʤ٤ʤ뤿Ρʤ켫Τ̣Ūʡ˥ȥå1ĤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
ʾˡ1ġפȤɽˤϳŪʸ롥ˤ⸽ߤˤ⡤٤κϤפȸƤӤʣä⡤Ʊ褦ʣ¸ߤǽ롥ȤƤαѸ뤿ˤϡ¾оȤƱ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥ȤƤαѸθϡȤ "global languages" Ȥ pluralist ʸ̮ǤʤʤФʤʤ
Ѹʤ餺ȤΩˤϡ褽褦ʱƶ˵ڤܤȲǤ롥Crystal, The English Language 10--11 ͤˡߡȤƤαѸ줬˵ڤܤƤƶΤĤŦ
(1) ̤ͭξܺ٤äƳؽ졤椵롥η̤ȤơŪʸˡ伭졤ضػߤ¤츦椬ȯŸ롥
(2) ʤ䤽¾θˤФ͡ΰռޤꡤ˴ؤҤ仨饸ȤƥȤ̤ơŪ˷ȯ롥
(3) ʤ䤽¾θˤФռޤꡤŪ˷ȯǡ͡ϵդ˸ˤĤȽŪǿˤʤ롥ѲȤߤʤ¤Фꡤ¾θѼФ¾ŪԴƤ٤뤳Ȥ⤢롥
Ūʱƶϡ¾ˤ⤤ĤŦǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Υߥ˥ưפˤȯˤ
γؽ˼Ĥ줿Ԥ "linguistic divide" μҲŪ亹̤˶줷ȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ΰϤˤꡤξǤ뷹®ʤˤϰ⤢롥㤨 Crystal, English as a Global Language 20--25 ȡ
Ѽʥԥ䥯쥪ޤˤϤޤ졤˸ߤǽθؤʬƤ椯
嵭ιܤ¿ĤƤ1ĤǤƥˤƤϤޤפεϤϡǤѸȰۤʤ뤬Ωˤ줬ıƶϤˤϡ̤ħ뤳Ȥʬ롥ˤפϡѸͭħǤ롥Τ뤿ˤϡƸߤ¾ʤθˤȤоȤ礫ʤ
ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ˤĤƤϡelf γƵǼ夲Ƥä˰ʲεȡ
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹ: [2009-10-21-1]
#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥ: [2010-01-24-1]
#372. ݸȤƤαѸοˤĤƤεˤʤ¡2005ǯǡ: [2010-05-04-1]
#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ: [2010-05-08-1]
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ʱѸؽȤĤEnglish Language: All about the English languageμΥȤ¿뤬ȥåפ˱ѸˤȱѸñˤޤȤޤäƤΤܤ
English language History
English language Statistics
ԤαѸˤβʸ "Middle English" ǡѸαѸ ( see reestablishment_of_english ) Υޥȸ50ǯ餤ȻϤޤäƤȤҤä
Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with French remaining the prestige language largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he only learned French as a second language.
ѸˤȤˤäդդ̱٥뤫²٥뤫ѤξŪŪʤɡˤäλ٤ѤäƤΤαѸˤǤϥեΤӤλ夬ΤŪĹ³ȵҤ뤳Ȥ¿ä褦˻פ¤ȤƤϾβʸˤȤꡤɤǤϽ̱μѾ塤ѸϰŪʸäΤǤꡤλ¤ĴƤȤϽפȻפ
ѸפˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ statistics γƵǼ夲ƤʲΤΤ϶äʤˤȤäƽ鼪ä
English is the language of navigation, aviation and of Christianity; it is the ecumenical language of the World Council of Churches
Five of the largest broadcasting companies in the world (CBS, NBC, ABC, BBC and CBC) transmit in English, reaching millions and millions of people all over the world
Of the 163 member nations of the U.N., more use English as their official language than any other. . . . After English, 26 nations in the U.N. cite French as their official tongue, 21 Spanish and 17 Arabic.
