chronology - hellog〜英語史ブログ

■ #5623. 「英語史ライヴ2024」で B&C の第57節 "Chronological Criteria" を対談精読実況生中継しました [bchel][latin][borrowing][methodology][sound_change][palatalisation][loan_word][oe][chronology][lexicology][phonetics][hellive2024]

　一昨日の Voicy heldio にて「#1205. Baugh and Cable 第57節を対談精読実況生中継 --- 「英語史ライヴ2024」より」をアーカイヴ配信しました．これは「#5607. 「英語史ライヴ2024」で B&C の第57節 "Chronological Criteria" を対談精読実況生中継します」 ([2024-09-02-1]) で予告したとおり，9月8日（日）に開催された「英語史ライヴ2024」の早朝枠にて生配信された番組がもとになっています．
　金田拓さん（帝京科学大学）がメインMCを務め，小河舜さん（上智大学）と私が加わる形での対談精読実況生中継でした．ヘルメイト（helwa リスナー）や khelf メンバーも数名がギャラリーとして収録現場に居合わせ，生配信でお聴きになったリスナーものべ81名に達しました．たいへんな盛況ぶりです．皆さん，日曜日の朝から盛り上げてくださり，ありがとうございました．
　今回取り上げたセクションは，実はテクニカルです．古英語期のラテン借用語について，それぞれの単語が同時期内でもいつ借りられたのか，いわば借用の年代測定に関する方法論が話題となっています．取り上げられているラテン借用語の例はすこぶる具体的ではありますが，音変化の性質や比較言語学の手法に光を当てる専門的な内容となっています．
　しかし，今回の対談精読会にそってに丁寧に英文を読み解いていえば，必ず理解できますし，歴史言語学研究のエキサイティングな側面を体験することもできるでしょう．本編48分ほどの長尺ですが，ぜひお時間のあるときにゆっくりお聴きください．
　Baugh and Cable の精読シリーズのバックナンバー一覧は「#5291. heldio の「英語史の古典的名著 Baugh and Cable を読む」シリーズが順調に進んでいます」 ([2023-10-22-1]) に掲載しています．ぜひこの機会にテキストを入手して，第1節からお聴きいただければ．

　・ Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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■ #5607. 「英語史ライヴ2024」で B&C の第57節 "Chronological Criteria" を対談精読実況生中継します [bchel][latin][borrowing][methodology][sound_change][palatalisation][loan_word][oe][chronology][lexicology][phonetics][hellive2024]

　Baugh and Cable による英語史の古典的名著を Voicy heldio にて1節ずつ精読していくシリーズをゆっくりと進めています．昨年7月に開始した有料シリーズですが，たまの対談精読回などでは通常の heldio にて無料公開しています．
　9月8日（日）に12時間 heldio 生配信の企画「英語史ライヴ2024」が開催されますが，当日の早朝 8:00-- 8:55 の55分枠で「Baugh and Cable 第57節を対談精読実況生中継」を無料公開する予定です．金田拓さん（帝京科学大学）と小河舜さん（上智大学）をお招きし，日曜日の朝から3人で賑やかな精読回を繰り広げていきます．
　テキストをお持ちでない方のために，当日精読することになっている第57節 "Chronological Criteria" (pp. 73--75) の英文を以下に掲載しておきます．古英語期のラテン借用語の年代測定に関するエキサイティングな箇所です．じっくりと予習しておいていただけますと，対談精読実況生中継を楽しく聴くことができると思います．

