[2009-05-18-1]ε-dom ̾פǤϸѸǻȤ -dom Ĥ̻Ūʴ餳įƤߤBauer (220) ˤȡ-dom ϰ٤λȤߤʤۤɤ˿षƤѸǤϰᤷƤƤȤ
-dom This suffix forms abstract, uncountable nouns from concrete, countable ones. For a long time it was thought that the suffix was moribund or totally non-productive, but Wentworth (1941) showed that it had never completely died out, and it is still productive in contemporary English, though not very much so. Recent examples include Dollardom, fagdom, gangsterdom, girldom (all OEDS). (220)
-dom ϸ§Ȥ̾δΤղä̾뤬freedom Τ褦˷ƻδΤղä⤢롥
OED ̻ŪʬۤĴ٤Ƥߤ[2011-01-05-1]ǾҲ𤷤OED θ̤äȤʬह CGIפѤȤ -dom 夲ʲΤ褦˻вSodom ʤɤλ¿ϺäƤꡤäȸƵդΤϺ绨Ĥʿ夲Ȥ줿ͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡ

Ѹ줫ѸˤƤΤ露Ȥ衤19ȯϰŪǤ롥20βФϡ¤ȿǤƤΤ뤤 OED θüλˤΤˤƤ19ʹߤο -dom äϤ٤Ƥٸǡnonce-word ¿Frequency Sorter ˤȡANC (American National Corpus) 10ʾѤƤΤϡfandom, boredom, stardom, fiefdom 餤
ܼ (productivity) Ū˷ΤȤ (Baayen and Lieber) -dom 19ȯ2021ˤɤ³ƤΤľŪªܼȤϵҴŪˤɤΤ褦˵ҤΤ˥ѥɤΤ褦˳ѤǤΤ-dom ܤǤ⡤꤬͡夬äƤ롥
Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Baayen, Harald and Rochelle Lieber. "Productivity and English Derivation: A Corpus-Based Study." Linguistics 29 (1991): 801--43.
ʲˡѤ Log-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 2 ʸ褦ˡϥǡΥեޥåȤ䡤⡼ɤŬڤƤʤˤϥСǥ顼ǽΤա
| though | although | |
|---|---|---|
| Natural and pure sciences | 56.3 | 80.13 |
| Applied science | 37.36 | 68.31 |
| World affairs | 45.81 | 68.2 |
| Social science | 48.98 | 63.38 |
| Commerce and finance | 46.18 | 57.21 |
| Arts | 74.07 | 52.93 |
| Leisure | 45.85 | 49.46 |
| Belief and thought | 70.78 | 46.75 |
| Imaginative prose | 80.2 | 26.37 |
ε[2011-04-06-1]ǡthough although θˡκ˿줿Ʊǡ
4000Ķʤ The Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus (the LSWE Corpus) ȤѸʸˡBiber et al. (845--46) ǤϼΤ褦ˤ롥
Both of these subordinators [though and although] occur in all four registers [conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose], although the registers show different preferences of use. Conversation and fiction show a slightly greater use of though (concessive clauses are, however, uncommon in conversation generally). News shows no particular preference. In academic prose, although is about three times as frequent as though. Although seems to have a slightly more formal tone to it, fitting the style of academic prose . . . . The greater use of although by writers of academic prose may also result from an attempt to distinguish this subordinator from the common use of though as a linking adverbial in conversation . . . .
ޤƱ p. 842 ɽϡŪ though fiction ¿although academic prose ¿Ȥǧ롥ˤ뺹ƤȤη̤
Τ褦Ըơ BNC ( The British National Corpus ) ˤꤳΤƤߤ롥BNCweb ǡ{although/CONJ}, {though/CONJ} 줾측Written/Spoken, Text Domain, Sex of Author/Speaker, Perceived Level of Difficulty ʤ͡ʥѥǽиʬۤʬϤΩä̤ʲ˼ʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡˡ
ޤWritten/Spoken κˤĤƤϡͽۤȤꡤξȤ Written ؤФ꤬㤷ʺ۷ though 0.66344 although 0.49770 ǡ餫˽դФˡLog-Likelihood Test Ǥϡp < 0.0001 Υ٥ǽդäդͭպΤ˼줿
