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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2017-12-17 Sun

#3156. γȱѸפΤޤȤ [slide][new_englishes][world_englishes][model_of_englishes][variety][history][link][timeline][standardisation][prescriptive_grammar][prescriptivism][asacul]

γȤŪŸϡѸȱѸ̤򤱤̤뤳ȤΤǤʤȥԥåǤαѸ˾ΰյˤĤơ饤 (HTML) ˤޤȤƤߤޤɤȤƤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ޤ

ȯŸ
(1) Ѹɸಽϲ岡ơѸˡֵῴϡפ⤿餷ǡ
(2) Ѹ¿Ͳ򾷤Ѹˡֱϡפ⤿餷
ߤ̤αѸΤδäۤ


ܺ٤ϳơΥڡܥ֥εƼؤΥ󥯤˭٤ĥäƤޤ

1. γȱѸ
2.
3. (1) ȯŸ
4. Ϣǯɽ (#777, #1377, #2562)
5. (2) Ѹεῴ --- ɸಽϲ
6. ɸಽȵϲ
7. 18εϼ
8. ʸˡȯ
9. ʸˡ
10. (3) Ѹα --- ͡ʱѸ
11. ͡ʱѸѼ
12. ѸѼνʬˡ
13. 21ῴϤȱϤΤ᤮礤
14. ޤȤ
15. ʸ

¾Ρ֤ޤȤ᥹饤ɡפȤơ#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1])#3068. ֽפȱѸˡפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-09-20-1])#3089. ֥ꥫΩȱѸפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-10-11-1])#3102. ֥ꥹȶȱѸפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-10-24-1])#3107. ֥ΥޥȱѸפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-10-29-1])#3121. ְѤȯȱѸפΤޤȤ ([2017-11-12-1]) ɤ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-09-19 Tue

#3067. άǯɽ [timeline][reformation][history]

ǯϽ500ǯ롥1517ǯ1031륿åƥ٥륯ξ붵ˡ95վפŽפϤޤäȤ롥ʲˡ (122--25) ˤֽάǯɽפƸ衼åΤ˴ؤǯɽ󥰥ɤ䥹åȥɤμפʻޤޤƤʲǼˡפȱѸʻˡˤδطθݤΤȤˤɤ

148311.10ޥƥ󡦥륿?1546.2.18.
14841.1ҡĥ󥰥?1531.10.11.
14884.21ҡե󡦥եåƥ?1523.8.29?
15097.10󡦥?1564.5.27
15162.饹ॹع
15164.16ĥ󥰥ꡤ󥸡ǥƻλһʺפȤʤ
151710.31륿95վפȯɽ
15191.1ĥ󥰥ꡤ塼ҤλһʺפȤʤ
1519 饹ॹإѥ饯졼ꥹȶůظδñܤȤƽ
15196.27--7.17饤ץĥƤ
15206.15륿Фҳļּ衤ΩơפФ
15208.륿֥ꥹȶβˤĤơɥḺ́Υꥹȶ²Ϳ
15209.28եåƥإɥḺ́νʬͿʾ
152010.륿ֶΥХӥˤĤơ
152011.륿֥ꥹȼԤμͳ
152011.ɥijϤǥ륿νʪƤ
152012.10륿綼ļ񡤶ˡʤɤνҤƵ
15211.3ļ֥޶Ĥˤդ路פˤ륿礵
1521ֿο֡סʥѥեåȡ
1521 ե롦ǥ֥롤⡼Dzױư
15214.17륿ॹIJ˾
15215.26륿ॹļˤ
1521 顼ʥϡإꥹȤμȥꥹȤμ
15229.եåƥ󡤥å󥲥񵳻ΤȤȤˡȥ꡼ʶ򹶷⤷Ԥʵ
15231.29塼ҤƤ
15236.ĥ󥰥67վιֲڡ
152310.26塼ҤƤ
1523/24 륷奿åȡߥǤˤƵ޿Ūפ»
1524/25 ɥ̱
15251.塼ҹٳΥĥꥳ¼ǡɱư
15261.ޥɥ꡼ɾ
15265.21--6.8Сǥ󽡶ƤʥǥॹIJ
15265.22ե󥽥Ĥȥ˥åƱ̾
15268.ϡ襤
15268.󥷥ѥIJ񡤽פ˼ͳͿ
15271.եꥯޥġޥˤŮ
1527 衼ϥֽ仡ԤΤηפȯ
15275.뷳Ϋå
152712.塼ҡ󥹥Ĥȡ֥ꥹȶԻƱ
15281.٥Ƥ񡤥٥󽡶פƳơ֥ꥹȶԻƱפز
15282.֥ѥåפ
15294.22󥷥ѥIJ񡤥ॹļκƻܹ
15294.ȥꥢΥȥåˮȡ֥ꥹȶϢסʥĥաƱ
1529 롼顼ʥϡΧˡʡ
15295.켡ڥ
15298.3֥
15299.26--10.15
152910.1--3ޡ֥륯̡륿ɤȥĥ󥰥ɡǰפ
152911.4--1536.4󥰥ɤǡֽ׵IJ׾
15301.֥ꥹȶԻƱפ˥ȥ顼֥륯
15306.֥륯IJ񡤡֥֥륯Ĺפϯ
15308.å֥ȥå
153011.른պƵᤵ졤ɥظ»
15312.27ޥ륫ǥƱ
153110.󼡥ڥ衤ĥ󥰥
15348.ʥƥǡ顤Ω
153410.17--18ʸ
153411.󥰥ɵIJֹ񲦻ˡ
1535 إǥٴ
15357.6ȥޥ⥢跺
15362.7͡٥Ʊ
15362.26쥹Ĺ
15363إꥹȶס
15365.21͡Ƴ
15365ɥĤʡɤȥ륿ɤΤˡ֥åƥ٥륯׿Ω
15367󡤥͡ǽױư˻
15371.ֶȿ˴ؤ
15384.23󡤻̱ηˤԻԳ
15396.ϻվˡꡤʥ졼ȡХ֥ˡٴ
15399.֥ɥ졼ȿؤ
15419.13󡤥͡ص
154111.֥͡§פ
1545 ƥ硤͡
1546/47 ޥ륫ǥ
15471.28Ѳإ8
15474.24ߥ塼٥륯襤衼ϥ󡦥ե꡼ɥκˤʤ
15473.31ʩե󥽥
15486.֤夿ץ֥륯IJ񡤡ֲ
1551 󡤥ࡦܥ륻åͽ
1552 衡륫5
155310.27ߥ롦ȥʲ
1558 ΥåؽδȿФåѤκǽιĤ
15559.֥륯ʿ
1559 ͡ǥߡ
15594.ꥢν롤ȡ֥쥸µ
15595.֥ե󥹿Ĺ
15603.15--16ܥα
15608.֥åȥɿĹ
15623.楰ΡϤޤ
1566 ֵǯ
15711.󥰥ɡֻվˡ
15728.23󡦥ХƥߤεԻ
15737.֥֡˥βײɤϥ顦ʤɤԻԤҼǧ
15787.ֵΧˤν
15791.23ȥҥƱ
15885.֥Хꥱɤץѥ̱˪
15888.ڥ̵Ũ⥤󥰥ɤ
15898.3Ż졤ꡦɡ֥ܥ󤬥4Ȥ¨
1593 ֹ񶵴Խȳס֥ԥ塼꥿ȳˡ
15984.13ʥȤβ
16094.9Ω衤ȥڥ󤬥ȥڥǡǯ
161811.ɥȥҥȲġۥޥ륹ɤŪ
164810.ȥեꥢ


°졡ؿ⡡ס١Ͻн˼2010ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-05-08 Mon

#2933. ǯɽ [timeline][history][medium][writing]

󥹥路ػˡ٤ϡ̺ȤƤλˤ򤿤ɤʤ顤̤ȤʸʸʸˤƱ˵ҤƤ롥̺ˤĤƤϡ#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1])#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1])#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1]) ʤɤǰäƤϥ󥹥δǯɽ (466--74) ǤȥƥΥҲưƤȤ褯ʬ뤬󥹥θդڤСּҲ񤬥ƥΥ߽ФƤפȤ٤ʤΤ