57. Chronological Criteria.　In order to form an accurate idea of the share that each of these three periods had in extending the resources of the English vocabulary, it is first necessary to determine as closely as possible the date at which each of the borrowed words entered the language. This is naturally somewhat difficult to do, and in the case of some words it is impossible. But in a large number of cases it is possible to assign a word to a given period with a high degree of probability and often with certainty. It will be instructive to pause for a moment to inquire how this is done.
   The evidence that can be employed is of various kinds and naturally of varying value. Most obvious is the appearance of the word in literature. If a given word occurs with fair frequency in texts such as Beowulf, or the poems of Cynewulf, such occurrence indicates that the word has had time to pass into current use and that it came into English not later than the early part of the period of Christian influence. But it does not tell us how much earlier it was known in the language, because the earliest written records in English do not go back beyond the year 700. Moreover, the late appearance of a word in literature is no proof of late adoption. The word may not be the kind of word that would naturally occur very often in literary texts, and so much of Old English literature has been lost that it would be very unsafe to argue about the existence of a word on the basis of existing remains. Some words that are not found recorded before the tenth century (e.g., pīpe 'pipe', cīese 'cheese') can be assigned confidently on other grounds to the period of continental borrowing.
   The character of the word sometimes gives some clue to its date. Some words are obviously learned and point to a time when the church had become well established in the island. On the other hand, the early occurrence of a word in several of the Germanic dialects points to the general circulation of the word in the Germanic territory and its probable adoption by the ancestors of the English on the continent. Testimony of this kind must of course be used with discrimination. A number of words found in Old English and in Old High German, for example, can hardly have been borrowed by either language before the Anglo-Saxons migrated to England but are due to later independent adoption under conditions more or less parallel, brought about by the introduction of Christianity into the two areas. But it can hardly be doubted that a word like copper, which is rare in Old English, was nevertheless borrowed on the continent when we find it in no fewer than six Germanic languages.
   The most conclusive evidence of the date at which a word was borrowed, however, is to be found in the phonetic form of the word. The changes that take place in the sounds of a language can often be dated with some definiteness, and the presence or absence of these changes in a borrowed word constitutes an important test of age. A full account of these changes would carry us far beyond the scope of this book, but one or two examples may serve to illustrate the principle. Thus there occurred in Old English, as in most of the Germanic languages, a change known as i-umlaut. (Umlaut is a German word meaning 'alteration of sound', which in English is sometimes called mutation.) This change affected certain accented vowels and diphthongs (æ, ā, ō, ū, ēa, ēo , and īo) when they were followed in the next syllable by an ī or j. Under such circumstances, æ and a became e, and ō became ē, ā became ǣ, and ū became ȳ. The diphthongs ēa, ēo, īo became īe, later ī, ȳ. Thus *baŋkiz > benc (bench), *mūsiz > mȳs, plural of mūs (mouse), and so forth. The change occurred in English in the course of the seventh century, and when we find it taking place ina word borrowed from Latin, it indicates that the Latin word had been taken into English by that time. Thus Latin monēta (which became *munit in Prehistoric OE) > mynet (a coin, Mod. E. mint) and is an early borrowing. Another change (even earlier) that helps us to date a borrowed word is that known as palatal diphthongization. By this sound change ǣ or ē in early Old English was changed to a diphthong (ēa and īe, respectively) when preceded by certain palatal consonants (ċ, ġ, sc). OE cīese (L. cāseus, chesse) mentioned earlier, shows both i-umlaut and palatal diphthongization (cāseus > *ċǣsi > *ċēasi > *ċīese). In many words, evidence for date is furnished by the sound changes of Vulgar Latin. Thus, for example, an intervocalic p (and p in the combination pr) in the Late Latin of northern Gaul (seventh century) was modified to a sound approximating a v, and the fact that L. cuprum, coprum (copper) appears in OE as copor with the p unchanged indicates a period of borrowing prior to this change (cf. F. cuivre). Again Latin ī changed to e before A.D. 400 so that words like OE biscop (L. episcopus), disc (L. discus), sigel 'brooch' (L. sigillum), and the like, which do not show this change, were borrowed by the English on the continent. But enough has been said to indicate the method and to show that the distribution of the Latin words in Old English among the various periods at which borrowing took place rests not upon guesses, however shrewd, but upon definite facts and upon fairly reliable phonetic inferences.

　Baugh and Cable の精読シリーズのバックナンバー一覧は「#5291. heldio の「英語史の古典的名著 Baugh and Cable を読む」シリーズが順調に進んでいます」 ([2023-10-22-1]) に掲載しています．ぜひこの機会にテキストを入手して，第1節からお聴きいただければ．

　・ Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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■ #5244. 少し遅い時代の古英語地名 [oe][toponymy][anglo-saxon][name_project][onomastics][history][chronology][farming]

　昨日の記事「#5243. 異教時代の古英語地名」 ([2023-09-04-1]) で，地名研究により，その土地がどの時代に開拓されたかを知る手がかりが得られる場合があると述べた．
　昨日の Tysoe, Wensley, Thursley, Friden, Harrow, Weeford などは，第1要素が異教を彷彿とさせるため，アングロサクソン時代でもとりわけ古い層に属すると紹介したが，ちょうど逆のケースもある．例えば，「専門農場」と訳出すべき wīc を含む地名は，農業が確立した後につけられたものと考えられるが，それはイングランドの農業史に鑑みて8世紀以降のことと推測される．つまり，同じ古英語期でも相対的に遅めの開拓であることが示唆される．Hough (98) より関連する箇所を引用する．

. . . some elements may be dated to a later phase of settlement on semantic or other grounds. Place-names from OE wīc 'specialized farm' are indicative of established farming communities, and are considered unlikely to have been coined before the eighth century AD. Examples from England include Butterwick (butter), Cheswick (cheese), Gatwick (goats), and Shapwick (sheep); examples from Scotland include Berwick (barley), Hedderwick (heather), and Sunwick (pigs).