ꡤäˤ뺹ⶽ̣դäդξǡalthough ͭպäλѤФäƤ롥though ˤĤƤϡ although ۤɸǤϤʤʤդǤ p < 0.05 ͭպˡ
ˡText Domain ̤٤ߤ롥9 Text Domain ̤ ( Natural and pure sciences, Applied science, World affairs, Social science, Commerce and finance, Arts, Leisure, Belief and thought, Imaginative prose ) 100νиɸಽͤǡξ Text Domain ٤ղΤʲοޤ

Text Domain ˤäξνи٤оŪʷ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū sciences ( = academic prose ) although ΩImag(inative) Prose ( = fiction ) though ¿Log-Likelihood Test ǤϡText Domain ˤиκ p < 0.0001 ͭդǤ롥
ľŪˤԸη̤ͽۤȤǤϤ뤬although νˤؽѻʸǸѤȤ줿
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
餫δǽñΥꥹȤŪ٤ν¤ؤȤ롥㤨С[2011-03-22-1]褦ˡ٤Ե§ʿȤδطĴ٤ȤˡܤʷˤΰŪ٤Τɬפ롥Ūˤϡ[2010-03-01-1]ǾҲ𤷤褦絬Ϥѥѥ˴ŤɽͭѤǤ롥BNC lemma-pos list (122KB) ANC word-tagset list (7.2MB) ʤɤθĤҤȤĸٿٽ̤Ĵ٤Ƥ椱Ф褤¿ˤݤǡ嵭2Ĥɽ顤Ϥʷˤ٤Ƚ̤Ф CGI
ԤǤ⥹ڡǤ⥫ޤǤ褤Τڤ줿ñꥹȤʲΥܥåϤ"Frequency Sort Go!" å롥Ϸ̤ٽ̤ι⤤˥Ȥˤϡ"sort by rank?" ˤʥǥեȤǥդˤȡϽ˽Ϥˡ㤨СɸѸ˻Ĥ i-mutation ʣϰʲ7ΤߤǤʣ졤ʣ[2011-04-01-1]ˤ sister(e)n ϽˡԡƥܥåϤ롥
foot, goose, louse, man, mouse, tooth, woman
ε[2011-03-31-1]ǡűѸο²̾ζɽbrethren εˤĤƤڤȴϢƿ²̾줪դ ( analogy ) ⤦ĵ褦brethren Ȥ sister(e)n Ȥʣ롥MED εҤˤ褦ˡѸǤ -(e)n Ϥ̤Ǥꡤ-s ̲Τ brother ξƱʹߤǤ롥դϻΰʤΤǡܺ٤ʥǡäƤ롥ѸǤ⥤ɤǤ -s ͥǤϤλ sister ʣϸ§Ȥ -n 뤤첻θݤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ ( Hotta, p. 256 )
ơsister(e)n ϸѸĤäƤ뤬brethren Ȱۤʤꡤ̾MˤϵܤƤʤBNC ( The British National Corpus ) ǤҥåȤʤäCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ), COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English ) ǤϤ줾4㡤1519ȾʹߤˤҥåȤäѤ饢ꥫѸʹ뤳Ȥʬ롥COCA 1ĵ롥Ƥ "CNN Crossfire" ǤֻϰѼԡˡ
Well, you know, I hate to correct you, but you made the same mistake many of your liberal brethren and sisteren, have said in analyzing this dissent by Judge Stevens.
COCA, COHA ξѥη19Τ16ޤǤ brethren and sister(e)n ȤƸ졤˥եѤ졤dear my ԤƤӤλȤ¿brethren Ʊͤ˽ŪȹŪʸ̮ǸƤ褦ꤵ줿ȤƤΤۤʸŪʸ̤⤢Τ⤷ʤϢơOED sister θ5ѤƤ"In the vocative, as a mode of address, chiefly in transferred senses. Also colloq. as a mode of address to an unrelated woman, esp. one whose name is not known."
äѤ饢ꥫѸѤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡMencken (502) Ƥ롥
Sisteren or sistern, now confined to the Christians, white and black, of the Get-Right-with-God country, was common in Middle English and is just as respectable, etymologically speaking, as brethren.
sister(e)n Ȥʣ˴ؤŪϡḽ奢ꥫѸǤλѤѸη³ȤƤȤ館٤뤤ϥꥫѸDzƤ⤿餵줿ȤƤȤ館٤Ǥ롥OED ˤȡsister(e)n ϰŪʸϸȤƤ16ȾФѤ줿Ȥ롥Ѹ䥤ꥹѸޤĴʤʬʤ(1) brethren Ȥϻ鷺ꤽǤ뤳ȡ(2) brethren ȵӱƧΤǸƤӤʤɸä˹ޤ줽Ǥ뤳ȡ2饢ꥫѸǤκƷȹͤΤǤϤʤѸ츻Ū sister(e)n Ф줿餤顤ѸDzƺ줿ȤƤԻĤϤʤ
sister(e)n ̾μˤϺܤäƤʤ餤Υ쥢ʣbrethren, children, oxen (but see [2010-08-22-1]) Ʊ˻Ĥ뾯 -en ʣ֤Ƥ롥
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
ε[2011-03-24-1] Log-Likelihood Test ˤˤ Rayson Log-likelihood calculator ѤФ褤ȽҤ٤ºݤθκݤ˺Ȥ⤦ưȻפäΤ CGI Ƥߤ٤ϤȻפȤꤢ
BNC_Male_Speakers BNC_Female_Speakers new 149 91 good 408 310 free 173 75 fresh 84 118 delicious 12 34 full 210 107 sure 532 328 clean 197 223 wonderful 270 258 special 177 82 crisp 10 16 fine 347 215 big 470 415 great 203 96 real 163 80 easy 326 157 bright 113 110 extra 347 203 safe 182 92 rich 120 45 #-------- corpus_size 4949938 3290569