People who count English as their mother tongue make up less than 10% of the world's population, but possess over 30% of the world's economic power
ŪŵϼƤʤޤ2010ǯߤιϢ192Ǥꡤ嵭3ܤ163˴Ťפ1990ǯ餤λǤοͤ⤷ʤ see United Nations member States - Growth in United Nations membership, 1945-present )
ΥȤˤ¾ˤ English Dictionaries English Literature ʤɤΥڡ롥
ѸüԤʬˤĤƤϡʷǵˤƤ ( see [2009-10-17-1], [2009-11-30-1], [2009-12-05-1], [2010-01-24-1], [2010-03-12-1], [2010-06-15-1] ) äȤŪʥǥ[2009-11-30-1]εǤߤ Kachru ˤƱߥǥKachru Ϥθ⤳˴ŤѥǥĤƤϡΤΰġ䤬ˢ֤ǥפȸƤǤΤҲ𤹤롥ޤϡƼΥǥɾƤ McArthur ʸ˷ǺܤƤޤȤˡ䤬ѤäΤǤ롥

줬ƱߥǥȯŸǤǤ뤳Ȥϡ̾ηǺܤƤʱߤΤֲ Inner Circle椬 Outer Circle־夬 Expanding Circle б뤳Ȥʬ롥ˢ֤ǥ뤬ħŪʤΤϰʲˤƤǤ롥
ŤΤߤ̤ˤƤ˰֤ŤƤꡤѸγˤͯ夬뤢֤פȤƤưŪɽƤ
Ѹγ礬ŪʿפξȤȤ˼Ƥ롥[2010-03-12-1]ǼɤեǥƤ뤬ˢ֤ǥǤϼפʹˤĤƶŪʿͤƤ롥ʤ嵭οפϡ[2010-05-07-1]ǵȤơǿ2010ǯˤͤ䤬줿ΤǤ롥̾ˤĤƤϤǤʤΤǡ[2009-10-21-1]ΥꥹȤȤʤ顤ä˿¿ԥååפ
ѸüԤˤΤ Inner Circle ǤϤʤष Outer Circle Expanding Circle ǤȤͶ
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (October 1992). 12--21.
ޤǤѸѼΥǥĤҲ𤷤Ƥ ( see model_of_englishes ) ϡǿΥǥΰĤȤ Svartvik and Leech (225--27) ΥԥߥåɥǥҲ𤷤ܤȤʤäƤΤϡܥ֥Ǥ̤Ҳ Kachru ʿƱ߿ޤΩβƱ߿ȯŸΤΥǥǤ롥Svartvik and Leech (226) οޤѤΤ

ԥߥåɤκǾˤŪѼǤ WSE ( World Standard English ) ֤롥ŪȤΤϡȤѤԤϤޤDZѸѤ볧ݥߥ˥ŪdzؽѤ륿åȤȤƤѼǤꡤߤȯŸǤ뤫WSE ϹŪʸҤͿ졤ɸȤʤꡤŪˤ⤪褽ͤѼǤȻפΤǡ¾ֹ⤤Ѽ ( acrolect ) ȤƺǾ˿Ƥ롥ʬⶹΤϡŪ˰ͤǤ뤳ȤбƤ롥
Ū WSE ѼβˤϡŪϰѼ郎äƤ롥ؾˤϡѼȤ North American English South Asian English ʤɤѼ郎¤ӤʬۤƤ롥βزˤϡ궹ϰŵŪˤϹ˥٥ǤѼ郎롥γ ( mesolect ) ǤϡѼμब˭٤ǡѼȼΩĤΤǡʬ٤ʤäƤ롥American English, British English, South African English, Hong Kong English ʤɤ°롥