　挙げられている例は，分かりやすいものを選んだということかもしれないが，乳製品を産する農場が多い．地名や固有名詞の研究は，ただ言語学的，形式的な研究だけでは済みそうもない，ということが理解できる．

　・ Hough, Carole. "Settlement Names." Chapter 6 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 87--103.

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■ #5243. 異教時代の古英語地名 [oe][toponymy][anglo-saxon][christianity][name_project][onomastics][history][chronology][heathenism]

　地名の構成要素の意味をひもとくことによって，どの時代にその地名がつけられたのか，示唆を得られる事例がある．同じ場所が後に別の地名に置き換えられていたりするので，時系列に整理した上で慎重に解釈する必要があるが，地名研究が歴史学など他分野に貢献し得る点で興味深い．
　Hough (98) によると，キリスト教化する以前のイングランドの古英語地名に，異教の神や寺院などの名前が用いられているものがあるという．このようなケースでは，それだけ古い土地であると解釈してよさそうだ．

Also indicative of early settlement are place-names referring to religious or other customs that were later superseded. Place-names referring to Anglo-Saxon paganism represent an early stratum which must pre-date the conversion to Christianity around 627. In England they fall into two main groups: those containing the names of pagan gods, and those containing a word for a heathen shrine or temple. Examples of the former are Tysoe (Tiw + OE hōh 'heel; hill-spur'), Wensley (Woden + OE lēah 'wood, clearing'), Thursley (Thunor + OE lēah 'wood, clearing', and Friden (Frig + denu 'valley'); examples of the latter are Harrow (OE hearg 'temple') and Weeford (OE wēoh 'shrine' + ford 'ford). The absence of either type from the corpus of Old English place-names in Scotland is usually taken to indicate that the Anglo-Saxons did not move north until after the conversion to Christianity, although this has been challenged on the grounds that pagan names are also absent from large areas of England . . . .

　このような異教的地名がスコットランドには認められないという議論も意味深長である．

　・ Hough, Carole. "Settlement Names." Chapter 6 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 87--103.

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■ #3787. 650年辺りを境とする，その前後のラテン借用語の特質 [latin][loan_word][oe][chronology][lexicology][borrowing][link]

　英語史におけるラテン借用語といえば，古英語期のキリスト教用語，初期近代英語期のルネサンス絡みの語彙（あるいは「インク壺用語」 (inkhorn_term)），近現代の専門用語を中心とする新古典主義複合語などのイメージが強い．要するに「堅い語彙」というステレオタイプだ．本ブログでも，それぞれ以下の記事で取り上げてきた．

　・ 「#32. 古英語期に借用されたラテン語」 ([2009-05-30-1])
　・ 「#296. 外来宗教が英語と日本語に与えた言語的影響」 ([2010-02-17-1])
　・ 「#1895. 古英語のラテン借用語の綴字と借用の類型論」 ([2014-07-05-1])
　・ 「#478. 初期近代英語期に湯水のように借りられては捨てられたラテン語」 ([2010-08-18-1])
　・ 「#576. inkhorn term と英語辞書」 ([2010-11-24-1])
　・ 「#1408. インク壺語論争」 ([2013-03-05-1])
　・ 「#1410. インク壺語批判と本来語回帰」 ([2013-03-07-1])
　・ 「#1615. インク壺語を統合する試み，2種」 ([2013-09-28-1])
　・ 「#3157. 華麗なる splendid の同根類義語」 ([2017-12-18-1])
　・ 「#3438. なぜ初期近代英語のラテン借用語は増殖したのか？」 ([2018-09-25-1])
　・ 「#3013. 19世紀に非難された新古典主義的複合語」 ([2017-07-27-1])
　・ 「#3179. 「新古典主義的複合語」か「英製羅語」か」 ([2018-01-09-1])

　俯瞰的にいえば，このステレオタイプは決して間違いではないが，日常的で卑近ともいえるラテン借用語も存在するという事実を忘れてはならない．大雑把にいえば紀元650年辺りより前，つまり大陸時代から初期古英語期にかけて英語（あるいはゲルマン諸語）に入ってきたラテン単語の多くは，意外なことに，よそよそしい語彙ではなく，日々の生活になくてはならない語彙を構成しているのである．この事実は「ラテン語＝威信と教養の言語」という等式の背後に隠されているので，よく確認しておくことが必要である．
　650年というのはおよその年代だが，この前後の時代に入ってきたラテン借用語のタイプは異なっている．単純化していえば，それ以前は「親しみのある」日常語，それ以降は「お高い」宗教と学問の用語が入ってきた．Durkin (103) の要約文を引用しよう．

The context for most of the later borrowings is certain: they are nearly all words connected with the religious world or with learning, which were largely overlapping categories in the Anglo-Saxon world. Many of them are only very lightly assimilated into Old English, if at all. In fact it is debatable whether some of them should even be regarded as borrowed words, or instead as single-word switches to Latin in an Old English document, since it is not uncommon for words only ever to occur with their Latin case endings.
   The earlier borrowings include many more words that are of reasonably common occurrence in Old English and later, for instance names of some common plants and foodstuffs, as well as some very basic words to do with the religious life.