˽֤ͭպä礭ΤϡбԤ֤ɤĤ֤줿 fresh, delicious, clean, wonderful, big ǡٿ˴ŤƷ줿 Diff_Co ( "Difference Coefficient" ֺ۷ ) ޥʥǤ뤳Ȥ顤ħŪʷƻȤȤˤʤ롥big ϰճʵ⤷̤Ǥ롥ФäͭպΤϲǼ easy rich Ǥ롥η̤Ϥɤ߹ळȤǤܺ٤Ĵ٤뤳ȤǤ롥ηƻȤϡüԤǤϤʤʹ̡ǯ𡤼ҲʤɤĴƤ⤪⤷ȱѤǤ롥
[2010-03-04-1]εǿ줿ѥؤǤϳƼˡѤ롥ĤˡΤʤǤ⡤ɽΥѥ֤٤Ӥꡤcollocation ٹ礤¬Τ˹ѤƤΤ Log-Likelihood Test ( LL Test, G Test, G2 Test ʤɤȤ˸ƤФ븡Ǥ롥ѥθ줿ʤΤǥΰۤʤ륳ѥ֤ǤӤǽǤꡤƱŪǰˤ褯ѤƤ2踡 ( Chi-Squared Test ) ⤤ĤǤ줿ˡɾƤꡤǶΥѥǤϹѤƤ롥㤨С2踡ϴ٤5꾯ʤȤٸȤѥ礭ΤȾΤӤȤ˿㤯ʤ뤬Log-Likelihood Test Ϥαƶˤ [ Rayson and Garside 2 ]
Log-Likelihood Test δŪʹͤϡѥȤˤɽδԤи١ʴ١ˤФͤȼºݤ˽и١ʴѻ١ˤκñʸȹͤۤɤ˶Ƥ뤫ɤȽꤹȤΤǤ롥ȤơΤ褦ʥǥBNC ( The British National Corpus ) äե֥ѥȽե֥ѥ̤ξ֥ѥ֤ f*ck Ȥ four-letter word ٤Ӥ롥BNCweb ꤳΥɤȡΤ褦ʷ̤줿
| Category | No. of words | No. of hits | Dispersion (over files) | Frequency per million words |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spoken | 10,409,858 | 579 | 63/908 | 55.62 |
| Written | 87,903,571 | 743 | 172/3,140 | 8.45 |
| total | 98,313,429 | 1,322 | 235/4,048 | 13.45 |
| Corpus 1 | Corpus 2 | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Frequency of word | a | b | a+b |
| Frequency of other words | c-a | d-b | c+d-a-b |
| Total | c | d | c+d |
äʿβϿ̤ˤĤޤơҼԤ˿ꤪ夲ޤ
[2011-03-03-1]εǡsemantic prosody ʸˡƥȤδ֤˴ϢȤǽ˸ڤϡhappen 졤utterly ޤදո semantic prosody ѥˤäĴ Partington ʸǻŦƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Partington happen, set in, occur, come about, take place Ĵθ췲ˤ٤κϤ졤Τ unfavourable semantic prosody տ路ƤȤڵʺǤ unfavourable ʤΤ set in Ȥ(144) Ʊͤˡutterly, absolutely, perfectly, totally, completely, entirely, thoroughly Ĵ줾 semantic prosody 뤤 semantic preference Ф (148) ơĤθտ路Ƥ벻ˤϡfavourable vs. unfavourable ȤñʲʹΩǤϤʤ̤ˤʸˡƥȤƸڤ褦ħΩͿƤȤȤ狼ä
Ū˸Сhappen non-factuality ˡ䡤ȤäʸˡƥȤδͿǧ졤it is unclear why to see what ʤɤɽȤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ (140--41) ǡtake place Ϥष factuality ͽꤵƤ뤳ȤºݤȤްդѤ뤳Ȥ¿ (143)
ոǤϡutterly unfavourable semantic prosody ǤʤħԺߤѲɽ魯뷹 ( ex. utterly helpless / unable /forgotten / changed / different / destroyed ) Ʊϡtotally, completely, entirely ˤ⸫롥entirely ˤ (in)dependency ȤƥͿƤꡤentirely dependent / self-sufficient / isolated ʤɤѤ뤳Ȥ¿absolutely superlative ްդ ( ex. absolutely delighted / splendid / appalling )
factuality, absence, change, dependence, superlative Ȥɤϡ̾ʸˡƥ˴ϢƸڤ٥ΰ̣ä semantic prosody semantic preference ȤƸڤ̣ȿؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ͤƤߤСäʸˡηӤĤȤϡʤʤ㤨СưϼȤǤѤʤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤɤȤ¤Τ褦˻ŦƤؽѼ˹ȿǤƤ롥ΰ̣ΰɽ魯줬³ that ư subjunctive ᤹ȤʸˡܤĹƤ ([2010-04-07-1]) äʸˡδطϱѸؤǤϤ褯ΤƤ¤ѥؤȤ٤Ʊ¤ˤɤ夤ȤȤѥؤιϡfactuality absence ʤɤΥƥ 0 1 binary ȤƤǤϤʤprobabilistic ȤƼ갷ȤǤˤ褦˻פ롥
Ѹˤ뤤̻ؤδϡ줬ʸˡƥȷӤĤǧˡġɤΤ褦ˤηӤĤΤ˶̣롥㤨 happen ϱѸˤΤĺ unfavourable non-factual ʴߤΤ⤷ˤΤ褦ʴߤӤӻϤΤǤСΰ̣ξ ( semantic field ) ¾Ȥδط碌ƹͤɬפ롥ơȤδطȤȤˤʤСoccur ʤɼѸΰϤθʤФʤʤѸˤ̣ξκ semantic prosody ʸˡƥؤηӤĤȤή줬ȤС⤷speculation ˤʤ㤨[2009-08-17-1]εǿ줿ȲˡߤȤδطˤή줬ʤ
Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.