Dz ( basilect ) ϡ¼Ȥä٥Ǥζʬǡ¿Ѽ郎ҤγؤǤϡѼϸŪ˰ͤɤХХǤꡤҲŪʸҤϰ̤㤤Ϥ쥪Ѹ졤ԥѸʤɤ°롥
ԥߥåɤĺ˶ᤤѼۤɡ깭ߥ˥Τˡʤ mutual intelligibility ΤѤ뤳Ȥ¿դ˥ԥߥåɤդ˶ᤤѼۤɡ°Ƥ붦ƱΤ嫤Ȥơʤ cultural identity ΤѤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ롥
ΥǥħϡAmE BrE ɸѼ郎¾ιɸѼȤʤؤ˰֤ŤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥WSE δפˤ¿ʬ AmE ħǤϤȤä AmE ̻뤷ʤȤαѸѤȤϰۤʤ
acrolect, mesolect, basilect ϡcreole Ȥˤ褯ѤѸ ( see [2010-05-17-1] )ΤޤѼεˤƤϤ뤽Ǥ롥
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
¾͡ʱѸѼ郎ĥƤȤϤѸѼȤƥꥫѸ ( AmE ) ȥꥹѸ ( BrE ) ꡤޤαѸѤѸ춵礭ʱƶϤڤܤƤ뤳ȤϼΤΤȤǤ롥ȤƤϤǤΤοˡִѼαѸ ( a Mid-Atlantic variety of English ) ȤΤ롥
Το⤫־äƤѸȤ櫓ǤϤʤAmE Ȥ BrE ȤĤʤƤŪʱѸȤ̣ǡͷӤɽǤ롥衼åѤαѸüԤˤäѤ뤳Ȥ¿ħȯˤ褯ȿǤƤ롥㤨СMid-Atlantic variety Ǥϸ r AmE ۤ rhotic Ǥʤ BrE ۤ non-rhotic Ǥʤ夤 /r/ Ǽ¸ȤƱͤˡlast past ʤɤ첻AmE Ū /æ/ BrE Ū /ɑ:/ Ȥδ֤Ǹؤȸ ( see [2010-03-08-1] )
Mid-Atlantic variety ȯˤϤĤطʤؤäƤ롥衼åѤǤϡѸؽѤꤹݤ AmE BrE Τɤ餫ռŪ֤ȤȤԤƤlingua franca ȤƤαѸ ( ELF ) 䤬ӤӤƤȡѼФȤ봶ФƤ롥AmE BrE Τɤ餫ˤȤ٤ŤΤȤʤäƤȡΤˤɤȤĤʤ Mid-Atlantic variety ƤΤϼԤ
ޤŪװ⤢EU ʤʣθѸߤƤݵؤǤϡ¼ζ̸ȤƱѸ줬äȤƤ뤳Ȥϵ褦ʤξǥԥݥȤ BrE AmE ǤޤȡŪ˥ꥹꥫͥˤʤꡤ줬Ūͥ˷ӤĤȤǰ褦Ǥ롥
衼åѿͤǤϤʤȤ⡤ѼŪȯɽѤꡤؤꤹ뤳Ȥˤ˵ꤦΤǤϤʤ伫ȡAmE 濴˱ѸؽƤаޤ뤬ꥹαؤ˵ڤ BrE ˤⴷƤ̤ȤơƤݤ Mid-Atlantic Japanese variety ʤ벿Ȥ⤤ʤѸѼäƤ뤳Ȥ˼ʬǵŤȤ롥դǤѼΤɤ餫줹Τ褤ȤФϺĤäƤ뤬äդǤϤĤɤ餫ɵ᤹뤳ȤϤޤʤ̤ΤäƤ˱ۤȤϤʤºŪʻѤǤϤɬפʤΤǤϤʤѸؽԤȤ Mid-Atlantic (Japanese?) variety κȯŸ˴Ԥ
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 233.