　では，具体的に前期・後期のラテン借用語とはどのような単語なのか．それについては今後の記事で紹介していく予定である．

　・ Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

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■ #3553. 大母音推移の各音変化の年代 [gvs][phonology][sound_change][timeline][chronology][vowel]

　昨日の記事「#3552. 大母音推移の5つの問題」 ([2019-01-17-1]) で取り上げたように，大母音推移 (gvs) には様々な問題が立ちはだかっている．昨日挙げた5点のすべてに通底する根本的な問いは，当時の書き言葉からしか得られない情報に基づき，いかに正しく音価を復元しうるのかという文献学的な問題である．綴字の分析や解釈の仕方に応じて，各長母音・2重母音の音価や変化のタイミングに関する結論が，研究者間で異なってしまうということになりかねない．これが大母音推移研究の最大の難問なのである．
　しかし，膨大な研究の蓄積により，各音変化の年代についてある程度の事実が分かってきていることも確かである．綴字以外にも，詩の脚韻の慣習，脚韻語の辞書，正音学者による記述なども音価の特定に貢献してきたし，情報を総合すればある程度の実態が浮かび上がってくるものである．Krug (249) は，主要な先行研究をまとめる形で，大母音推移の各変化の生じた年代を示す図を作成した．以下に，"Dating the changes of Middle English long vowels" と題されたその図を再現しよう．

	Middle English		c.1500		c.1600		c.1700		Modern English
	c.1300								(RP)
(I)	iː	>	ɪi	>	əɪ	>	aɪ	≈	aɪ
(II)	uː	>	ʊu	>	əʊ	>	aʊ	≈	aʊ
(III)	eː	>	iː					≈	iː
(IV)	oː	>	uː					≈	uː
(V)	ɛː	>	e̞ː	>	eː	>	iː	≈	iː
(VI)	ɔː			>	oː			>	oʊ > əʊ
(VII)	aː			>	æː > ɛː	>	eː	>	eɪ

　この図をみるかぎり，少なくとも (I)--(IV) の変化，すなわち母音四辺形でいうところの上半分の長母音が経た変化は，14--15世紀という比較的早い段階で生じており，しかも互いに関わりあっているかのように思われる．この4つについては「推移」を語ることは許されるだろう．
　続いて，16--17世紀半ばにかけて，(V)--(VII) の下半分の長母音が変化しているようにみえるが，特に低母音の /aː/ の動きは，かなり遅い時期までずれ込んでいるようだ．これを信じるならば，低母音から始まったとする伝統的な「押し上げ推移」 (push chain) の仮説は少なくとも否定されるだろう．
　しかし，/aː/ の変化が上半分の諸変化の年代から100年ほど遅れていることを考慮すると，この時間差は一連の「推移」を断ち切るほどに大きいとみるべきだろうか，あるいは十分に小さいのだろうか．この問題を巡っても様々な意見があり，議論の終着点はみえない．

　・ Krug, Manfred. "The Great Vowel Shift." Chapter 14 of The History of English. 4th vol. Early Modern English. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 241--66.

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■ #3200. 後期近代英語期の主要な出来事の年表 [timeline][history][lmode][chronology][world_englishes][linguistic_imperialism]

　Algeo and Pyles の英語史年表シリーズのシメとなる第4弾は，後期近代英語期 (201--02) ．著者たちのいう Late Modern English は，1800年以降の英語を指している．これより前の時代の年表は，「#3193. 古英語期の主要な出来事の年表」 ([2018-01-23-1])，「#3196. 中英語期の主要な出来事の年表」 ([2018-01-26-1])，「#3197. 初期近代英語期の主要な出来事の年表」 ([2018-01-27-1]) を参照．