Ѹˡư ( modal auxiliary ) ηϤʣʤȤˤĤƤϡ[2010-07-22-1], [2010-01-20-1], [2009-07-01-1], [2009-06-25-1]εǿ줿ˡưϰưӤ־οðۤǤꡤ̣¿ͲƤΤDZѸˤ̤ʸǤäѸǤηŪʰƤ餺ʹȹͤ뤬ꤽ켫ΤʣǤ롥ѸˡưθϿ¿ηϤѲηҤȤơThe Brown family of corpora ([2010-06-29-1]) Ѥ Leech et al. (Chapters 3--5) θ椬롥ä4 (pp. 71--90) Ǥϡפ11ˡư٤ѲܽҤƤ롥ʲϡ1961ǯƱѽդɽ Brown LOB1991/92ǯƱѽդɽ Frown F-LOB ˤꡤ30ǯ֤ˤ錄ˡư٤̻Ѳɽ路դǤLeech et al., p. 283 οɽȤ˺ˡͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡwill ˤ 'll won't ʤɤξάޤࡥneed Ϲξޤࡥ

ΤȤ30ǯδ֤ˡư٤äƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥٤θϡwould, will, may, should, must, shall, ought (to) p < 0.001 ˶ͭպmight, need(n't) p < 0.01 ζͭպϱξѼҤä̤ѼʬĴȡAmE Τۤ BrE ⸺ٹ礤BrE η٤ɤƤ뤫Τ褦ʬۤ (73)
̣ΤϡȤ٤㤤ˡưۤɸΨ礭 "bottom-weighting" (73) ηѻ뤳ȤΨʿѤ18.9%4ưǤߤ4.7%7ưǤߤ22.7%Ǥ롥äˡshall 43.5%ought (to) 37.5%need(n't) 31.6%ȤΨ
bottom-weighting طʤˤϡ"paradigmatic atrophy" ηŪಽ(80--81) ΤǤϤʤȻŦƤ롥ҤΤ褦ˡˡưϰư٤¿ԴǤ§ŪǤ롥;Τˤޤ礤Ƥꡤ¸ߤѲ⤭Ե§Ǥ롥shall 2;̾ȤƸ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤmayn't ȤϤƤޤǤ롥ˡư줬Ū "defective" ʸǤ뤳ȤͤСȤ櫓٤㤤ˡư줬äǽ˴٤ꡤޤޤ٤ˤʤäƤ椯ȤȤԻĤǤϤʤˡưκϥդ˸ۤñʸݤǤϤʤѥѤŪĴˤä礭Ĭή餫ˤ줿ȸ
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
[2011-03-02-1], [2011-03-03-1]ε semantic prosody ꤢ붦ɽʼŪʡɾӤӤ븽ݤǤ롥semantic prosody ñʤΥ٥ˤȤɤޤ餺Ūʥ٥ˤ⸫롥㤨СStubbs (163--68) Ǥ be-passive Ф get-passive ΰ̣˴ؤ륳ѥѸ椬Ҳ𤵤Ƥꡤget Ѥư֤ϼ줬פȤʸ̮ʤ˾ˤäƤϼ줬פ˼ǤȤʸ̮ˤˤ˸Ȥ̤𤵤Ƥ롥
get-passive Ū semantic prosody ӤӤ䤹ȤȤϡ褫ʸˡǻŦƤȤѥĹ϶ŪʿƤˤ롥Stubbs ĴǤϡbe-passive 25% "unpleasant" ʷ̤ްդ"pleasant" ްդΤ¿Ȥget-passive Ǥ60%ʾ夬 "unpleasant" ʷ̤ްդ"pleasant" ްդΤϤۤΤ鷺Ǥ롥̤ΥѥѤ̤θԤˤĴǤϡget-passage "unpleasant" ްΨäեѥ9ãȤ⤢ꡤget-passive Ū semantic prosody äƤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥Τ褦ʵҴŪʿͤˤդcorpus semantics νפĹǤǤ롥
ѥˤä줿 get-passive ˴ؤ뤳θϡget-passive ޤŪʸβˤɤΤ餤ΩĤΤѥ줿Ȥʸͤ褦
I got praised for having a clean plate.
츫Ȥä "unpleasant" ްդϴޤޤƤʤget-passive ѤƤȤȤϡǤ "unpleasant" ްդᡤ餯ŪɤߤᤵƤȤȤʤΤѥˤθ뤳ȤϡŪ semantic prosody ȼäƤ get-passive ѤƤʾ塤⤤Ψ "unpleasant" ɤߤդ路"pleasant or neutral" ⳧̵ǤϤʤäΤ餳Ǥ㳰Ū "pleasant or neutral" ɤߤ⤷ʤפۤɤǤϾQŪΤäƤ뤳ȤȺʤѥθۤȤɳ褫ƤʤѥΥޤϡ̤㤫鷹õФȤդġβݾڤƤϤʤȤȤǤ롥ʸΤ˥ѥɽ̵ͭ٤Ĵ٤ȤȤŪ˹ԤʤäƤ뤬ǤĤפΤɽä顤٤äȤäơ줬ɬʸƳƤȤϸ¤ʤȤȤǤ롥ֻͤޤǤˡפǻߤޤäƤޤȤ¿äֻͤޤǤˡפǤϻͤˤʤʤȤ¿Τ
semantic prosody δȤ館ʤȡ붦ɽˤ semantic prosody δްդɤ٤ζ١괶ϤäƤС츫ȤΩŪŪʸ̮ʤɤŪʲӤӤȹͤΤ probability ͤȤƻФǤΤʤΤ
ġʸ̮ȽǤ٤ȸäƤޤФޤǤѥ̤ʸȤŪ˹ʤȤʤȡβͤ¤ƤޤΤǤϤʤStubbs ʸϡѥȲδطˤĤƾ嵭Ƥ뤬ˤĤƤ̵Ǥ롥
Stubbs, M. "Texts, Corpora, and Problems of Interpretation: A Response to Widdowson." Applied Linguistics 22.2 (2001): 149--72.