38000ǯ̥ڥΥ롦ƥƶ˻Ĥ֤ʹ֤ˤǸŤȤƤ
3500ǯ᥽ݥߥг˺ǸŤʸޤ
3300ǯХӥ˥ʸ饯ˤΥ륯ǴĤʸޤ롥ܸʸλϤޤ
3000ǯǯ夬ꤵƤǸŤΥѥԥ륹ʸפΤʤʪ٥åʯ褫ȯ
3000ǯץȤΥҥվݷʸʿʸˤλϤޤ
2500ǯήǤϤʸ񤫤
2400ǯ¸ǸŤΥץȸʸ
2200ǯήƼҤƫҤʸĦ
2100ǯǯ夬ꤵƤǸŤΥѡҤڥ롼ǽ
1850ǯǯ夬ꤵƤǸŤʸ˽񤫤줿ץȸδʪ
18쥿ǽηϤޤ
1400ǯǽùʸ񤫤
1300ǯƼǿ顤äʸ񤫤
1200ǯȯã
1100ǯץȿͤե˥ͤ˥ѥԥ륹͢ФϤ
1000ǯե˥Υե٥åȤޤ
600ǯᥭǥݥƥߥƥʸޤ
600ǯȥꥷĤĢ񤫤
5̤ͤ˻Ȥ
400ǯ˥ե٥åȤꥷǤɸȤʤ
400ǯ줫Ϥȯ
3쥯ɥꥢ˿޽ۤ¤
255ǯ˴ؤϤƤεҤʤ롥ϤѤǴڤ˲줿
252ǯϰȯ줿ǯΤ餫ʺǸŤλ
250ǯޥʸѤ
220ǯȯ̤ɮƻ˻Ȥ
206ǯβī볫Ǥϴ˻椬ȯ
63ǯꥷؼԥȥܥ󤬡ߤݥȥΥߥȥƥ6βܤ˿뤳Ȥؤζä򵭽
31ǯ¸ǽΥᥫʸ
30ǯ񤬥ץȤѥԥ륹泤˹ޤ
1ޤǰŪʽ̤ϹĤѤ
75ǯܸʸǺǸʸ񤫤
105ǯǤϸ촶ε˻ȤᴱѤȯȤƤ
2ǥʥӥǥ롼ʸΥե٥åȤޤ
250ǯ--300ǯǯ夬ۤꤵƤ椬ȥ륭ǽ
256ǯǺǽλ˽񤫤줿ܡȷС٤
297ǯǽΥޥФĦ
394ǯץȤΥҥվݷʸǺǸʸ񤫤
5ܸȼʸηϤȯ
450ǯǯ夬ꤵƤܣݭդ˽񤫤줿ǽμơռܤҤȯ줿
476ǯǸι륹ȥ륹Ѱ̤ˤĤ
500ǯޥͤޥƤʸ񤭤Ϥ
500ǯ--600ǯޥͤȯã
538ǯīȾɴѤβǺ줿ŵʩܤ
610ǯΤħˡܤ
630ǯϥޥɤå
673ǯηʩŵ̤ϤᡤۤɤʤܤǼ̷Фȯˤʤ
8ǰϤޤ
706ǯֿͤå˻
711ǯֿΨ٥٥ͷå饸֥륿볤ۤƥڥ򿯹
712ǯʸؤκǸŤκʡظŻ٤ʸǽ񤫤
720ǯʩοƩȤȤܤǤλλѤ硹Ū˹ޤ
751ǯޥ륫ɤ椬Ϥޤ
762ǯ--66ǯХɤη
770ǯܤξ뤬Ȥäΰʪµʿꤦɴκ
794ǯۤȤ줬Хɤߤ
800ǯץȤǻ椬ϤƻȤ
832ǯඵ̤ꥢ
848ǯӥǻ˽񤫤줿ʷܤ롥ǯ夬ꤵ줿ҤǤϺǸŤȤƤ
850ǯʪ٤Ϥƽ񤭵줿ȿꤵ
868ǯ¸ǸŤνҡض̼С٤줿
889ǯޥͤ٤ƤεϿФǤϤʤѤϤ
ХɤȤν׵Ȥʤ
900ǯץȤ椬
969ǯͷѥɡʻסˤϤƻȤ줿
1041ǯ--48ǯŴǤȤޤƫǺ롥ǯ夬ꤵǸŤβư
900ǯ--1100ǯޥͤإɥ쥹ǥ󡦥ǥå٤
1140ǯඵ̻۲ΥڥΥϥƥФ椬Ϥޤ
1143ǯإ٤ƥ
1164ǯꥢΥե֥ꥢΤǽεϿ
1308ǯƤؿʡ٤μɮ򳫻
1309ǯ󥰥ɤǻ椬ϤƻѤ
1332ǯǻ椬ϤƻѤ
1353ǯܥåإǥ٤ɮ
1387ǯ硼إ󥿥٥꡼ʪ٤μɮ򳫻
1390ǯɥĤ椬˥٥륯ǻϤޤ
1403ǯīƼ¤
1411ǯ椬Ϥޤ
1423ǯ衼åѤǰϤޤäȤ
1440ǯ--50ǯ衼åѤǺǽܡʥ֥å֥åˤ
1456ǯƥ٥륯ưǽΡ٤ΰ
1462ǯޥĤ˲졤ԤΥ
1463ǯåҡĥ뤬ǰ򶽤
1464ǯ޶٤ΥӥƻꥢǺǽΰȤʤ
1469ǯΡز²ؤνʽ٤ͥĥǰ줿ǽνҤȤʤ
1473ǯ롼֥ǥ塼٥åǰ򶽤
1475ǯޤ1476ǯʹϿ٤ե󥹸ǰ줿ǽνҤȤʤ
1476ǯꥢࡦ㥯ȥ󤬥ꥹǺǽΰ򳫤
1494ǯɥޥ̥ƥͥĥ˥ɰ˼򳫤
1495ǯ󡦥ƥȤϡȥեɥ㡼˥󥰥ɤǺǽ¤
1502ǯ--20ǯƥͤιפʪεϿ˻ͽǺܤƤ롥ǯָ޽λäƤ¼⤢
1515ǯ֥ҥȡǥ塼顼å󥰤Ϥ
1519ǯʥ󡦥ƥ٥饯륹ն˾Φƥʸ˲򳫻Ϥ
1520ǯޥƥ󡦥륿Ρإꥹȶβ˴ؤƥɥĤΥꥹȽ²˰Ƥơ٤졤ǯ֤Ǹۤ
1528ǯե󡦥ǡޥ饬㤬轻̱߸ԤȤƥᥭ夷ܤdz䤹
1539ǯڥͤ轻̱ܤ뤿˥ᥭΰ򳫤
1549ǯޥͤο޽ۤڥͤ˾Ƥ
1575ǯڥͤᥭ˺ǽƤ
1576ǯͤ򳫻
1586ǯĤ᤬ɥȥҥȤȯۤ롥˾ǸŤεϿ
1605ǯХƥΡإɥ󡦥ۡơ٤Ǥ
1609ǯνʹȥ饹֥륯ϴ
1627ǯե󥹤Υ顦뤬ȥåϤϤ졤楰ΡȼԤϥ󥰥ɤƨ
1635ǯǥޡ椬
1638ǯѻϤƥꥫؤ⤿餵
1672ǯá򵡤ȯˤꥪɼ򤤻͢񤫤͢йž
1690ǯꥢࡦåƥϥꥫǺǽΩ
1690ǯꥫǺǽοʹإѥ֥å󥷥ܡե󡦥ɡɥ᥹ƥå٤ܥȥϴ
1690ǯꥫΦο̱ϤǺǽλʾޥ塼åĤȯԤ
1698ǯȥޥ꤬ۻӿŪǺǽξؤ߷פ
1702ǯɥإǥ꡼ȡ٤ϴ
1719ǯ͡ȥ̡ե륷硼ɡ쥪ߥ塼뤬ںफ륹Хμˡ
1728ǯޥ塼åĤ椬Ϥޤ
1744ǯϤƤλƸܡؾʤ襤ݥåȥ֥å٤󥰥ɤǽǤ
1744ǯ˥椬Ϥޤ
1767ǯͥåȤ椬Ϥޤ
1768ǯ٥롦ӥ奨뤬ꥫΦ̱ϤǤϤƳ¤
1769ǯ˥塼إΥåɥȥ뤬ꥹΥꥫΦ̱ϤǤϤư¤
1773ǯ˥塼衼椬Ϥޤ
1774ǯǥ޻ե롦ˤǤȯɺؤƻ򳫤
1785ǯɥΩϿʹإǥ꡼˥롦쥸٤ϴǯ塤إॺ٤˻̾ѹ
1790ǯȥޥӥ奤åꥹǤäȤ͵޳ȤȤʤ
1798ǯ˥-륤١뤬Ϣ³浡õ
1798ǯJMWʡ̲Ǽ¸Ϥ
1799ǯͥեȥդͰ
1800ǯۡ׶Ŵΰȯ
1801ǯ祻-ޥ꡼㥫뤬ѥɤˤ뼫ưȯ
1804ǯ֥饤󡦥ɥ󥭥Ĺ־浡¤
1809ǯ󡦥ǥ󥽥󤬱־浡õ
1811ǯե꡼ɥҡ˥ҤưϤΰȯ
1814ǯɥΡإॺ٤˥Ҥξ
1818ǯ祷奢ԥ󤬥ꥫǤϤϢ³浡¤
1820ǯǯꥹɴʾοʹ
1825ǯ祻ա˥ե롦˥ץϤƼ̿Ƥ
1830ǯɺˡˤ꿧ĤΤܤۤ򤤻ǽȤʤ
1833ǯںȤõꥹϿ
1840ǯꥢࡦإ꡼եåܥåȤ夹̿Ϥƺ
1841ǯӥˡǥ륺ɥɻإѥ٤ϴ
1843ǯꥫΥ㡼ɡMۡưϤžȯ
1863ǯꥫȼԤںѥפλѤϤ
1867ǯꥹκڵѥŸ
1867ǯޥ塼åĽΥȥå֥åǹ罰Ѥںѥפ
1867ǯץ饤ȯ
1872ǯꥫ罰񤬥ꥹȥɥĤȴλˤʤ
1874ǯͭҤ¤򳫻ϡ塤ԡͤϻҤȤ³
1890ǯ罰ιĴ˥ѥɼν׵Ѥ
1899ǯǥõȥ󡦥إǥ󤬡Իԡϰΰȯ桤252ǯλȯˤɤѤ
1931ǯ֥ͥå夬ʥԥ塼ȯ
1945ǯ󡦥ե󡦥ΥޥŻҥץߥ󥰤뤿ʿκѤʸȯɽ
1947ǯȥ󥸥٥븦ȯ
1951ǯߥȥ󡦥ɤ֤Ƚ֤˼ơפкܤUNIVAC1ͽ¤
1959ǯޥåפõд


ޡ󥹥ˡ һҡˡػˡˤͤư줿ѡ١ֽŹ2016ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-03-24 Fri

#2888. ʸˤˤե˥ʸν [alphabet][writing][grammatology][map][timeline]

ε ([2017-03-23-1]) ǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλ֤ͤʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤҲ𤷤εɤˤäơʸˤ䥢ե٥åȻˤˤե˥ʸν򤷤Ƥȡꤪ⤷ʤȻפΤǡ­Ƥ
ե˥ʸϡ켫Ȥ2ǯȾ̤륷ʥʸ丶ʥʸʤɤȯŸʸηϤǤꡤ1000ǯ˻ȤƤҲʸηϤǤ롥Υե˥ʸ顤ߤޤǹѤƤ¿¿ͤʥե٥åʸηϤȤǡޤ˥ե٥åȤȤˤդ路ʰʲʸʪ (8--9) Υ饤ΰǺܡˡ