1805	A victory over the French at the battle of Trafalgar established British naval supremacy.
1806	The British occupied Cape Colony in South Africa, preparing the way for the arrival in 1820 of a large number of British settlers.
1828	Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language was published.
1840	In New Zealand, by the Treaty of Waitangi, native Maori ceded sovereignty to the British crown.
1857	A proposal at the Philological Society of London led to work that resulted in the New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (1928), reissued as the Oxford English Dictionary (1933).
1858	The Government of India Act transferred power from the East India Company to the crown, thus creating the British Raj in India.
1861--5	The American Civil War established the indissolubility of the Union and abolished slavery in America.
1898	The four-month Spanish-American War resulted in the United States becoming a world power with overseas possessions and thus a major participant in international politics.
1906	The first radio broadcast, leading in 1920 to the first American commercial radio station in Pittsburgh.
1914--8	World War I created an alliance between the United States and the United Kingdom.
1922	The British Broadcasting Company (after 1927, Corporation) was established and became a major conveyor of information in English around the world.
1927	The first motion picture with spoken dialog, The Jazz Singer, was released.
1936	The first high-definition television service was established by the BBC, to be followed by cable service in the early 1950s and satellite service in the early 1960s.
1939--45	World War II further solidified the British-American link.
1945	The charter of the United Nations was produced at San Francisco.
1947	British India was divided into India and Pakistan, and both became independent.
1952	The Secretariat building of the United Nations was constructed in Manhattan.
1961	The Merriam Webster's Third New International Dictionary was published.
1983	The Internet was created.
1991	The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was dissolved, leaving the United States as the world's only superpower.
1992	The first Web browser for the World Wide Web was released.

　年表をざっと眺めるだけでも，この時期に英語が世界へ拡大していく様子がわかる．拡大といっても地理的な側面に限らない．話者人口という側面においても拡大したし，使用される状況や場面の範囲，すなわち機能的にも拡大した．Algeo and Pyles (201) の記述が的を射ている．

The history of English since 1800 has been a story of expansion---in geography, in speakers, and in the purposes for which English is used. Geographically, English has been spread around the world, first by British colonization and empire-building, and more recently by the prominence of America in world affairs. The number of its speakers has undergone a population explosion, not alone of native speakers but also of nonnative speakers of English as an additional language. And the uses to which English is put have ramified with the growth of science, technology, and commerce.

　要するに，後期近代英語期は，地理，人口，機能という3面における同時的拡大の時代である．見方によれば，言語帝国主義への道をひた走っていたともいえる．

　・ Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

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■ #3197. 初期近代英語期の主要な出来事の年表 [timeline][history][emode][chronology][monarch][caxton][reformation][book_of_common_prayer][bible][renaissance][shakespeare][johnson]

　Algeo and Pyles の英語史年表シリーズの第3弾は初期近代英語期 (153--55) ．著者らは初期近代英語期を1500--1800年として区切っていることに注意．「#3193. 古英語期の主要な出来事の年表」 ([2018-01-23-1]) と「#3196. 中英語期の主要な出来事の年表」 ([2018-01-26-1]) も参照．

1476	William Caxton brought printing to England, thus both serving and promoting a growing body of literate persons. Before that time, literacy was confined to the clergy and a handful of others. Within the next two centuries, most of the gentry and merchants became literate, as well as half the yeomen and some of the husbandmen.
1485	Henry Tudor ascended the throne, ending the civil strife called the War of the Roses and introducing 118 years of the Tudor dynasty, which oversaw vast changes in England.
1497	John Cabot went on a voyage of exploration for a Northwest Passage to China, in which he discovered Nova Scotia and so foreshadowed English territorial expansion overseas.
1534	The Act of Supremacy established Henry VIII as "Supreme Head of the Church of England," and thus officially put civil authority above Church authority in England.
1549	The first Book of Common Prayer was adopted and became an influence on English literary style.
1558	At the age of 25, Elizabeth I became queen of England and, as a woman with a Renaissance education and a skill for leadership, began a forty-five-year reign that promoted statecraft, literature, science, exploration, and commerce.
1577--80	Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe, the first Englishman to do so, and participated in the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, removing an obstacle to English expansion overseas.
1590--1611	William Shakespeare wrote the bulk of his plays, from Henry VI to The Tempest.
1600	The East India Company was chartered to promote trade with Asia, leading eventually to the establishment of the British Raj in India.
1604	Robert Cawdrey published the first English dictionary, A Table Alphabeticall.
1607	Jamestown, Virginia, was established as the first permanent English settlement in America.
1611	The Authorized or King James Version of the Bible was produced by a committee of scholars and became, with the Prayer Book and the works of Shakespeare, one of the major examples of and influences on English literary style.
1619	The first African slaves in North America arrived in Virginia.
1642--48	The English Civil War or Puritan Revolution overthrew the monarchy and resulted in the beheading of King Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of a military dictatorship called the Commonwealth and (under Oliver Cromwell) the Protectorate, which lasted until the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660.
1660	The Royal Society was founded as the first English organization devoted to the promotion of scientific knowledge and research.
1670	The Hudson's Bay Company was chartered for promoting trade and settlement in Canada.
ca. 1680	The political parties---Whigs (named perhaps from a Scots term for 'horse drivers' but used for supporters of reform and parliamentary power) and Tories (named from an Irish term for 'outlaws' but used for supporters of conservatism and royal authority), both terms being originally contemptuous---became political forces, thus introducing party politics as a central factor in government.
1688	The Glorious Revolution was a bloodless coup in which members of Parliament invited the Dutch prince William of Orange and his wife, Mary (daughter of the reigning English king, James II), to assume the English throne, resulting in the establishment of Parliament's power over that of the monarchy.
1702	The first daily newspaper was published in London, followed by an extension of such publications throughout England and the expansion of the influence of the press in disseminating information and forming public opinion.
1719	Daniel Defoe published Robinson Crusoe, sometimes identified as the first modern novel in English, although the evolution of the genre was gradual and other works have a claim to that title.
1755	Samuels Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language, a model of comprehensive dictionaries of English
1775--83	The American Revolution resulted in the foundation of the first independent nation of English speakers outside the British Isles. Large numbers of British loyalists left the former American colonies for Canada and Nova Scotia, introducing a large number of new English speakers there.
1788	The English first settled Australia near modern Sydney.