ǻѤƤѸѼɤΤ褦ˤȤ館ɤΤ褦ʬह뤫ˤĤƤϡޤǤˤΥǥҲ𤷤ƹͤƤ ( see model_of_englishes )
ϡENL ESL ˤĤƤΤߤꥹˤäƤɤΤ褦˿̱줿äˤɤΤ褦ʿǿ̱Ԥ줿ܤƱѸѼιԤƤϰʬहˡҲ𤹤롥Leith ˤȡꥹˤ뿢̱ϲˤϼλĤΥפȤ
In the first type, exemplified by America and Australia, substantial settlement by first-language speakers of English displaced the precolonial population. In the second, typified by Nigeria, sparser colonial settlements maintained the precolonial population in subjection and allowed a proportion of them access to learning English as a second or additional language. There is yet a third type, exemplified by the Caribbean islands of Barbados and Jamaica. Here, a precolonial population was replaced by new labour from elsewhere, principally West Africa. (181--82)
λʬϡꥹпȿ̱Ԥ轻̱ȤδطȤʬǡ䤹1Ͽ̱Ԥۤ轻̱֤Ȥ̣ displacement פȸƤܤ2ϡ̱Ԥ轻̱֤ΤǤϤʤŪ˻۲ˤ䶵ʤɤ ( establishment ) ̤ƱѸڤȤפǡestablishment פȤǤƤ٤Ǥ롥3ϡ̱Ԥեꥫʤɤ褽ϰ褫ϫƯϤȤ뤷줿ѸѼ ( pidgin creole ) 轻̱Ȥθ֤ƤäȤפǡreplacement פȸƤ٤뤫⤷ʤ
[2009-10-21-1] (1a) Τ褦˥ϰαѸؤƥꥫ䥪ȥꥢƱ ENL ϰȤߤʤ礬뤬Ѹ줬դȤˤʤäŪаޤͼ¿θʸ̮ǤϡƱ¤٤ˤϰ´롥Τ褦ʾˡꥹˤ뿢̱ϤΩȱĤȤߤ嵭λʬΩ
Leith, Dick. "English---Colonial to Post Colonial." Chapter 5 of English: History, Diversity and Change. Ed. David Graddol, Dick Leith and Joan Swann. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. 180--221.
World Englishes εǥꥹѸ ( BrE ) θҤˤʤȤˡ㡼륺ҤαѸѤӤӰѤΤܤˤ롥ʲϡThe Times 1995ǯ324ʶˤε "Prince says Americans are ruining the language" 顤̣սĤȴФΤǤ롥
He [The Prince of Wales] described American English as "very corrupting" and emphasised the need to maintain the quality of language . . . .
. . . increasing competition from America and Australia is threatening Britain's leading position in the lucrative language-teaching market.
The Prince said: "We must act now to ensure that English, and that to my way of thinking means English English, maintains its position as the world language well into the next century."
"Speaking after the launch [of the British Council's English 2000 project], Prince Charles elaborated on his view of the American influence. "People tend to invent all sorts of nouns and verbs, and make words that shouldn't be. I think we have to be a bit careful, otherwise the whole thing can get rather a mess."
In the long term, the British Council fears that instantaneous translation could see English replaced as the main international language by Chinese within three generations.
Other areas of increasing competition between British and American English include India, Eastern Europe and parts of Latin America. More than 30,000 Indian students now study in American colleges and universities, compared with 2,000 in Britain.