ե˥ʸʹߤȯŸ  *  *

ե˥ʸαƶƼʸηϤϡŪˤϥ桼饷Φ˵ڤǤꡤ쥢δʸηϤ̤ȤСʤȤ⤳2ǯ֡ϵǺǤƶϤΤʸ롼פƤȤ롥
䤿Ѹ񤭵ΤѤƤ륢ե٥åȤϡ֥ޥ󡦥ե٥åȡפ뤤ϡ֥ƥʸסΤˤϡѼȤ٤ˤ줬ʸηϤȤƤäƤܼŪħ¿ϡե˥ʸΤäƤħͳ褹ȤäƤ褤äơѸʸֻˤĤƿͻƤȡݱʤ˥ե˥ʸ䤽ˤޤ̤륢ե٥åȤˤ򻲾Ȥʤ
ե˥ͤȤʸ˴ؤƤϡ󤲤Τۤʲε⻲Ȥ줿

#2105. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤ ([2015-01-31-1])
#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])
#2482. (3) ([2016-02-12-1])

奪ꥨʪۡԡˡʸʪ졡桼饷ʸΤٸ奪ꥨʪۡ2016ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-03-07 Tue

#2871. űѸΥ饤ǯɽ [timeline][web_service][oe][anglo-saxon]

#2358. 饤ɤǤѸǯɽ ([2015-10-11-1]) ˤʤ餤Mitchell (361--64) θűѸǯɽ򥹥饤ɲƤߤޤʲβ򥯥åƤ饤ǯɽǤϡΥ̤ Lay = СReligious = ֡Literary = ĤǿʬƤޤ

HEL Timeline for OE by Mitchell

ʲϡ饤ǯɽΥ١Ȥ̾ɽǯɽǤͤޤǤˡ

DateLayReligiousLiterary
449Traditional date of coming of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The legend of Arthur may rest on a British leader who resisted the invaders.
c. 547  Gildas writes De excidio Britanniæ.
560--616Æthelbert King of Kent.  
c. 563 St Columba brings Celtic Christianity to Iona. 
597 St Augustine brings Roman Christianity to Kent. 
616--632Edwin King of Northumbria.  
c. 625Earliest possible date for Sutton Hoo ship-burial.  
627 Edwin converted to Christianity. 
632Edwin killed by heathen King Penda of Mercia.  
635 Aidan settles in Lindisfarne, bringing Celtic Christianity. 
635 King Cynegils of Wessex converted. 
641Oswald King of Northumbria killed by Penda.  
654Penda killed by Oswy King of Northumbria.  
664 Synod of Whitby establishes supremacy of Roman Christianity. 
664 St Chad becomes bishop. 
657--680 Hild Abbess of Whitby.Cædmon uses Germanic alliterative verse for religious subjects during this period.
c. 678 English missions to the continent begin. 
680  Approximate earliest date for composition of Beowulf.
c. 700  Date of first linguistic records.
709 Death of Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne. 
731  Bede completes Historia gentis Anglorum ecclesiastica.
735 Death of Bede. 
c. 735Birth of Alcuin.  
757--796Offa King of Mercia.  
782 Alcuin settles at Charlemagne's court. 
793Viking raids begin.Sacking of Lindisfarne. 
fl. 796  Nennius, author or reviser of Historia Britonum.
800Four great kingdoms remain --- Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex.  
780--850  Cynewulf probably flourishes some time in this period.
804 Death of Alcuin. 
851Danes' first winter in England.  
865Great Danish Army lands in East Anglia.  
867Battle of York. End of Northumbria as a political power.  
870King Edmund of East Anglia killed by Danes. East Anglia overrun.  
871Alfred becomes King of Wessex.  
874Danes settle in Yorkshire.  
877Danes settle in East Mercia.  
880Guthrum and his men settle in East Anglia. Only Wessex remains of the four Kingdoms.  
?886Boundaries of Danelaw agreed with Guthrum. Alfred occupies London. The period of the Alfredian translations and the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
892Further Danish invasion.  
896Alfred builds a fleet.  
899Death of King Alfred.  
899--954The creation of the English Kingdom.  
c. 909 Birth of Dunstan. 
937Battle of Brunanburh. Poem commemorates the battle.
954The extinction of the Scandinavian kingdom of York.  
959--975Edgar reigns.  
960 Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury. The period of the Monastic Revival. 
c. 971  The Blickling Homilies.
978 or 979Murder of King Edward.  
950--1000  Approximate dates of the poetry codices --- Junius MS, Vercelli Book, Exeter Book, and Beowulf MS.
978--1016Ethelred reigns.  
988 Death of Dunstan. 
991Battle of Maldon. Poem commemorates the battle.
990--992  Ælfric's Catholic Homilies.
993--998  Ælfric's Lives of the Saints.
1003--1023 Wulfstan Archbishop of York. 
c. 1014  Sermo Lupi ad Anglos.
1005--c. 1012 Ælfric Abbot of Eynsham. 
1013Sweyn acknowledged as King of England.  
1014Sweyn dies.  
1016Edmund Ironside dies.  
1016--1042Canute and his sons reign.  
1042--1066Edward the Confessor.  
1066Harold King. Battle of Stamford Bridge. Battle of Hastings. William I king.  


Mitchell, Bruce. An Invitation to Old English and Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.

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2017-03-02 Thu

#2866. ſؤˤߤŻ᤿결ʬ결 [world_languages][typology][family_tree][anthropology][homo_sapiens][timeline][chronology]

ϢСʡɡåɤΡؿοʲ٤򻲾Ȥ¾ΰ褫ҥȤƸοʲˤĤƹͻƤ³ƥåɤ򻲾ȤʬܤƤȺ٤ˤĤƤƶƤߤ
ˤοˤĤƤϡԤˤäƿΰ㤤ꡤ롥ΰ㤤ˤä뤫Ȥϡ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1]) #1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1]) ʤɤΤǷ֤ʤ1Ĥˡָפȡפζ̤ҴŪˤĤʤȤ𤬤롥ߤ˶ᤤطˤ뤤ĤθѼ1ΤȤˤª뤫뤤ϳơΩª뤫ϡФиŪʴΤߤǷꤹ뤳ȤǤʤԤªϡŻ᤿결 (lumper) θԤΩǡԤϡʬ결 (splitter) θԤΩǤ롥
"lumper" "splitter" ȤƾΤϡſؤʬǾѤƤΤΤ褦̤ˤϿˤϡֱ͡סָ͡סֵ͡סֿ͡פ4ʳǿʤǤ򤵤Ƥ뤬ϿؼԤˤȤäƤƤʬΤ褦ǡŪˤϤäȺ٤ʬवƤȤ֤äȺ٤פˤ٥뤬ꡤȤδ֤Ǥ⡤礭ޤȤᤢ lumper ȡȤȤʬ splitter Ȥǡפʬ餷ŪˤϿؼԤ10ͤ10̤ʬबȤ⤤ξϸˤƤƱȤȤ⤷
ͤޤǤˡŻ᤿결ʬ결ˤ롤ſμ̾оɽ򡤥å (99) Ƹ褦

̾Ż᤿결μ̾ǯǯʬ결ʬ˴ޤޤ̾
ǥԥƥߥʹ700--450ǥԥƥåѡǥԥƥߥإȥץǥ󥷥󡦥ȥͥ󥷥
ͤȥۥ⡦ϥӥꥹȥԥƥե󥷥ʹ420--300ȥԥƥե󥷥ȥԥƥʥ󥷥ȥԥƥС륨륬ꡤ˥ȥץץƥץ
ȥԥƥեꥫ̥300--240ȥԥƥեꥫ̥
ѥȥץܥʹ250--130ѥȥץܥѥȥץԥȥԥƥ
ѥȥץ֥ȥ200--150ѥȥץ֥ȥ
ͤȵۥ⡦ϥӥꥹʹ240--160ۥ⡦ϥӥꥹۥ⡦ɥե󥷥
ۥ⡦쥯ȥʹ198--1.8ۥ⡦쥯ȥۥ⡦륬ۥ⡦ե󥷥󥷥
ۥ⡦ԥ󥹡ʹ70--ۥ⡦ƥå롤ۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲󥷥ۥ⡦ͥǥ륿󥷥ۥ⡦ԥ


Ż᤿결ѤƤ֥ۥ⡦ԥ󥹡פˤϡʬ결ˤȤäƤζǤο֥͡ۥ⡦ԥ󥹡פΤߤʤ餺ֵ̾͡פȤƤ֥ۥ⡦ͥǥ륿󥷥פޤޤ뤳ȤˤʤʤɡǿͤˤȤäƤϼ¤ˤ䤳DNA ȤʪŪڵפˤ⤫餺ҴŪ񤷤ȤΤϡ˼ŪǤ롥¤ˤ񤷤ϡʬ˺ݤƤۤܤΤޤƤϤޤΤǤ롥  *

СʡɡåɡˡϾ ͪˡˡؿοʲȻǤˤõ١ǡ2014ǯ

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2016-12-06 Tue

#2780. ˤȶḽѸ [history][timeline]

衤礭ˤưƤȤΤϡϤλεѤο뽸ΤǤꡤʸɤξͤǤ⤢뤫ʸ塤襤μȤʤϡͭϩ볤ۤǤ뤳ȤϤ٤뤿ξäسΤҤߤġ (89) ꡤˤ̾λĤ볤򤤤ĤǯɽǼ

480ǯߥγ380Υꥷ⤬1200Υڥ륷äƾޤ
31ǯƥγ碌550ʾΥץȤȥޤδ˥襤ޤޤηޤޤޤ
1279ǯեӥ饤ϥҤ븵1000ʾפδϤ쥢׻ۤ򽪤餻ޤ
1571ǯѥȤγȥåƱޥǤ֤ޤ
1588ǯޥγ130ʤ륹ڥ⤬󥰥ɴȤ襤»򤳤ä̤ƨǶˤ꤫Ĥ礦Ȥʤޤ
1776ǯ󥰥ɤ襤ꥫΩǺǽ絬Ϥʳϡи­Υꥫꥹ̤ޤ
1805ǯȥե륬γۥ졼硦ͥ륽ĤˤҤ줿ꥹ⤬ʥݥ쥪˥ڥΥȥե륬̨βǥե󥹤ȥڥϢ֤ޤ
1916ǯȥɲ켡ˡꥹȥɥijǥޡäȥɲϡ礭ȿȤǻ˾γǤ
1942ǯߥåɥʿΤ襤ǺǤפȤ볤ǡꥫܤγ襤ޤ
1944ǯ쥤ƲˤǸ絬Ϥʳǡեԥ󲭤ǥꥫܷ襤ޤοϻ˾¿Ǥ
1950ǯΦīǤγǡ襤ˤƹϢȤˤꡤ̱ϼԥդӼɤȤǤޤ