ε[2011-03-02-1]Ǽꤢ semantic prosody ˴Ϣꡥȸζطˤ4Ĥμब̤롥ʲMcEnery et al. (84--85, 149--52) Ȥơ٤㤤Τ⤤Τؤ¤١줾γפ
(1) collocation: ùܤȸùܤȤδط
(2) colligation: ùܤʸˡƥȤδط
(3) semantic preference: ùܤȡ̣Ū˴Ϣ췲Ȥδط
(4) semantic prosody: Ụ߽̄Фùܤζط
(1) collocation ñ˸ȸ줬ȤطؤŪˤŪʳǰȹͤƤ롥ɤ٤٤äƶ "collocate" ƤȸʤȤǤΤ˴ؤơԤΤŪʴϰۤʤ see [2010-03-23-1], [2010-03-04-1] ) ̾ϡQŪˡֹ١פǤ collocation ȸƤǤ褦
(2) ̾ house ȺǤ٤Ƕ the a ʤɤδ줬뤬 collocation 椹Ǥޤ̣ͭǤʤ̾ǤдȶΤϼǤꡤhouse ˸ꤵ줿äǤϤʤcollocation ̣ͭʽѸȤݤĤˤϡhouse ȴΤ褦ʡʸˡƥδطɽ魯Ѹ줬ɬפȤʤ롥줬 colligation Ǥ롥
(3) semantic preference ϡ̣Ūͭ롤٤Ƕν˴ؤطǤ롥㤨Сlarge Ͽ̡Ϥɽ魯췲 ( ex. number(s), scale, part, quantities, amount(s) ) ȶutterly ħηǡ֤Ѳɽ魯췲 ( ex. helpless, useless, unable, forgotten; changed, different ) ȶ롥large utterly ϶ΰ̣ϰϤǤ롥
(4) semantic prosody Ϻε[2011-03-02-1]ǵ̤ǡ٤ɾȤäŪʰ̣߽ФطؤüԤΰռ˾ʤ줿ްդǤ뤳Ȥ¿semantic preference üʸȸ뤳ȤǤζܤɬΤǤϤʤ
μζǤ졤˴ؤܺ٤ʸŻҥѥǰ٤¿ʸ褦ˤʤäȤˤȯŸƤsemantic prosody θϡ̣ȯŸ˹뤳ȤϤޤǤʤ֤ζ̤餫ˤΤΩĤȤޤΤǸض伭ؤʬˤ뤳Ȥˤʤޤμθϸ̣ȶӤĤ븦ǤϤ뤬 utterly ȤδϢǼħηǡ֤ѲפȤ̣δͿͤȡpolarity modality ȤäʸˡƥȤδϢ⼨졤Ȥ⸫ơ֤뤳Ȥˤΰ̣夷Ƥ椯Ȥ˾ƤС̻Ūʸоݤˤʤ롥
semantic prosody ϡΤ褦˹ϤʱѤԤǤǤ롥McEnery et al. (84) ˺Ƕθν郎ΤǡͤޤǤ˰ʲƤ
Hunston, S. Corpora in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002.
Louw, B. "Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodies." Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair. Eds. M. Baker, G. Francis and E. Tognini-Bonelli. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1993. 157--76.
Louw, B. 2000. "Contextual Prosodic Theory: Bringing Semantic Prosodies to Life." Words in Context: A Tribute to John Sinclair on his Retirement. Eds. C. Heffer, H. Sauntson and G. Fox. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 2000.
Partington, A. Patterns and Meanings. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998.
Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.
Schmitt, N. and R. Carter "Formulaic Sequences in Action: An Introduction." Formulaic Sequences. Ed. N. Schmitt. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2004. 1--22.
Stubbs, M. "Collocations and Semantic Profiles: On the Cause of the Trouble with Quantitative Methods." Function of Language 2.1 (1995): 1--33.
Stubbs, M. "Texts, Corpora, and Problems of Interpretation: A Response to Widdowson." Applied Linguistics 22.2 (2001): 149--72.
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
semantic prosody ϡǯΥѥؤζδˤä߽Ф줿ǰǤꡤȤƤܤ褦ˤʤäƤƱѥؤˤäܤ褦ˤʤä collocation ȤϢƤ롥Louw (57) ˤСsemantic prosody "a form of meaning which is established through the proximity of a consistent series of collocates" Ǥ롥⤦ʬ䤹Ȥ Crystal Ѥ褦
A term sometimes used in corpus-based lexicology to describe a word which typically co-occurs with other words that belong to a particular semantic set. For example, utterly co-occurs regularly with words of negative evaluation (e.g. utterly appalling). (428)
Ȥ utterly appalling Ƥ褦ˡutterly ȤդϾˡŪɽ魯Ĵ롥¾ˡhappen set in ȤʶưԲʽɽ魯̾ȶ뤳Ȥ¿semantic prosody Ȥϡˤäƶ뤳Τ褦ʡְ̣βפΤȤؤμ礿뵡ǽüԤ٤ɾɽ魯ȤǤ롥¿Ūɾ˴ؤΤǤꡤŪɾϾʤʸԤȤƤϡŪʶ utterly ФƹŪʶ perfectly 褦ˡsemantic prosody collocation ȶӤĤƤ뤳ȤϡMcEnery et al. (83) εƤ personal price 㤫餫Ǥ롥personal price ñȤǤϤɾΩŪ̾Ūʰ̣βȼ
ζˤä semantic prosody 줬ʬ夷Ƥȡζΰդ˰æ뤳Ȥˤä桼⥢ʤɤüʸ̤ɽ魯ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥㤨СCobuild written corpus ˼Τ褦ʸ롥
Their relationship in fact was so complete that they were utterly content in each other's company.
semantic prosody ˴ؤ뤳ȤΤǤʤϡȸζˤäƤʤβʼŪʲˤΤ뤤Ū˳ƤΤȤǤ롥utterly ϤʤŪʲӤӤΤ䤤ФơŪʸȶ뤳Ȥ¿ä utterly ΤβӤӤ褦ˤʤäȤ뤫⤷ʤ⤽Ūʸȶ뤳Ȥ¿äΤϤʤʤΤ utterly ΤŪŪʲӤӤƤǤϤʤޤ˷ܤ褫褫˴٤äƤޤΤ褦ʾξȤơ(1) ŪŪ (2) ŪʸȤˤʶȤ2Ĥװߤ˺Ѥ̤ȤäȤⲺ⤷ʤŪǶᡤ -ish ŪʴްդγˤĤŪʸԤʤäˤȤäƤϡǺޤǤ롥McEnery et al. (84) ⤳˿Ƥ롥
It might be argued that the negative (or less frequently positive) prosody that belongs to an item is the result of the interplay between the item and its typical collocates. On the one hand, the item does not appear to have an affective meaning until it is in the context of its typical collocates. On the other hand, if a word has typical collocates with an affective meaning, it may take on that affective meaning even when used with atypical collocates. As the Chinese saying goes, 'he who stays near vermilion gets stained red, and he who stays near ink gets stained black' --- one takes on the colour of one's company --- the consequence of a word frequently keeping 'bad company' is that the use of the word alone may become enough to indicate something unfavourable . . . .