㡼륺ҤαѸѤꥹ͡Τˤ English English speakers ΰŪʹͤɤΤ餤ɽƤ뤫ҴŪ˼ȤϤǤʤ丫Ǥ AmE "corrupting" ȤߤʤEngE ǤȤƥ EngE speakers ŪԤϤäƤȸƤ롥AmE speakers Τʤˤ EngE Ȥߤʤͤ⾯ʤʤȻפ졤֥ɤȤƤ EngE Ϥޤ¸ߤƤȤäƤ[2010-04-21-1]Ǥߤ褦˼ϤȤƤ AmE Americanization ˤäαѸʴĤĤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥ΰѤΰĤˤ褦ˡǯ Australian English γӤޤѸѼȤζȤ̤ˡʤɤγȤζƤꡤEngE μԤȤƤ Prince Charles British Council ξǤ꤬롥
ꥹˤȤäƤϡEngE 뤤 BrE ֥ɤβͤݤƤϹŪñ˹ΰҿäƤǤʤαѸӥͥԤ5ݥɤηкѡʵˤ⤫äƤΤ顥
ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) äƤܤˤϤ褯ǺܤƤ뤬ˤѸιϿޤ롥ǽ Strevens ˤäƺ줿˲Ѥ줿Τ Crystal (70) ˸줿Crystal ǤΥȥ "A family tree representation (based on a model by Peter Strevens) of the way English has spread around the world, showing the influence of the two main branches of American and British English"
Crystal ϿޤΤޤޥ֥˷Ǻܤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǡϤȤ˺֤äȲǡפǤ롥ELF Ȥʸ̮ʤΤǡƤǤϤʤܤ濴ˤϿޤξ˱ѼŸƤߤ

ϿޤϡǤʤƤʱѸϰѼĤꥹѼȥꥫѼΤ줫̤餻Ƥꡤ̤ȤŪŸŪŸƱɽ뤳ȤƤ롥ѼαƶϤǤꡤǰޤȤƤˤ褯ǤƤȻפ
Ĥ English ؼȻʬ줷ƤͤϤ礦ɰ²η ( see [2009-06-17-1] ) ۵뤬[2010-05-03-1]εˤַȱƶɬ̤ǤʤפȤƱ۵롥ȤΤϡĤȥԥ˿ʬ줿ܤޤŪʡַפΤΡǤξԴ֤Ρֱƶסä˥ꥫѼ狼ΡֱƶפŪˤĤȥԥƤ뤫Ǥ롥[2010-04-21-1]εǿ줿Ѹ Americanization ϡϿޤǤФԥȤȤˤʤ
Strevens, P. "English as an International Language." The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. Ed. B. B. Kachru. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1992.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ʸ嵭2010/05/23(Sun)Strevens ΥꥸʥȤƵ Strevens νϸäƤޤϡʲΤΤǤޤʾǺƷǤƤ褦Ǥ
Strevens, Peter. Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford: Pergamon P, 1980.
Strevens, Peter. "English as an International Language: Directions in the 1990s." The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. 2nd ed. Ed. B. B. Kachru. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1992.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (October 1992). 12--21.
McArthur, Tom. The English Languages. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 94.
ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) 뤤 EIL ( English as an International Language ) ȤƤαѸθ̤ͤ뤦ǡפϽפʼͿƤ롥Crystal (71) Ǥϡ2001ǯˤפˤפ ENL ESL οľ5ǯ֤οΨ졤ԤԤäȤޤ⤫Ӿ夬äñ㲽ƤСѸüԤοDZѸüԤοƤȤȤǤꡤ⤳η³Ƥ椯Ȥʤȡ[2009-10-17-1]ǼѸüԤʬۤˤ ENL ΨʱߥդβʬˤޤޤƤ椯ȤȤˤʤ롥구ŪѼȤǧƤ British English American English Υ֥ɤϤƤοŪʰΤȤǺݻƤ椯ΤɤѸ̤ˤ륨ƥǤ롥
Crystal μפϤǤ˸ŤʤäΤǡϺǿǤפѤ Crystal ƱͤɽƤߤENS ESL ξܤꥹȤ[2009-10-21-1]˷ǤȤϼ˸¤äENS ˤĤƤ7ʻͤޤǤܤäˡESL ˤĤƤϸ§Ȥ2010ǯǯˤƿ2000ͤĶоݤȤͤŵ UN, World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision Population Database ˴Ťƺ줿ɽΩҲݾ㡦긦ΥڡǤΤǡˤѤñ̤1000͡Ψɤϡǯ֤˿1%ä70ǯˤϿۤ2ܤˤʤ롥