1588ǯΥޥγʹߡŪʰյĽפʳΤۤȤɤˡꥹ䥢ꥫؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ΤȤϡѡʸϡ٤ʹߡξ˽뤷ƤȡˤȤƤߤбѸνޤäƤȤ̵ǤϤʤΤɤäƤҲŪˤȸˤϡϳ餵̤ۤɤ̩ܤʴطȤϤʤˤ衤ʤȤ¤餶طˤäȤؤʤ
Ȥ櫓Ѹˤ˴ؤ볤ȤƤϡ#254. ڥ̵Ṳ̃ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-06-1]) ȡ#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1]) 򻲾ȡ

ƥ֡ѡˡ סܸǴƽˡسΤҤߤġ١شۤο޴ 󤱤 NEOشۡ2013ǯ

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2016-08-04 Thu

#2656. 奢ꥫΤǤΰ [timeline][history][language_planning]

#2547. 奤󥰥ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1])#2649. 奤ꥹäǤΰ ([2016-07-28-1]) ˰³Τΰ򼨤Ȥ櫓ǽΤϡΩμͤˤФи줿褦ˡAmerican English British English ȤΩ䡤Ϣפ˴ؿ󤻤ƤäơѸˤˤƤˤΤܤ̾Ĥ롥
奢ꥫΤˤĤơܤ TheUSAonline.com --- All Presidents of the United States, whitehouse.gov --- The Presidents Presidents of the United States (POTUS) 򻲾ȡ

̾ǯ--ǯпȽ°̾Ǥ
1George Washington (1732--99)VirginiaFederalist1789--97
2John Adams (1735--1826)MassachusettsFederalist1797--1801
3Thomas Jefferson (1743--1826)VirginiaRepublican1801--09
4James Madison (1751--1836)VirginiaRepublican1809--17
5James Monroe (1758--1831)VirginiaRepublican1817--25
6John Quincy Adams (1767--1848)MassachusettsRepublican1825--29
7Andrew Jackson (1767--1845)South CarolinaDemocrat1829--37
8Martin Van Buren (1782--1862)New YorkDemocrat1837--41
9William Henry Harrison (1773--1841) ʺǤ˻˴VirginiaWhig1841
10John Tyler (1790--1862) Τ龺ʡVirginiaWhig1841--45
11James Knox Polk (1795--1849)North CarolinaDemocrat1845--49
12Zachary Taylor (1784--1850) ʺǤ˻˴VirginiaWhig1849--50
13Millard Fillmore (1800--74) Τ龺ʡNew YorkWhig1850--53
14Franklin Pierce (1804--69)New HampshireDemocrat1853--57
15James Buchanan (1791--1868)PennsylvaniaDemocrat1857--61
16Abraham Lincoln (1809--65) ʺǤ˻˴KentuckyRepublican1861--65
17Andrew Johnson (1808--75) Τ龺ʡ Democrat Ǥä Republican ̾ Lincoln θȤʤäNorth CarolinaRepublican1865--69
18Ulysses Simpson Grant (1822--85)OhioRepublican1869--77
19Rutherford Birchard Hayes (1822--93)OhioRepublican1877--81
20James Abram Garfield (1831--81) ʺǤ˰ŻOhioRepublican1881
21Chester Alan Arthur (1830--86) Τ龺ʡVermontRepublican1881--85
22Grover Cleveland (1837--1908)New JerseyDemocrat1885--89
23Benjamin Harrison (1833--1901)OhioRepublican1889--93
24Grover Cleveland (1837--1908)New JerseyDemocrat1893--97
25William McKinley (1843--1901) ʺǤ˰ŻOhioRepublican1897--1901
26Theodore Roosevelt (1858--1919) Τ龺ʡNew YorkRepublican1901--09
27William Howard Taft (18S7-1930)OhioRepublican1909--13
28(Thomas) Woodrow Wilson (1856--1924) ʺǤ˻˴VirginiaDemocrat1913--21
29Warren Gamaliel Harding (1865--1923) Τ龺ʡOhioRepublican1921--23
30Calvin Coolidge (1872--1933)VermontRepublican1923--29
31Herbert Clark Hoover (1874--1964)IowaRepublican1929--33
32Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882--1945) 1940ǯ1151944ǯ117˺Ǥ˻˴New YorkDemocrat1933--45
33Harry S. Truman (1884--1972) Τ龺ʡMissouriDemocrat1945--53
34Dwight David Eisenhower (1890--1969)TexasRepublican1953--61
35John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917--63) ʺǤ˰ŻMassachusettsDemocrat1961--63
36Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908--73) Τ龺ʡTexasDemocrat1963--69
37Richard Milhous Nixon (1913--94) ʺǤ˼ǤCaliforniaRepublican1969--74
38Gerald Rudolph Ford (1913--2006) ʷˡ25ˤΤ龺ʡNebraskaRepublican1974--77
39James Earl Carter ("Jimmy") (1924--)GeorgiaDemocrat1977--81
40Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911--2004)IllinoisRepublican1981--89
41George Herbert Walker Bush (1924--)MassachusettsRepublican1989--93
42William Jefferson Clinton (1946--)ArkansasDemocrat1993--2001
43George Walker Bush (1946--)ConnecticutRepublican2001--09
44Barack Hussein Obama (1961--)HawaiiDemocrat2009--16
45Donald John Trump (1946--)New YorkRepublican2016--

Referrer (Inside): [2017-01-20-1]

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2016-07-28 Thu

#2649. 奤ꥹäǤΰ [timeline][history][prime_minister]

ε#2648. 17ȾθŪҤΥ֥른ﲽ ([2016-07-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡꥹ (Prime Minister) ϡѸäȤΤǤʤ George I ʺ߰1714--27ǯˤ̵ؿǡäβĤ˽ʤΤ򼭤ƤޤäˡκǹǤȤ֤줿ݥȤǤ롥ä Sir Robert Walpole ǤȤ롥
ʥꥹäȤ Theresa May ǤȤ⤢Τǡ奤ꥹäƤϢHPȤơPast Prime Ministers - GOV.UK List of Prime Ministers of Great Britain and the United Kingdom ⻲ȡ巯ˤĤƤϡ#2547. 奤󥰥ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) ɤ

̾ǯ--ǯ°̾Ǥ
Sir Robert Walpole (1676--1745)Whig1721--42
Earl of Wilmington (1673?--1743) 1742--43
Henry Pelham (1696--1754) 1743--54
Duke of Newcastle (1693--1768) 1754--56 1
Duke of Devonshire (1720--64) 1756--57
Duke of Newcastle (1693--1768) 1757--62 2
Earl of Bute (1713--92) 1762--63
George Grenville (1712--70) 1763--65
Marquess of Rockingham (1730--82) 1765--66 1
Earl of Chatham (1708--1778) 1766--68
Duke of Grafton (1735--1811) 1768--70
Lord North (1732--92)Tory1770--82
Marquess of Rockingham (1730--82)Whig1782 2
Earl of Shelburne (1737--1805)Whig1782--83
Duke of Portland (1738--1809)Coalition1783 1
William Pitt (1759--1806)Tory1783--1801 1
Henry Addington (1757--1844)Tory1801--04
William Pitt (1759--1806)Tory1804--06 2
Lord William Grenville (1759--1834)Whig1806--07
Duke of Portland (1738--1809)Tory1807--09 2
Spencer Perceval (1762--1812)Tory1809--12
Earl of Liverpool (1770--1828)Tory1812--27
George Canning (1770--1827)Tory1827
Viscount Goderich (1782--1859)Tory1827--28
Duke of Wellington (1769--1852)Tory1828--30 1
Earl Grey (1764--1845)Whig1830--34
Viscount Melbourne (1779--1848)Whig1834 1
Duke of Wellington (1769--1852) 1834 2
Sir Robert Peel (1788--1850)Tory1834--35 1
Viscount Melbourne (1779--1848)Whig1835--41 2
Sir Robert Peel (1788--1850)Tory1841--46 2
Lord John Russell (1792--1878)Whig1846--52 1
Earl of Derby (1799--1869)Tory1852 1
Earl of Aberdeen (1784--1860)Coalition1852--55
Viscount Palmerston (1784--1865)Liberal1855--58 1
Earl of Derby (1799--1869)Conservative1858--59 2
Viscount Palmerston (1784--1865)Liberal1859--65 2
Earl Russell (1792--1878)Liberal1865--66 2
Earl of Derby (1799--1869)Conservative1866--68 3
Benjamin Disraeli (1804--81)Conservative1868 1
William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98)Liberal1868--74 1
Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (1804--81)Conservative1874--80 2
William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98)Liberal1880--85 2
Marquess of Salisbury (1830--1903)Conservative1885--86 1
William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98)Liberal1886 3
Marquess of Salisbury (1830--1903)Conservative1886--92 2
William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98)Liberal1892--94 4
Earl of Rosebery (1847--1929)Liberal1894--95
Marquess of Salisbury (1830--1903)Conservative1895--1902 3
Arthur James Balfour (1848--1930) 1902--05
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1836--1908)Liberal1905--08
Herbert Henry Asquith (1852--1928)Liberal+Coalition1908--16
David Lloyd George (1863--1945)Coalition1916--22
Andrew Bonar Law (1858--1923)Conservative1922--23
Stanley Baldwin (1867--1947)Conservative1923--24 1
James Ramsay MacDonald (1866--1937)Labour1924 1
Stanley Baldwin (1867--1947)Conservative1924--29 2
James Ramsay MacDonald (1866--1937)Labour+Coalition1929--35 2
Stanley Baldwin (1867--1947)Coalition1935--37 3
Neville Chamberlain (1869--1940)Coalition1937--40
Winston Spencer Churchill (1874--1965)Coalition1940--45 1
Clement Richard Attlee (1883--1967)Labour1945--51
Sir Winston Spencer Churchill (1874--1965)Conservative1951--55 2
Sir Anthony Eden (1897--1977)Conservative1955--57
Harold Macmillan (1894--1986)Conservative1957--63
Sir Alec Frederick Douglas-Home (1903--95)Conservative1963--64
Harold Wilson (1916--95)Labour1964--70 1
Edward Heath (1916--2005)Conservative1970--74
Harold Wilson (1916--95)Labour1974--76 2
James Callaghan (1912--2005)Labour1976--79
Margaret Thatcher (1925--2013)Conservative1979--90
John Major (1943--)Conservative1990--97
Tony Blair (1953--)Labour1997--2007
Gordon Brown (1951--)Labour2007--10
David Cameron (1966--)Conservative2010--16
Theresa May (1956--)Conservative2016--19
Boris Johnson (1964--)Conservative2019--