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Louw, B. 2000. "Contextual Prosodic Theory: Bringing Semantic Prosodies to Life." Words in Context: A Tribute to John Sinclair on his Retirement. Eds. C. Heffer, H. Sauntson and G. Fox. Birmingham: U of Birmingham, 2000.
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
ε[2011-02-22-1]˰³COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ˴Ťñ٥ꥹȤѤѥåȡǥϡǺǶˤʤäɲä줿50ΥꥹȤѤơƱͤʻ̳Ĵ٤ΥꥹȤϸФ ( lemma ) ˴Ť5000졤ΥꥹȤϸ ( word form ) ˴Ť50Τˤ497187ˤǡʤۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
ȤۤƱȤ2줺ĤdzڤꡤL1L25ޤǤγΤ줾ˤ noun, verb, adj., adv., others 5ʬʻ̳ФʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡ

L612٥դ꤫ʻΨϰȤäƤ褤L1734٥դ꤫ưϤޤΤˤʤ뤬礭Ƥߤȡʤʤ餷ƤߤȡľΥ٥뤫礭æƤʤ
[2011-02-16-1]ε衤ƻΨˤʤäƤ뤬ΥǡΤȡ0.1738ȤͤϤ줿 lemma ĴǤ0.1678ä顤ͤ˶Ƥ롥̾ư lemma word form Ψϡ̾줬 0.5086 : 0.6985ư줬 0.2000 : 0.1065 礭ۤʤΤǡƻ 0.1678 : 0.1738 Ȥ϶⤷ʤlemma word form ʻ̳ˤϰۤʤ뷹Τ⤷ʤǤ絬ϤĴ٤ȰȸƤӤ֤и뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦
[2011-02-16-1]εǿ줿褦ˡѸΥեѸˤƻΨ0.1768ä0.1738ȹƤ뤬ޤǰ㤦Τǡľܤδط뤳Ȥ̵Ǥ롥ȤȺĴϡ[2011-02-16-1]ĴȤ̵ط˻ϤΤǤ롥Ȼפ뤳η̤ϡŪǤϤ롥ѸäȤ̾줬ŪʤϤͽۤƤΤΡեťΥɸ줫Ϥ褽γηƻʤ줾 lemma Ĵ0.17680.1817ˤѤƤơΨϻ夬ۤʤȤϤѸΨȶƤ롥ѸΤˤΨȼѸäˤΨƤȤȤϡ⤷ǤʤȤ顤̣ΤեѸäťΥɼѸäѸŬ褦ʼΨDZѸäϤȤȤϡΥѥåȡǥη̤Ƥΰݤ˴Ť speculation ˤʤʻ̳ȤܤƤ
COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ˴ŤƼåꥹȤ Corpus-based word frequency lists, collocates, and n-grams Ǥ롥ΤʤǺǤŪʥꥹȤκ5000ꥹǤ롥ƤΤϸФ ( lemma ) ñ̤ǡ̤ϥѥ˸٤ʬδؿǷƤ롥UCREL CLAWS7 Tagset ʻ쥳ɽ˴ŤƤʻͿƤꡤʻ̤٤ʤɤڤʬϤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ϡ500줴Ȥ˶ڤä٤ι⤤L1L10ޤǤγߤ줾γˤʻ̳Фʻϳ ( open class ) 濴Ȥnoun, verb, adj., adv., others 5ʬȤʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡ

1ɤγǤ̾줬ȾƤΤͽۤǤȤ2ʹߤ̾γ礬פäۤɿӤƤʤȤʬäưȷƻ줬ȾγǤ⤪褽γ³ƤΤͽ۳äΤȤơ5000ꥹȤ˸¤С̾줬ȴĤĤ⡤ΨϤ褽ݤƤȤ褦͡ưƻƤߤ褽Τ500ʹߤȸƤ褵
[2011-02-16-1]εѸΥեѸʻ̳ߤΤȤƤηƻΨ0.1768äθѸκ5000ǤϡΤȤƤηƻΨ0.1678٤ựΤͤɤʬʤѸʸ졩ˤˤʻΨΡְ괶פΤ褦ʤΤϤΤ
COCA ˴Ťΰʳ˥饤ǤѱñꥹȤˤĤƤ[2010-03-01-1]εȡɽѤ̤ΥѥåȡǥȤƤϡñβä[2010-04-17-1]εȡ
[2010-10-15-1]ε˴ϢơBrewer ʸε OED ΰѿ̤˥ղΤǤä˸äƤսǼǤʲ˼

Brewer (58) ˤȡ(1)--(5) γä OED ԻװˤȤ礭Ȥ롥줾λϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
(1) 1291--1300ǯá1470ǯˤĤƤϤФХƥȤǯ夬ǤꡤΤ褦ʾˤصξüǯꤹȤԽˤäޤäˤλˤĤƤϡRobert of Gloucester (1297ǯ3222) Cursor Mundi (1300ǯ10771 OED ˤѿ2̤κ) 顤ʤ꽸Ū˰ѤޤƤȤ⤢롥
(2) 1391--1400ǯá(1) ƱͤȤͳ˲äTrevisa (1387/98ǯ6750) ̤˼ޤƤȤ𤬤롥
(3) 1521--1530ǯáPalsgrave Lesclarcissement (1530ǯ5418) ̤ΰѤˤꡤȾ롥
(4) 1581--1600ǯáShakespeare (33304) αƶ礭
(5) 1631--1660ǯá餯̿ΥѥեåȤ¿ΰѤƶƤ롥
5äˤĤƤǤԽطʤŪΤäƤȡOED ΰѥǡλȤʾʤȤ⤽λˤѤäƤȻפ⤷补Ϣ뵭ȤƤϰʲȡ
[2010-10-10-1]: #531. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫
[2010-10-14-1]: #535. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫 (2)
[2010-10-15-1]: #536. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫 (3)
Brewer, Charlotte. "OED Sources." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 40--58.