　初期近代英語期は，外面史的には英語の世界展開の種が蒔かれた時代であり，社会言語学的には種々の機能的な標準化が進んだ時代だったとまとめられるだろう．

　・ Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

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■ #3196. 中英語期の主要な出来事の年表 [timeline][me][history][chronology][norman_conquest][reestablishment_of_english][monarch][hundred_years_war][black_death][wycliffe][chaucer][caxton]

　「#3193. 古英語期の主要な出来事の年表」 ([2018-01-23-1]) に引き続き，中英語期の主要な出来事の年表を，Algeo and Pyles (123--24) に拠って示したい，

1066	The Normans conquered England, replacing the native English nobility with Anglo-Normans and introducing Norman French as the language of government in England.
1204	King John lost Normandy to the French, beginning the loosening of ties between England and the Continent.
1258	King Henry III was forced by his barons to accept the Provisions of Oxford, which established a Privy Council to oversee the administration of the government, beginning the growth of the English constitution and parliament.
1337	The Hundred Years' War with France began and lasted until 1453, promoting English nationalism
1348--50	The Black Death killed an estimated one-third of England's population, and continued to plague the country for much of the rest of the century
1362	The Statute of Pleadings was enacted, requiring all court proceedings to be conducted in English.
1381	The Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler was the first rebellion of working-class people against their exploitation; although it failed in most of its immediate aims, it marks the beginning of popular protest.
1384	John Wycliffe died, having promoted the first complete translation of scripture into the English language (the Wycliffite Bible).
1400	Geoffrey Chaucer died, having produced a highly influential body of English poetry.
1476	William Caxton, the first English printer, established his press at Westminster, thus beginning the widespread dissemination of English literature and the stabilization of the written standard.
1485	Henry Tudor became king of England, ending thirty years of civil strife and initiating the Tudor dynasty.

　中英語の外面史は，まさに英語の社会的地位の没落とその後の復権に特徴づけられていることがよくわかる．

　・ Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

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■ #3193. 古英語期の主要な出来事の年表 [timeline][oe][christianity][synod_of_whitby][history][chronology][monarch]

　Algeo and Pyles (86--87) より，古英語期の主要な出来事の年表を示そう．

449	Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians began to occupy Great Britain, thus changing its major population to English speakers and separating the early English language from its Continental relatives.
597	Saint Augustine of Canterbury arrived in England to begin the conversion of the English by baptizing King Ethelbert of Kent, thus introducing the influence of the Latin language.
664	The Synod of Whitby aligned the English with Roman rather than Celtic Christianity, thus linking English culture with mainstream Europe.
730	The Venerable Bede produced his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, recording the early history of the English people
787	The Scandinavian invasion began with raids along the Northeast seacoast.
865	The Scandinavians occupied northeastern Britain and began a campaign to conquer all of England.
871	Alfred became king of Wessex and reigned until his death in 899, rallying the English against the Scandinavians, retaking the city of London, establishing the Danelaw, and securing the position of king of all England for himself and his successors.
991	Olaf Tryggvason invaded England, and the English were defeated at the Battle of Maldon.
1000	The manuscript of the Old English epic Beowulf was written about this time.
1016	Canute became king of England, establishing a Danish dynasty in Britain.
1042	The Danish dynasty ended with the death of King Hardicanute, and Edward the Confessor became king of England.
1066	Edward the Confessor died and was succeeded by Harold, last of the Anglo-Saxon kings, who died at the Battle of Hastings fighting against the invading army of William, duke of Normandy, who was crowned king of England on December 25.