Referrer (Inside): [2016-08-04-1] [2016-07-30-1]

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2016-05-12 Thu

#2572. Momma and Matto ԡˤαѸǯɽ [timeline][history][language_planning][linguistic_right]

ǶΡ#2562. Mugglestone ԡˤαѸǯɽ ([2016-05-02-1]) ˰³Ѹǯɽ꡼Momma and Matto αѸ˥ѥ˥ pp. xxix--xxxiii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ롥ѸˤĤơ춵顤츢 (linguistic_right)ײ (linguistic_planning) ʤɤαѼҲŪʹܤ¿ΩƤƤˡǯɽħ롥

1000 BCEIndo-European languages spread throughout Europe and southern Asia, some already attested in writing for hundreds of years.
ca. 1000--1 BCEGradual sound shifts (Grimm's Law) take place in Germanic languages.
55--54 BCEJulius Caesar invades Britain.
43 CERomans under Claudius conquer Britain; the "Roman Britain" period begins.
ca. 50--100Scandinavian Runic inscriptions are produced, which remain the oldest attestations of a Germanic language.
ca. 98Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus writes ''Germania''.
ca. 350Bishop Wulfila translates the Bible into Gothic, an East Germanic language.
410roman troops withdraw from Britain as Visigoths sack Rome; the "Roman Britain" period ends.
449According to tradition,Anglo-Saxons (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) begin invasion and settlement of Britain, bringing their West Germanic dialects to the islands.
597Pope Gregory sends Augustine to Kent where he converts King Æthelberht and 10,000 other Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.
793--ca. 900Vikings (Danes, Norwegians, Swedes) raid England periodically and establish settlements.
878King Alfred's victory over Guthrum's Danish army at Edington paves the way for the creation of the Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons.
886King Alfred and Guthrum sign a treaty establishing the "Dane law" north and east of London, heavily settled by the Norse-speaking vikings.
890sKing Alfred translates Pope Gregory's ''Regula pastoralis'' into English.
ca. 900Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' is translated from Latin into Old English.
ca. 975--1025The four great manuscripts containing Old English poetry (Exeter Book, Junius Manuscript, Vercelli Book, and ''Beowulf'' Manuscript) are compiled, though many of the texts they contain were likely composed over the previous 300 years.
993--5Aelfric composes his Latin-Old English ''Glossary''.
1066William the Conqueror leads the Norman conquest of England, solidifying French as the language of the nobility.
1171Henry II leads the Cambro-Norman invasion of Ireland, bringing French and English speakers to the island.
1204King John of England loses Normandy to France.
ca. 1245Walter of Bibbesworth compiles his ''Tretiz de Langage'' to improve the French of English-speaking Landowners.
1282Wales is conquered by King Edward I of England.
1348--50The Black Plague kills about one-third of the English population.
1362Statute of Pleading requires English be spoken in law courts.
1366Statutes of Kilkenny outlaw (among other Irish customs) speaking Irish by Englishmen in Ireland.
1370--1400Chaucer writes his major works.
1380sJohn Wycliffe and his followers illegally translate the Latin Vulgate Bible into English.
1380--1450Chancery standard written English is developed.
ca. 1450Johannes Gutenberg establishes the printing press in Germany.
1476William Caxton sets up the first printing press in England.
1492Christopher Columbus explores the Caribbean and Central America.
1497Italian navigator John Cabot explores Newfoundland.
1500--1650Great Vowel Shift takes place.
1525William Tyndale prints an English translation of the New Testament.
1534The first complete English translation of the Bible from the original Greek and Hebrew is produced.
1536 and 1543Acts of Union (Laws in Wales Acts) annex Wales to England.
1542Crown of Ireland Act makes the English king also the Irish king.
1558--1603Queen Elizabeth I reigns.
ca. 1575--1600English becomes an important trade language in West Africa.
1580s--1612Shakespeare composes his plays.
1583--1607British attempt unsuccessfully to establish colonies in America.
1588The Bible is translated into Welsh.
1589George Puttenham publishes his ''Art of English Poesy''.
1600British East India Company receives its charter, facilitating economic expansion into India.
1600sAtlantic slave trade begins, bringing Africans to America.
1603Union of the Crowns: James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England and Scotland, accelerating the Anglicization of Scots-English.
1604Robert Cawdrey compiles ''A Table Alphabeticall'', the first monolingual English dictionary.
1607The Virginia Company of London successfully establishes a colony in America at Jamestown, Virginia.
1610British establish fishing outposts in Newfoundland.
1611The King James Bible is published.
1620Pilgrims establish a colony at Plymouth Rock.
1623--ca. 1660British establish colonies throughout Caribbean.
1642--51English Civil Wars are ongoing.
1660The Restoration: Charles II returns to the throne.
1663The Royal Society is founded.
1689British establish the three administrative districts of Bengal, Bombay (now Mumbai), Madras (now Chennai) on the Indian subcontinent.
1694French publish a national dictionary.
1695The Licensing Act expires, giving anyone the freedom to publish without government permission.
1707Acts of Union unite governments of England and Scotland, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain.
1712Jonathan Swift writes his "Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue.".
1755Samuel Johnson's ''Dictionary of the English Language'' is published.
 French-speaking Acadians are expelled from Canada by British, settle in Louisiana and are called Cajuns.
1773British establish a Governor Generalship in India.
1776Thomas Jefferson drafts American Declaration of Independence.
1780sBritish begin to settle in Australia.
1783Treaty of Paris recognizes an independent United States of America; Noah Webster's "blue-back" spelling book is published.
1786William Jones suggests a common root for Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, promoting comparative linguistics and Indo-European studies.
1787English speakers of African origin are repatriated to Africa in Freetown, Sierra Leone.
1789--99The French Revolution takes place.
1795Lindley Murray's ''English Grammar'' is published.
1800Act of Union unites governments of Ireland and Great Britain, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and requiring that Irish politicians speak English in British government.
1803The Louisiana Purchase allows US to expand westward.
1811--18Jane Austen's novels and published.
1819The British government passes the Six Acts, aimed to suppress the publication of radical newspapers.
1820Freed English-speaking slaves repatriated from America to the newly created West African nation of Liberia.
1828Noah Webster's ''Dictionary of American English'' is published.
1831A system of Primary School Education is introduced in Ireland, with English as the medium of instruction.
1835Lord Macaulay's Minute initiates the introduction of English language education into South Asia.
1836The phrase "standard English" first appears in a philological sketch on the history of the language in the ''Quarterly Review''.
1837--1901Queen Victoria reigns.
1840sBritish begin to settle in New Zealand.
1845--9Many monoglot Irish speakers die as a result of the Great Famine in Ireland.
1852''Roget's Thesaurus'' is first published.
1858Act for the Better Government of India results in the British governing India directly.
1859''Proposal for the Publication of a New English Dictionary'' initiates work on what will be the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.
1873Harvard University introduces the first American college program in English composition for native speakers.
1898Americans take over control of the Philippines from Spain, beginning America's colonial period.
1914--39James Joyce's major works are published.
1922Ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty recognizes an independent Irish Free State, which will become the Republic of Ireland.
1925The Phelps-Stokes Commission recommends teaching both English and native languages in Africa.
1926--62William Faulkner's major works are published.
1928''Oxford English Dictionary'' is completed.
1946The Philippines achieve independence from the United States.
1947India achieves independence from Britain; Pakistan splits from India.
1953English made a compulsory subject in national examinations in elementary schools throughout Anglophone Africa.
1957--68Most of Britain's African colonies achieve independence.
1967The Official languages Act makes English and Hindi India's two official languages.
 Tanzania launches a "Swahilization" program.
1970-Toni Morrison's major works are published.
1875--Salman Rushdie's major works are published.
1979Lawsuit (''Martin Luther King Jr Elementary School Children vs. Ann Arbor School District Board'') sets precedent for requiring teachers to study AAVE.
 Urdu replaces English as the language of instruction in schools in Pakistan.
1991Helsinki corpus of English words from the Old English period through 1720 is completed.
1993Welsh Language Act makes Welsh an official language in Wales alongside English.
1996--7The "Ebonics" debates begin in Oakland, California.
1998The Good Friday Agreement grants "parity of esteem" to the Irish language and to Ulster Scots (Ullans) in Northern Ireland.