[2010-06-29-1]εǤߤ褦ˡThe Brown family of corpora 4ѥ ( Brown, Frown, LOB, F-LOB ) Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƱѸαѼ֤30ǯ֤ۤɤ̻Ѳ٤뤳ȤǤ롥Τ褦˿ꤹӲǽʣΥѥѤ̻ "diachronic comparative corpus linguistics" (Leech et al. 24) ȸƤФƤꡤߤ30ǯۤɤδֳ֤ѼΥѥ̤ξظäԻƤ椯ΤȻפ롥
ϰѼǯȤ2ĤΥѥˤäܤ٤κˤĤơŪʲʣꤦ롥Brown family ξˤϤɤΤ褦ʲ뤫Mair (109--12) Ƥ2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۡʤ̵ͭˤ ( "typology of contrasts" ) Ѥǰʲ˼"=" Ѳνȯ"+/-" ѲȤ
(1) nothing happening
BrE: = =
AmE: = =
(2) stable regional contrast
BrE: = =
AmE: +/- +/-
(3) parallel diachronic development
BrE: = +/-
AmE: = +/-
(4) convergence: Americanization
BrE: +/- =
AmE: = =
(5) convergence: 'Britishization'
BrE: = =
AmE: +/- =
(6) incipient divergence: British English innovating
BrE: = +/-
AmE: = =
(7) incipient divergence: American English innovating
BrE: = =
AmE: = +/-
(8) random fluctuation
BrE: = +/-
AmE: +/- +/-
(1), (8) ϺǤ¿ѻԤδؿʤʿޤʥפκۡʤηǡˤǤ롥(2) ϳΩ줿ưαƺ㤨 <honour> vs. <honor> ֻ got vs. gotten λѤȤʤ롥(3) Mair ǤϵƤʤ(4) Americanization λ㡤㤨 help 褦ˤʤäƤƤ뷹פ⤫٤뤳ȤǤʤ BrE ǤΤηϤ٤Ƥ Americanization ˵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ˤޤ 'Britishization' Ǥ롥㤨 AmE Ǥνưɽ have got to ι BrE ˸ƤǽȵƤ롥(6) ϡBrE prevent "O + from + V-ing" ǤϤʤ "O + V-ing" 褦ˤʤФƤ뷹˵롥(7) ϡAmE begin to Ǥʤ V-ing ٤ޤФƤ뷹Ȥʤ롥
ŪˤϡѲ®٤θʤФʤʤ㤨 (3) Τ褦ξѼƱ̻ѲƤǤ⡤Ѽ֤Ѳ®٤˺з̤ȤʿԤˤϤʤʤ嵭®٤Ȥȡ˺٤ʬɬפˤʤϤǤ롥Τ褦ʣʲϻĤäƤ뤬2Ѽ2Ӥ "diachronic comparative corpus linguistics" ŪȤơ嵭 "typology of contrasts" ͭѤΥݥϡBrE AmE ˤ30ǯۤɤȤû֤̻ѲǤʤʹߤξѼ̻ŪȯãҤǥȤƤͭǤ롥ϡ[2010-10-09-1]εǰäѸ convergence divergence ˤŬѤǤȻפ롥
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Mair, Christian. Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics'' 6 (2002): 105--31.
Google ΤѥġƤGoogle Books Ngram Viewer Google Labs εϤȲǽ礭˶ä2004ǯ1500ܤǥ벽Ƥ Google Υ֥åȤȤʤ520ܡ5000ѥѸΤۤե졤ɥĸ졤졤ڥ졤줬ޤޤƤ뤬ѸǤ British English, American English, English, English Fiction, English One Million 饵֥ѥǤ롥ħϡꤷ5ޤǤθ٤51500--2008ǯˤˤ錄äפդɽƤ뤳ȤGoogle θεˤ롥
Ϥ礭ƥѥȤƤɤɾ٤ʬʤҤȤޤϤdzڤ嵭εˤĤΥץ뤬뤬ѸŪʴؿץȤ burnt burned ʬӤäΤǡEnglish, American English, British English 3֥ѥդФƤߤ
ˡǯ٤´ΰäҼڤ̤ AmE on the street, BrE in the street ȤֻѤκۤ Google Books Ngram Viewer dzǧƤߤAmerican English British English Τ줾Υ֥ѥϤ줿դϰʲ̤ꡥ

in on ϶ΰ̣ʡֳϩǡפּȤơפˤʤɤˤ¸뤿ñʷ֤ӤǤԽʬϤĤ롥
[2010-08-16-1], [2010-08-17-1]εǰä gorgeous ˤĤƤĴ٤Ƥߤ19ˤήԤäƤ20ˤܤǤäηƻ줬American English ˤ1980ǯʹߡƤ֤ƤƤ褯狼롥British English ǤĴ
ѥذ̤ˤ뤬ġλѤϥǥǤ롥ʸŪʴϡ[2009-12-28-1]εǾҲ𤷤 American Dialect Society ˤ "Words of the Century" "Words of the Millennium" ΥΥߥ͡ȸƤߤȤ⤷
¾Υ饤ѥˤĤƤ[2010-11-16-1]ȡ
츦ˤ corpus ֥ѥפ͡Ƥ뤬McEnery et al. ʷǤ롥
. . . a corpus is a collection of (1) machine-readable (2) authentic texts (including transcripts of spoken data) which is (3) sampled to be (4) representative of a particular language or language variety.