　年代と出来事に加えて，簡単な解説が添えられているのがよい．しかも，歴史的意義に関する的確なコメントが散見される．例えば，449年の出来事は，しばしばブリテン島における英語の開始という象徴的な意味合いをもって紹介されるが，ここでは英語が他のゲルマン諸語から袂を分かったことを主眼におくコメントが加えられている．ここには，社会（言語学）的というよりは言語学的な側面により強い関心をもつ Algeo and Pyles の英語史記述の方針が現われているように思われる．
　664年のホイットビー会議の歴史的意義にも注目したい．先立つ597年にイングランド人がキリスト教化する種は蒔かれていたといえるかもしれないが，当時のイングランドでは，ローマのキリスト教とともにアイルランドから入ったケルト化したキリスト教が拡大する可能性があった．しかし，この会議によりイングランドにおいてローマのキリスト教が優勢となったことで，後のイングランド史も英語史も，ラテン語を始めとする大陸的なものに大きく影響されていくことになった．島国でありながらも大陸的な要素との接触を常に保ち続けたその後の歴史を考えると，この会議の歴史的意義がおのずと知られる．

　・ Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

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■ #2866. 古人類学にみる纏めたがり屋と分けたがり屋 [world_languages][typology][family_tree][anthropology][homo_sapiens][timeline][chronology]

　連日，バーナード・ウッドの『人類の進化』を参照し，他領域からヒントを得て言語の進化について考察してきた．今回も引き続いてウッドを参照し，分類の目の粗さと細かさについての洞察を得てみたい．
　現代世界における言語の数については，研究者によって数え方の違いがあり，数千の幅がある．数え方の違いが何によって生じるかという問題は「#270. 世界の言語の数はなぜ正確に把握できないか」 ([2010-01-22-1]) や「#1060. 世界の言語の数を数えるということ」 ([2012-03-22-1]) などで論じたので繰り返さないが，原因の1つに「言語」と「方言」の区別が客観的につけられないという事情がある．互いに非常に近い関係にあるいくつかの言語変種を，1言語のもとにある諸方言と捉えるか，あるいは各々を独立した言語と捉えるかは，しばしば言語学的な基準のみで決定することができない．前者の捉え方は「纏めたがり屋」 (lumper) の研究者の立場で，後者は「分けたがり屋」 (splitter) の研究者の立場である．
　この "lumper" と "splitter" という呼称は，古人類学の分野で常用されているもののようだ．一般には人類の歴史は「猿人」「原人」「旧人」「新人」の4段階で進んできたと理解されているが，これは人類学者にとっては相当に粗い分類のようで，専門的にはもっと細かく分類されているという．しかし，「もっと細かく」にもレベルがあり，専門家の間でも，大きくまとめあげる lumper と，とことん細分化する splitter とで，タイプが分かれるらしい．究極的には人類学者が10人いれば10通りの分類があるともいえ，その状況は言語においても同じというところがおもしろい．
　参考までに，纏めたがり屋と分けたがり屋による，古人類の種名の対照表を，ウッド (99) より再現しよう．

通称	纏めたがり屋の種名	年代（万年前）	分けたがり屋の分類に含まれる種名
初期猿人	アルディピテクス・ラミダス（広義）	700--450	アルディピテクス・カダッパ，アルディピテクス・ラミダス，サヘラントロプス・チャデンシス，オロリン・トゥゲネンシス
猿人とホモ・ハビリス	アウストラロピテクス・アファレンシス（広義）	420--300	アウストラロピテクス・アファレンシス，アウストラロピテクス・アナメンシス，アウストラロピテクス・バールエルガザリ，ケニアントロプス・プラティオプス
	アウストラロピテクス・アフリカヌス	300--240	アウストラロピテクス・アフリカヌス
	パラントロプス・ボイセイ（広義）	250--130	パラントロプス・ボイセイ，パラントロプス・エチオピクス，アウストラロピテクス・ガルヒ
	パラントロプス・ロブストス	200--150	パラントロプス・ロブストス
原人と旧人	ホモ・ハビリス（広義）	240--160	ホモ・ハビリス，ホモ・ルドルフェンシス
	ホモ・エレクトス（広義）	198--1.8	ホモ・エレクトス，ホモ・エルガスター，ホモ・フロレンシエンシス
新人	ホモ・サピエンス（広義）	70--現在	ホモ・アンテセッソル，ホモ・ハイデルベルゲンシス，ホモ・ネアンデルターレンシス，ホモ・サピエンス