Momma, Haruko and Michael Matto, eds. A Companion to the History of the English Language. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-05-02 Mon

#2562. Mugglestone ԡˤαѸǯɽ [timeline][history]

Ѹǯɽ꡼Mugglestone ԤαѸ˽ pp. 415--28 ˡ"A CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH" ꤹܺ٤ǯɽǤƤ롥ޤܥ֥ǵ󤲤Ƥǯɽ꡼ΤʤǤǤĹΤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ḽγ̻ˤܤ20ȾʤɤϤҤ쿢̱ϤΩλʤȤ餿Ƽ´

c1500 BCFirst evidence for some languages of the Indo-European group.
c1000-500 BCEmergence of Proto-Germanic.
c300--200 BCBreak-up of Proto-Germanic.
c45--c410Britain becomes part of the Roman Empire, forming the Roman colony 'Britannia'.
c410Collapse of Roman Empire; Romans leave Britain.
449Traditional date for the invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.
597Arrival of Roman mission in England and introduction of Christianity.
601Augustine becomes the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
664Synod of Whitby.
670sPresumed date of composition of Cædmon's Hymn.
c700First surviving written evidence of Old English.
c700--20Lindisfarne Gospels written (in Latin).
731Bede completes his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (in Latin).
735Death of Bede.
757(--96)Reign of Offa as King of Mercia.
780sPeriod of Scandinavian invasion begins.
793Sacking of the monastery at Lindisfarne by Scandinavian invaders.
849Alfred born in Wantage, Oxfordshire.
870sScandinavian settlement in England.
871(--99)1 Reign of Alfred as King of Wessex.
 2 Production of translations of, for example, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, Gregory's Pastoral Care.
878Battle of Edington, in which Alfred triumphs over Vikings and agrees on areas of Scandinavian settlement (later to be known as the 'Danelaw').
from c890Production of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
899Death of Alfred.
937Battle of Brunanburh.
from c950Benedictine Reform.
c950(--970)Glosses to Lindisfarne Gospel added (in Old English) by Aldred, Provost of Chester-le-Street in Northumbria.
c955Birth of Ælfric.
c970sExeter Book and Vercelli Book copied.
990sÆlfric writes his Catholic Homilies.
991Battle of Maldon.
c1000Copying of Junius (or Cædmon) manuscript and Beowulf manuscript.
1005Ælfric becomes Abbot of Eynsham in Oxfordshire.
c1010Death of Ælfric.
1016(--35)Reign of the Danish king Cnut over England.
1066Battle of Hastings; William I (the conqueror) reigns over England (until 1087).
1086--7Compilation of the Domesday Book, the first survey of the nation's land resources.
c1122The Peterborough Chronicle is copied, and the First Continuation begins.
1154Peterborough Chronicle ends.
c1170sThe Ormulum.
1172Henry II becomes King of Ireland.
1204Loss of Normandy; England becomes the sole remaining home of Norman English.
1215Magna Carta.
c1225Ancrene Wisse.
1258Proclamation of Henry III: first Royal Proclamation issued in English since the Norman Conquest.
1284Annexation of Wales.
c1300Cursor Mundi.
1330--80Evidence of East Midland influence on language of London; evidence of limited standardization in manuscripts written in London.
1337(--1454)Hundred Years' War with France.
1340Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt completed.
c1343Birth of Geoffrey Chaucer.
1348First outbreak of the Black Death.
1362Statute of Pleading; English becomes the official language of the law courts.
1380sWycliffite Bible (first complete Bible in English).
1381The Peasants' Revolt.
1387John Trevisa completes English translation of Ranulph Higden's Polychronicon (1327).
c1395Second version of the Wycliffite Bible in English.
1400Death of Geoffrey Chaucer
1417Signet Office begins issuing the king's letters in English.
1422Brewers' Guild of London decides to switch to English as language of proceedings and accounts.
1425First surviving Paston letter.
1430Chancery adopts East Midland koiné as its written form.
c1450Death of John Lydgate.
c1470Death of Thomas Malory.
1475Printing of The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye by William Caxton in Bruges---the first book to be printed in English.
1476William Caxton sets up his printing press in Westminster and publishes the first printed books in English.
1485Henry VII becomes the first Tudor King after Richard III is killed at the Battle of Bosworth.
1489French no longer used as the language of Parliament.
1490Caxton's Eneydos published (with prologue remarking on variability of English).
1491Death of Caxton; succeeded by Wynkyn de Worde, who moves his printing press to Fleet Street.
1492Christopher Columbus arrives in West Indies.
1497John Cabot reaches Newfoundland, providing the first English contact with Canada.
1525--6Publication of William Tyndale's New Testament in English.
1534English Reformation (Henry VIII breaks with the Catholic Church).
1535Publication of Miles Coverdale's Bible (the first complete Bible to be printed in English).
1536First act of union between England and Wales.
1542Andrew Boorde, Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, illustrates regional dialects.
1549Book of Common Prayer.
1562John Hawkins starts British slave trade.
1564Birth of Shakespeare.
1565Lawrence Nowell, Vocabularium Saxiconum, first Old English glossary; included northern English words.
1567Thomas Harman, A Caveat or Warening for Common Cursetors, first glossary of the 'canting language' or dialect of the underworld.
1577(--80)Francis Drake circumnavigates the world.
1585Thomas Herriot, a scientist, visits Roanoke in America to gather information on the flora, fauna, resources, people, and languages.
1586Publication of William Bullokar's Pamphlet for Grammar, the first grammar of English.
1600Founding of the East India Company.
1600(--)English begins to be used in records of legal proceedings.
1603Union of the Crowns; James VI of Scotland succeeds to the English throne, as James I, after death of Elizabeth I.
1604Robert Cawdrey, A Table Alphabeticall, the first English-English dictionary, translates 'hard words' and inkhorn terms into 'common' English.
1607Jamestown in Chesapeake Bay founded in North America---the first successful British colony.
1611The Authorized Version of the English Bible (the 'King James' Bible), attempts to resolve questions about Englishing the Word of God.
1616Death of Shakespeare.
1619Alexander Gil, Logonomia Anglica, first vernacular grammar to treat English dialects systematically.
1623Publication of the First Folio edition of Shakespeare's plays.
1653Publication of John Wallis's Grammatica linguae Anglicanae.
1655Britain ousts the Spanish from Jamaica and extends its influence and language into the Caribbean and to West Africa.
16601 Restoration of the monarchy.
 2 Royal Society of London founded, in part, as the first English language academy.
1670Hudson's Bay Company formed.
1710Copyright Act.
1711Publication of Greenwood's Essay towards a practical English Grammar.
1712Publication (anonymously) of A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue; in a Letter by Jonathan Swift, which proposes the foundation of an Academy to regulate English usage.
1713Having defeated the French, the British exile French-speakers from Atlantic Canada. A later attempt by France to maintain colonies in present-day Illinois failed, and their defeat at Battle of Quebec in 1759 ensures dominance by English speakers in the west.
1714Death of Queen Anne: all chances of setting up an English Academy lost.
1715Elisabeth Elstob published the first grammar of Old English.
c1745Publication of Ann Fisher's New Grammar (Newcastle upon Tyne), the first grammar to be published by a woman.
1747Samuel Johnson published the Plan for his Dictionary.
1752Britain (and its colonies) move from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, losing 11 days between 2 and 14 September.
1755Publication of Samuel Johnson's two-volume Dictionary of the English Language.
1757In India, the British military victory at Plassy institutes English dominance in South Asia that will last until 1947. In the hands of expatriate and native soldiers and bureaucrats, English becomes the language of government.
1762Publication of Robert Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar.
1770Botany Bay, Australia, discovered by James Cook.
1775War of American Independence begins.
1776Declaration of American Independence.
1780Publication of Thomas Sheridan's General Dictionary of the English Language. One main object of which, is, to establish a plain and permanent standard of pronunciation.
1783US Declaration of Independence formally recognized by the British.
1783Noah Webster's American Spelling Book (the 'Blue-backed Speller') published.
1787Abolitionists in Britain establish Sierra Leone in West Africa and settle 2000 freed slaves there. They employ English in governing themselves and the indigenous peoples.
1788Establishment of a penal colony near present-day Sydney begins to form the distinctive English of Australia.
1789Publication of Noah Webster's Dissertations on the English Language, which advocated the institution of a national American standard of usage.
1791Publication of John Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language.
1793A delegation from Britain arrives in China to open trade relations. 'Pidgin English' begins to emerge as a trade language.
1795Publication of Lindley Murray's English Grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners. Over 1.5 million copies would be sold by 1850.
1800Act of Union with Ireland.
1801Union with Ireland begins.
1803Purchasing the huge central portion of what is now the USA, the US government ensured the extension of English throughout much of the American west.
1806British establish control of South Africa (English becomes the official language in 1822).
1810William Hazlitt publishes A New and Improved Grammar of the English Tongue.
1821Liberia is supported by the USA as a place of re-settlement for freed slaves. All who arrive in Monrovia as part of this 'colonization' effort are English speakers.
1825Opening of the Stockton to Darlington Railway.
1828Publication of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language.
1830Opening of the Liverpool to Manchester Railway.
1832Passing of the First Reform Bill.
1837Death of William IV; accession of Queen Victoria.
18401 In England, introduction of the Penny Post on 10 January; by the end of the year 168 million letters have been posted (compared to 76 million in 1839)
 2 The Treaty of Waitangi was the foundation document in the establishment of exclusive British sovereignty in New Zealand.
1842Foundation of the London Philological Society.
1844First telegraph line established between Baltimore and Washington.
1845--48The annexation of Texas and the defeat of the Mexican army extends the USA westward to California. Vast numbers of migrants to the west, especially after the gold rush of 1848, overwhelm the institutions of Spanish culture.
1850Public Libraries Act.
1854--6Crimean War.
1858Proposal for A New English Dictionary (later known as The Oxford English Dictionary) made by the London Philological Society.
1866Atlantic Cable completed, linking Valencia, Ireland and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland by submarine cable.
18671 Second Reform Bill (extending franchise to all those who could demonstrate ownership of property worth ?7).
 2 Canada given self-government.
1869Alexander Ellis publishes the first volume of his On Early English Pronunciation in which he defined 'received pronunciation' for the first time.
1870In England and Wales, Elementary Education Act passed, providing compulsory elementary education for all children.
1872Education in Scotland made compulsory until the age of 14.
1873Founding of the English Dialect Society.
1876Introduction of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell.
1877Invention of the phonograph by Thomas Edison.
1881Education in England and Wales becomes compulsory until the age of 19.
1884First fascicle of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (later OED) published, covering the words A-Ant.
1888The British East Africa Company is established to oversee the development of British interests in Kenya, Zanzibar, and Uganda.
1889Publication of fifth volume of A. J. Ellis's On Early English Pronunciation: The Existing Phonology of English Dialects.
1892Publication of Joseph Wright's Grammar of the Dialect of Windhill.
1896The English Dialect Society disbanded.
1897Founding of the first regional dialect organization, The Yorkshire Dialect Society.
1898(--1905)1 The Spanish-American War extends US dominance from the continent of North America and into Puerto Rico and the Philippines.
 2 In England, publication of The English Dialect Dictionary and English Dialect Grammar, edited by Joseph Wright.
1899(--1902)1 The South African War (Boer War) concludes with the British in control of present-day South Africa.
 2 First magnetic sound recordings.
19011 Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic radio signals, sent between Poldhu, Cornwall and Signal Hill in Newfoundland.
 2 Australia is transformed from a colony to a commonwealth. Among the first laws passed was the Immigration Restriction Act which required all prospective immigrants 'to write out at dictation and sign in the presence of the [custom's] officer a passage of fifty words in length in a European language directed by the officer.' This language incorporated the 'dictation test' used in Natal in 1897 to exclude most Indians from South Africa.
 3 Death of Queen Victoria.
1906First public radio broadcast.
1907New Zealand becomes a dominion of the British Empire.
1910The Union of South Africa becomes a dominion of the British Empire.
1914(--18)The First World War (UK), World War I (US)
1918The Englishman Sir Evelyn Wrench and the American Alexander Smith Cochran found the English-Speaking Union, to encourage partnership between the UK, its dominions, and the USA. [There is currently an English-Speaking Union of the Commonwealth (HQ: London) and of the United States (HQ: New York).]
1919The German colony of Tanganyika in East Africa is ceded to Britain, and Kamerun in West Central Africa is divided between France (Cameroun) and Britain (Cameroon).
1920Kenya becomes a British colony.
1921Ireland achieves Home Rule and is separated from Great Britain. Gaelic is made an 'official' language in addition to English.
1922Foundation of British Broadcasting Company (BBC).
1925The Afrikaans language gains official status alongside English in South Africa.
1928Completion of the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary.
1931The British Commonwealth is formed, and South Africa becomes a dominion of the British Empire.
1934The British Council is founded, with its headquarters in London, as a vehicle for British cultural diplomacy and teaching English as a foreign or second language.
1935The Philippines becomes a self-governing Commonwealth in association with the USA.
1936The Republic of Ireland severs all constitutional links with Great Britain.
1937In Wales, a new constitution for the festival the national Eisteddfod makes Welsh its official language.
1939--45The Second World War (UK), World War II (US).
1945Signing of the United Nations Charter and the decision to make the headquarters of the UN in the USA gives English an unprecedented importance as a language of diplomacy.
19461 The Philippines gains its independence from the USA.
 2 Transjordan gains its independence from the UK as Jordan.
19471 India is partitioned into Pakistan and India and is freed from British control. The constitution provides that English remain the language of national government for only fifteen years. The approach of that date results in riots led by those fearing the dominance of Hindi and the loss of power for their own language communities. English remains as the most important of India's 'national languages' even though few learn it as a mother tongue.
 2 New Zealand gains its independence from the UK, and joins the Commonwealth.
19481 In England, the Survey of English Dialects is founded.
 2 Burma gains its independence from the UK, and declines membership of the Commonwealth.
 3 Ceylon gains its independence from the UK as Sri Lanka, and joins the Commonwealth.
19491 The Linguistic Survey of Scotland founded.
 2 Newfoundland becomes a province of Canada.
 3 Two new Guinea territories are combined by the United Nations as an Australian mandate, the UN Trust Territory of Papua and New Guinea.
1952Puerto Rico (see 1898) becomes a Commonwealth in association with the US, with Spanish as its first and English its second language.
1953The creation of the United States Information Agency (USIA) and its overseas arm, the United States Information Service (USIS).
1955About this time, the number of speakers using English as an additional language surpassed the number who had learned it as a first language.
19571 The New Zealand-born lexicographer Robert W. Burchfield becomes the editor of a Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary (eventually published in four volumes 1972--86).
 2 The Gold Coast (as Ghana) and Malaya gain their independence from the UK.
1960Nigeria becomes independent from the British and Somalia from the British and Italians.
19611 South Africa becomes a republic, leaves the Commonwealth, and adopts Afrikaans and English as its official languages.
 2 The British colony of Cameroon divides, part joining Nigeria, part joining the ex-French colony of Cameroun, to become the Republic of Cameroon, with French and English as its official languages.
 3 Sierra Leone, Kuwait, and Cyprus gain their independence from the UK
 4 In England, 1961--72, publication of the Basic Material of the Survey of English Dialects.
19621 Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Uganda gain their independence from the UK.
 2 Caribbean English becomes the vehicle for popular culture, especially calypso, Rastafarianism, and raggae.
19631 Nigeria becomes independent as part of the wave of 'decolonizing' that took place throughout the former British colonies. West African Pidgin English emerges as a major and widely spoken regional language.
 2 Kenya gains its independence from the UK.
 3 Malaya unites with the newly independent colony of Borneo to become Malaysia.
 4 In Wales, the first public protests by the Cyndeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (the Welsh Language Society) take place, seeking a fuller use of Welsh in the Principality.
19641 Malta gains its independence from the UK.
 2 Tanganyika and Zanzibar (as Tanzania), Nyasaland (as Malawi), and Northern Rhodesia (as Zambia) gain their independence from the UK.
1965Gambia, the Maldives, and Singapore gain their independence from the UK.
1966Barbados, Basutoland (as Lesotho), Bechuanaland (as Botswana), and British Guiana (as Guyana) gain their independence from the UK.
19671 In the UK, the Welsh language Act gives the Welsh language equal validity with English in Wales, and the Principality is no longer deemed to be part of England.
 2 Aden gains its independence from the UK as South Yemen.
19681 The Survey of Anglo-Welsh Dialects is founded.
 2 Swaziland, Mauritius, and Nauru gain their independence from the UK.
1969English and French become the official languages of Canada.
1970Fiji and Tonga gain their independence from the UK.
1971Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States (as the United Arab Emirates) gain their independence from the UK.
19721 Martin Cooper makes the first public call on a personal, portable cell phone.
 2 East Pakistan secedes and becomes Bangladesh.
1973The Bahamas gain their independence from the UK.
19741 The Cyngor Yr Iaith Gymraeg/Council for the Welsh Language is set up to advise the Secretary of State for Wales on matters concerning the Welsh language.
 2 Grenada gains its independence from the UK.
1975Papua New Guinea gains its independence from Australia.
1976The Seychelles gains its independence from the UK.
1977In Quebec, Loi/Bill 101 is passed, making French the sole official language of the province and banning public signs in other languages.
19781 In England, Publication of The Linguistic Atlas of England.
 2 Dominica, the Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu gain their independence from the UK.
1979St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (as Kiribati) gain their independence from the UK.
1980The UK government averts a fast to the death by Gwynfor Evans, leader of Plaid Cymru (the Welsh National Party), by honouring election pledges to provide a fourth television channel broadcasting in both Welsh and English.
1981Antigua (as Antigua and Barbuda) and British Honduras (as Belize) gain their independence from the UK.
1982Canada's constitution, until then kept in London, is 'patriated' to Ottawa.
1983St Kitts and Nevis gains its independence from the UK.
19841 Brunei gains its independence from the UK.
 2 David Rosewarne identifies 'Estuary English'.
1990South West Africa gains its independence from South Africa as Namibia.
19911 Tim Berners-Lee launches the World Wide Web.
 2 The Marshall Islands and Micronesia gain their independence from the USA.
1994Text messaging introduced.
1996South Africa ratifies a constitution in which English becomes one of the eleven 'official' languages.
1997Hong Kong is returned to China and becomes the last of the colonies in Asia to be freed from British sovereignty.
1999A Survey of Regional English proposed.
2000The European Union fosters bilingualism as a goal. In 2000, the largest of the then fifteen member states were estimated to have the following mother tongues: German (24%), French (16%), English (16%), Italian (16%), Spanish (11%). Once the population speaking these languages in addition to the mother tongue were added in, the figures show: English (47%), German (32%), French (28%), Italian (18%), and Spanish (15%).
2003Text messages sent in the UK pass 20 billion.
2004The British Library 'Collect Britain: English Accents and Dialects' website launched.
2005The British Broadcasting Corporation 'Voices' project launched on 17 January.