| ENL countries | population (2010) | population growth rate (2005-2010) (%) |
|---|---|---|
| USA | 317,641 | 0.96 |
| UK | 61,899 | 0.54 |
| South Africa | 50,492 | 0.98 |
| Canada | 33,890 | 0.96 |
| Australia | 21,512 | 1.07 |
| Ireland | 4,589 | 1.83 |
| New Zealand | 4,303 | 0.92 |
| Japan (for reference) | 126,995 | -0.07 |
| ESL countries | population (2010) | population growth rate (2005-2010) (%) |
|---|---|---|
| India | 1,214,464 | 1.43 |
| Pakistan | 184,753 | 2.16 |
| Bangladesh | 164,425 | 1.42 |
| Nigeria | 158,259 | 2.33 |
| the Philippines | 93,617 | 1.82 |
| Egypt | 84,474 | 1.81 |
| Tanzania | 45,040 | 2.88 |
| Kenya | 40,863 | 2.64 |
| Uganda | 33,796 | 3.27 |
| Nepal | 29,853 | 1.85 |
| Malaysia | 27,914 | 1.71 |
| Ghana | 24,333 | 2.09 |
| Sri Lanka | 20,410 | 0.88 |
[2010-01-24-1]εǤߤ褦ˡݸȤƤαѸȤǤϡELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) EIL ( English as an International Language ) ȤƾΤ褯ʹ褦ˤʤäƤѸüԿϤȤݸȤƤαѸ˴ؤǿοͤˤĤƤϡCrystal Graddol 褯礤˽Ф롥μͤϺǿΤΤˤǤΤϾ˿ǯΥǡȤΤ̤Ǥ롥
ϡ2005ǯNewsweek ϢǺܤƤΤߤĤΤǡѸοˤĤƤεˤʤ¡פĤȴФƤߤ5ǯθߡǤ˸ŤʤäƤ⤢뤫⤷ʤΤǤ餺
ɹDZѸؽȤǯ1ɥΥӥͥǤ
the British Council ˤȡ10ǯ˱ѸؽԿ20ͤãѸüԤ30ͤãȸޤ
αѸѿ35ͤãʢꥫꥹʥο¤
1ͤλҶѸؤǤ
ɤϱѸ춵դ͢ФϤƤʢ [2009-10-07-1]
ȿѸȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿եǤ⡤äѸɬȿФΤΡɬȤ96%̤Ǥ˱ѸƤʢ¾ɬܡ
ŻҾ80%ѸѤƤʢ [2010-04-13-1] ΥȥǺѤꡥŻҾˤѸ٤ǯäƤƤ롥ĤΥǡʸǤ
the British Council ˤȡβʳؼԤ66%Ѹɤ
ϡ China English Standard English ˼DZѸΥꥭƤĤĤ
Τ褦ʵɤǤȱѸϻߤޤʤȤŪʰݤ롥ºݤˤϽDZѸζ̤Τ뤳ȤνˤĤƤϡJenkins 褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
"Not the Queen's English". Newsweek 145. 10. March 7, 2005, 41--45.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Graddol, David. English Next. British Council, 2006. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-englishnext.htm44--45.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
ȤƤαѸ ( ENL ) ɽϰȤƵΤ̡ʲιǤϤʤꥫ罰ꥹʥȥꥢ˥塼ɡɡбѸαؤ˹Ԥȹͤȥ䤹( see [2009-10-17-1], [2009-10-21-1], [2009-11-28-1] )
Ǥϡեꥫ¹ ( Republic of South Africa ) ϤɤϱѸȤƸڤ뤳ȤꡤѸ ( World Englishes ) Ǥ褯夲Ǥ롥5Ʊ롼פΤˤϰ´ΤǤϤʤαѸѤˤĤ ENL ESL ȤʬǧȤȡեꥫ¹ϡΤξԤ碌ä̯ʰּƤΤǤ롥
ŵŪ ENL Ǥϡ̱¿֥ϡ ͤǤꡤꥹѸ¿쾯ʤѤĤġξDZѸȤƻѤƤ롥ŵŪ ESL ǤϡȤƱѸä¸ߤȤƤ⤴ϤǤꡤѸϤޤ2Ȥƽ졤ŪŪʸŪʵǽôȤ¸ߤƤ롥
ŵεҤ狼ȤꡤENL ESL ϳ餵ŪʴطǤ櫓ǤϤʤη֤Ĥ褦ϰ褬¸ߤΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥ˤϡ֥ϡפͤDZѸȤƤ¸ߤ롥ŵŪ ENL Ȥϰۤʤꡤ餬̱¿Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѸüԤ10%ۤɤǤ롥10%Ȥ ENL ¿ʤʤʤȾüʿ椳̯ʰּμ礿븶Ǥ롥ǤαѸѤߤƤߤȡŪʸŪʵǽǤ餫 ESL ŪǤ롥
ENS ESL ȤŪʶʬΤȤǡϤ¦Ū¸ߤȤߤʤԶʡˤäƤ褦˻פǯεǤŪʱѸüԤζʬ褦ˤʤäƤƤꡤϤΤ褦ʵȼǤΩˤΤǤϤʤ
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