(1) (2) ˤĤƤϤ褽Դ֤˥뤬(3) (4) ˤĤƤϲä "sampled" 뤤 "representative" ȤߤʤˤĤ͡ʰո롥ڤˤƤ뤳ȤǤ
ڤ˱Ѹ쥳ѥˤϡ饤ΤΤǤ롥ʲϡϿɬפʤΤ⤢뤬˥饤ǴؤѤǤѸ쥳ѥ
British National Corpus ʤĤΥեƤ
* BNC ( The British National Corpus )
* BNCweb ̵Ͽ
* BYU-BNC ̵Ͽ
BYU Corpora Brigham Young University, Mark Davies Τ¾Υ饤ѥ
* COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ̵Ͽ
* COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English ) ̵Ͽ
* TIME Magazine Corpus of American English ̵Ͽ
Cobuild Concordance and Collocations Sampler
¾ܥ֥ǤϥѥطεȷǺܤƤΤǡͤˤ줿
hellog Υѥν: [2010-09-15-1]
hellog ΥѥϢ: corpus
hellog BNC Ϣ: bnc
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
[2010-10-10-1], [2010-10-14-1]˰³OED ΰѥǡꡥϡä˺ε[2010-10-14-1] (2), (3) Ǽ夲ǯ̰ѿ⤭ߤռǡͤդ˻вƤȹͤ
Brewer 10ǯȤ OED ΰѿοܤĴ٤Ƥꡤºݤ˥ղ⤷Ƥ (48--49) ʸƤ륰դ1470ǯʬƤꡤ٤ߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤӤˤϤؤǤ롥ǡʲ٤·դƺƤߤBrewer ˤϥպΤȤˤʤͥǡͿƤʤΤǡդܸƤǿͤɤ߽Ф˺ʢ ϼ OED DzƿФФΤɡˡäơ˼ƤΤϤޤǷȤ館뤿ΤΤȤƻͤޤǤˡ

OED ̻ѥȤѤˤϡä˰ѿϤŪ㤫ä⤫äꤹΰѤݤդɬפǤ롥ΥդϡκݤΤȤƻȤ줿
Brewer, Charlotte. "OED Sources." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 40--58.
[2010-10-10-1]εǤϡHoffmann ʸȤơOED ΰѥǡϼ㴳դɬפʬ˥ѥȤʤꤦΤǤϤʤȤǡOED ΰѤϼ㴳ǤϤʤդʧʤȴʤȤ⤬롥Brewer ˤСOED ΰѥǡƻɽ륳ѥȤߤʤȤˤϿŤǤ٤ȤBrewer ʸȤĤ͡ʾڵƵƤ뤬ʤΤˤޤȤƤߤ롥
(1) ʸغȡʸغʤΰѤ礤¿ѿȥå5κȤϡShakespeare, Walter Scott, Milton, Wycliffe, ChaucerShakespeare ΥСΨ100%˶ᤤȸ졤ѿ33304롥5̤ Chaucer ΰѤ11902㡥ѿȥåפκʤϡͽ̤2̤1300ǯ˽줿Ĺ Cursor Mundi 12772롥ͭ̾ʺȡʤˤĤƤϥ䤹ˡѤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤Ȥ (45--47) ѤϸɽƤȤ⡤ԻԤɽ路ƤȤ٤Ǥ롥
Any inferences drawn from the OED coverage about the significance of these writers for the development and illustration of the English lexicon are flawed ones: the exceptionally full representation of their language in the dictionary is due at least as much to the lexicographers' consultation of the concordances as to the intrinsic qualities of these writers' diction. (51)
(2) ѿǯ̤˥ץåȤ c1581--1610 ˰ѤƤ롥ޤ19ȾѤʤФƤ롥ˤĤƤ[2010-10-10-1] (4) Ǥ줿ԤλˤĤƤ Shakespeare ΰѤ¿ȤȿϢƤꡤɬ⤽λθɽƤȤȤˤϤʤʤΤǤϤʤ (47, 58) ԤλˤĤƤϡOED ΤλǤꡤɬŪưפ˼ŵο¿Ǥ롥
(3) 15Ǥ 1291--1300, 1391--1400 λ˰ѤΥԡ뤬1Ĥˤǯ夬ΤʺʤˤĤƤ϶ڤΤ褤Ѥܤڤ夲ڤ겼ꤹ뤳Ȥꡤ줬ȿǤ줿̤Ȥ̤ͳȤƤϡ1300ǯ Robert of Gloucester 3222ˤ Cursor Mundi 10771ˤ1400ǯ Trevisa 6750ˤ椷Ǥ (57--58)
(4) OED ˺Ѥ븫ФϱѸΥܥƥɼԤˤñȤΥ⤬ˤʤäƤ뤬ܥƥ̤Ǥʤ̤Ǥʤ̣äդƽ褦˻ؼƤ". . . this resulted in partial reading and uneven representation of sources" (50).
(5) OED ˤϽѸμľܰѤƤ븫Ф줬¿뤬μθФ줬٤ƼϿƤ櫓ǤʤФ줬Ƥפ롥Ĵˤȡ1/5ۤɤ OED ˤϼϿ줺ڤΤƤ줿ȤǤϡԻԤŪȽǡ餯19οʲѤǤ줿ϼŪȽǤäƤȹͤ (52--52)
[2010-10-10-1]Ȥ碌 OED ΰѥǡѥȤƤߤʤƤ褤ɤˤĤƻξ1000ǯ˱ѸС밷䤹̻ѥ¾˸Ƥʤʾ塤˵褦ռ OED դѤ롤ȤȰʳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
Brewer, Charlette. "OED Sources." Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 40--58.
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