Mugglestone, Lynda, ed. The Oxford History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2016-04-17 Sun

#2547. 奤󥰥ɷǯΰ [timeline][history][monarch]

Ѹˤγ̻ˤˤƷ礫ʤȤơ奤󥰥ɡʽ˲Ȥǯ褦2010 Compton's by Britannica ΡVol. 26 Fact-Index p. 378 äΤǤ롥

Saxon
802--839Egbert
839--858Ethelwulf
858--860Ethelbald
860--865Ethelbert
865--871Ethelred
871--899Alfred the Great
901--924Edward the Elder
924--939Athelstan
939--946Edmund I
946--955Edred
955--959Edwy
959--975Edgar
975--978Edward the Martyr
978--1016Ethelred "the Unready"
1016Edmund II, Ironside
Danish
1016--35Canute (Cnut)
1035--40Harold I
1040--42Harthacanute
Saxon
1042--66Edward the Confessor
1066Harold II
Norman
1066--87William I, the Conqueror
1087--1100William II
1100--35Henry I
1135--54Stephen
Plantagenet
1154--89Henry II
1189--99Richard I
1199--1216John
1216--72Henry III
1272--1307Edward I
1307--27Edward II
1327--77Edward III
1377--99Richard II
Lancaster
1399--1413Henry IV
1413--22Henry V
1422--61Henry VI
York
1461--83Edward IV
1483Edward V
1483--85Richard III
Tudor
1485--1509Henry VII
1509--47Henry VIII
1547--53Edward VI
1553--58Mary I
1558--1603Elizabeth I
Stuart
1603--25James I
1625--49Charles I
[1649--60Commonwealth]
1660--85Charles II
1685--88James II
1689--1702William III and Mary II (until her death in 1694)
1702--14*Anne*The United Kingdom was formed in 1707.
Hanover
1714--27George I
1727--60George II
1760--1820George III
1820--30George IV
1830--37William IV
1837--1901Victoria
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Windsor)
1901--10Edward VII
1910--36George V
1936Edward VIII
1936--52George VI
1952--Elizabeth II