　纏めたがり屋が広義で用いている「ホモ・サピエンス」には，分けたがり屋にとっての狭義での新人「ホモ・サピエンス」のみならず，通常「旧人」とされている「ホモ・ネアンデルターレンシス」も含まれることになるなど，素人にとっては実にややこしい．DNA という「物的証拠」があるにもかかわらず，客観的な線引きが難しいというのは，非常に示唆的である．実にこの難しさは，言語の分類に際してもほぼそのまま当てはまるのである．  *

　・ バーナード・ウッド（著），馬場 悠男（訳）　『人類の進化――拡散と絶滅の歴史を探る』　丸善出版，2014年．

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■ #2526. 古英語と中英語の文学史年表 [literature][chronology][timeline][me][oe][history]

　中世英文学の主要作品と年表について「#1433. 10世紀以前の古英語テキストの分布」 ([2013-03-30-1])，「#1044. 中英語作品，Chaucer，Shakespeare，聖書の略記一覧」 ([2012-03-06-1])，「#2323 中英語の方言ごとの主要作品」 ([2015-09-06-1])，「#2503. 中英語文学」 ([2016-03-04-1]) で見てきたが，もう少し一覧性の高いものが欲しいと思い，Treharne の中世英文学作品集の pp. xvi--xvii に掲げられている年表を再現することにした．政治史と連動した文学史の年表となっている．

Historical events	Literary landmarks
From c. 449: Anglo-Saxon settlements
597: St Augustine arrives to convert Anglo-Saxons
664: Synod of Whitby
	c. 670? Cædmon's Hymn
	731: Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History
735: Death of Bede
793: Vikings raid Lindisfarne
869: Vikings kill King Edmund of East Anglia
879--99: Alfred reigns as king of Wessex	from c. 890: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
	Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; Gregory's Pastoral Care; Orosius; Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; Augustine's Soliloquies
937: Battle of Brunanburh
from c. 950: Benedictine reform
	c. 970: Exeter Book copied
959--75: King Edgar reigns	c. 975: Vercelli Book copied
978--1016: Æthelred 'the Unready' reigns	990s: Ælfric's Catholic Homilies and Lives of Saints
c. 1010: death of Ælfric	c. 1010?: Junius manuscript copied
	c. 1014: Wulfstan's sermo Lupi ad Anglos
1016--35: Cnut, king of England
1023: death of Wulfstan
1042--66: Edward the confessor reigns	Apollonius of Tyre
1066: Battle of Hastings
1066--87: William the Conqueror reigns
1135: Stephen becomes king	Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae
1135--54: civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda	Peterborough Chronicle continuations
1154--89: Henry II reigns	1155: Wace's Roman de Brut
	1170--90: Chrétien de Troyes's Romances
	c. 1170s: The Orrmulum
	Poema Morale
	1180s: Marie de France's Lais
1189--99: Richard I reigns	c. 1190--1200? Trinity Homilies
1199--1216: John reigns	c. 1200? Hali Meiðhad
1204: loss of Normandy
1215: Magna Carta
1215: fourth Lateran Council
1216--72: Henry III reigns	c. 1220 Laȝamon's Brut
1224: Franciscan friars arrive in England	c. 1225: Ancrene Wisse
	c. 1225: King Horn
1272--1307: Edward I reigns	Manuscript Digby 86 copied
	Manuscript Jesus 29 copied
	Manuscript Cotton Caligula A. ix copied
	Manuscript Arundel 292 copied
	Manuscript Trinity 323 copied
	South English Legendary composed
	c. 1300: Cursor Mundi
	1303: Robert Mannyng of Brunne begins Handlyng Synne
1307--27: Edward II reigns
1327--77: Edward III reigns	Auchinleck Manuscript copied
	Manuscript Harley 2253 copied
1337(--1454): Hundred Years' War with France
	1338: Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Chronicle
	1340: Ayenbite of Inwit
c. 1343: Geoffrey Chaucer born
	Ywain and Gawain translated
1349: Black Death comes to England
1349: Richard Rolle dies
	1355--80: Athelston
	Wynnere and Wastoure written
	1360s--1390s: Piers Plowman
1362: English displaces French as language of lawcourts and Parliament
	1370s--1400: Canterbury Tales
1377: Richard II accedes to throne	1370s: Julian of Norwich's Vision
1381: Peasants' Revolt breaks out
1399: Richard II deposed
1399: Henry IV accedes to the throne
	c. 1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
	c. 1400: Chaucer dies
	c. 1410--30: Book of Margery Kempe

　・ Treharne, Elaine, ed. Old and Middle English c. 890--c. 1450: An Anthology. 3rd ed. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

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