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-03-27 Sun

#2526. űѸѸʸػǯɽ [literature][chronology][timeline][me][oe][history]

ʸؤμ׺ʤǯɽˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1])#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1])#2323 ѸȤμ׺ʡ ([2015-09-06-1])#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ǸƤ⤦ι⤤ΤߤȻפTreharne ʸغʽ pp. xvi--xvii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ뤳ȤˤˤϢưʸػˤǯɽȤʤäƤ롥

Historical eventsLiterary landmarks
From c. 449: Anglo-Saxon settlements 
597: St Augustine arrives to convert Anglo-Saxons 
664: Synod of Whitby 
 c. 670? Cædmon's Hymn
 731: Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History
735: Death of Bede 
793: Vikings raid Lindisfarne 
869: Vikings kill King Edmund of East Anglia 
879--99: Alfred reigns as king of Wessexfrom c. 890: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
 Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; Gregory's Pastoral Care; Orosius; Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; Augustine's Soliloquies
937: Battle of Brunanburh 
from c. 950: Benedictine reform 
 c. 970: Exeter Book copied
959--75: King Edgar reignsc. 975: Vercelli Book copied
978--1016: Æthelred 'the Unready' reigns990s: Ælfric's Catholic Homilies and Lives of Saints
c. 1010: death of Ælfricc. 1010?: Junius manuscript copied
 c. 1014: Wulfstan's sermo Lupi ad Anglos
1016--35: Cnut, king of England 
1023: death of Wulfstan 
1042--66: Edward the confessor reignsApollonius of Tyre
1066: Battle of Hastings 
1066--87: William the Conqueror reigns 
1135: Stephen becomes kingGeoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae
1135--54: civil war between King Stephen and Empress MatildaPeterborough Chronicle continuations
1154--89: Henry II reigns1155: Wace's Roman de Brut
 1170--90: Chrétien de Troyes's Romances
 c. 1170s: The Orrmulum
 Poema Morale
 1180s: Marie de France's Lais
1189--99: Richard I reignsc. 1190--1200? Trinity Homilies
1199--1216: John reignsc. 1200? Hali Meiðhad
1204: loss of Normandy 
1215: Magna Carta 
1215: fourth Lateran Council 
1216--72: Henry III reignsc. 1220 Laȝamon's Brut
1224: Franciscan friars arrive in Englandc. 1225: Ancrene Wisse
 c. 1225: King Horn
1272--1307: Edward I reignsManuscript Digby 86 copied
 Manuscript Jesus 29 copied
 Manuscript Cotton Caligula A. ix copied
 Manuscript Arundel 292 copied
 Manuscript Trinity 323 copied
 South English Legendary composed
 c. 1300: Cursor Mundi
 1303: Robert Mannyng of Brunne begins Handlyng Synne
1307--27: Edward II reigns 
1327--77: Edward III reignsAuchinleck Manuscript copied
 Manuscript Harley 2253 copied
1337(--1454): Hundred Years' War with France 
 1338: Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Chronicle
 1340: Ayenbite of Inwit
c. 1343: Geoffrey Chaucer born 
 Ywain and Gawain translated
1349: Black Death comes to England 
1349: Richard Rolle dies 
 1355--80: Athelston
 Wynnere and Wastoure written
 1360s--1390s: Piers Plowman
1362: English displaces French as language of lawcourts and Parliament 
 1370s--1400: Canterbury Tales
1377: Richard II accedes to throne1370s: Julian of Norwich's Vision
1381: Peasants' Revolt breaks out 
1399: Richard II deposed 
1399: Henry IV accedes to the throne 
 c. 1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
 c. 1400: Chaucer dies
 c. 1410--30: Book of Margery Kempe


Treharne, Elaine, ed. Old and Middle English c. 890--c. 1450: An Anthology. 3rd ed. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-05-1] [2019-11-02-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-02-02 Tue

#2472. եꥫαѸ [demography][world_englishes][new_englishes][esl][map][timeline][pidgin][creole][standardisation][africa]

#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸο͸פˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦  *  *

countrysignificant UK contactcolonial statusindependencetotal populationEnglish speakers
percentagetotal number
Botswana19th century188519661,640,000--38%630,000
Lesotho protectorate19661,800,000--28%500,000
Malawi18781891196413,000,000--4%540,000
Namibia18781920 (S. Afr.)19901,800,000--17%> 300,000
South Africa17951795191047,850,000> 28%13,700,000
Swaziland18941902 (UK)19681,140,000--4.4%50,000
Zambia188819241953, 196413,000,000--15%--2,000,000
Zimbabwe189019231953, 198013,300,000--42%5,550,000
 
Cameroon19141916196018,500,000--42%7,700,000
Gambia1661, 1816189419651,700,000--2.3%40,000
Ghana (formerly gold coast)1824, 18501874, 1902195723,480,000--6%1,400,000
LiberiaUSA 1822none18473,750,000--83%3,100,000
Nigeria18511884, 19001960148,000,000--53%79,000,000
Sierra Leone1787180819615,800,000--83%4,900,000
 
Kenya18861895, 1920196339,000,000--9%2,700,000
Tanzania1880s1890, 1920196142,000,000--11%4,000,000
Uganda1860s1888, 1890196231,000,000--10%2,500,000


South Africa Nigeria ¸ߴȴƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ޤǰƤեꥫ䥢αѸѤƤѸϡºݾۤܤ٤ ESL ȹͤƤ褤եꥫǤϰ ENL ԤƤꡤ¾ϰǥ쥪Ѹ줬ԤƤȤ⤢뤬Ūˤ ESL ϰȸƤ֤ˤդ路¿ιϰαѸѤˤĤƶ̤ƤΤϡȼαѸ줬 "endonormative" ǼҲŪϰ̤ơٲĤĤ뤳ȤǤ롥Gramley (306) ϼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥

In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.


"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥󥵥βPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-01-30 Sat

#2469. αѸ [demography][world_englishes][new_englishes][esl][map][timeline][efl]

αѸˤĤƤϡʲε¾Ǽ夲Ƥ

#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENL, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#273. αѸ ([2010-01-25-1])
#375. ENLESL ο͸Ψ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21͸ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1])
#1593. եԥαѸ (2) ([2013-09-06-1])

Ѹ̤ꤦǡѸüԤ˴ؤ͸פϽפʰ̣ġ͡ʸ󤲤뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥ Gramley (313, 314) "Anglophone South Asian countries" "Anglophone Southeast Asian countries" ɽɥå󥰤Τ򼨤  *

countrysignificant UK contactbeginning of colonial statusindependencetotal populationEnglish speakers
percentagetotal number
Bangladesh169018581947162,000,000--2%3,500,000
India160018581947--1.2 billion> 20%> 230,000,000
Nepal none 25,000,000> 25%7,000,000
Pakistan185718581947164,000,000--11%18,000,000
Sri Lanka17961802194820,000,000--10%2,000,000
 
Singapore1819186719655,000,000--80%--4,000,000
Hong Kong1841184219976,900,000--36%2,500,000
PhilippinesUSA: 18981898194697,000,000> 50%50,000,000
Malaysia178617951957, 196327,000,000--27%7,400,000


ѸüԤο͸פȤϡɡѥ󡤥Х󥰥ǥϤȴƤ롥եԥ21ˤޤޤӤƤ椯ޤɽ˷ǤƤΰϤESLϰǤ뤬ޤǤʤƶ쥢ˤӹEFLϰ褬äƤꡤǤϱѸ춵餬㳰ʤˤʤäƤ롥ºݾ太ŪʱѸüԤ³뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤΤʤǥϺαѸȤι˱ƶͿ票ꥢȤʤܤϡΤ褦ʶ٤αѸĶѲˡ褯դʧȤɬפǤ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-01-26 Tue

#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ [writing][medium][history][timeline][map]

̺ˤĤơ#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1]) ȡ#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1]) Ǽ夲ϡ̺ȤƤλܤ
椬ʸ˿ʱƶڤܤȯǤ뤳ȤϡܤΰפȤǤ롥ȯϡεҤ˴ŤθˤСǯ105ǯˤˡѤΥܥʤɤѤƻꡤιΤǽȸƤǯȯȸˤСε170ǯˤϤǤ˻椬ƤǤ⡤Ѥϡ浻ѤԤȤƤޤˤ̾Ĥˤͤ  *
θ塤1ܤˤ⤿餵줿ȹͤ뤬ܤˤǽϡħˤ굻Ѥ⤿餵줿610ǯʿ18ǯˤΤȤȸ롥浻Ѥ륯ɤͳƥ衼åäΤϡѤǯʾ12ʹߤΤȤǤ롥Ūˤϡ1144ǯˡࡼͤλۤƤڥΥϥФǽƻ椬졤ե󥹡ɥĤؤ̾夷ۤ1274ǯˤ泤ͳǥꥢΥե֥ꥢΤˡ줿  *
(113) ϡ滺ȤˤȯפȤơ(1) 105ǯѤˤȯΤˤϾ嵭̤浻Ѥˡ(2) 1798ǯե󥹿ͥ륤١ˤ뾶浡ȯ(3) 1844ǯɥĿͥ顼ˤںѥפȯ(4) 1807ǯɥĿͥåҤˤź󥰤ȯ󤲤Ƥ롥
λȤɤ顤̺ȤƤǤϤʤʥܡ롤ʤɡˤۼʥȥåȥڡѡʤɡˤȤƤӤ⤢ꡤμ夫鸽ߤޤ³Ƥ
ˡΤäƤ˰ܤ (3) ϰʲ8󤲤Ƥ롥

ʿ顤ڤơŬʶޤäꡤʤꡤ夷ꡤڤʤɤβù䤹
ΤۼΤǡ񤤤ꡤ䤹
̵Ǥꡤdz䤹Ȥ롥
ڤưפʬ򤷤Ƥޤ
Ǯˤ롥
¾κʤ¤
ǽʿʪݤǤ롥
ѤϺȤƺѤ䤹


(3) ϡֿʹ֤ȯǺǤۤ¿äΤϻ¾ˤʤפ³ΤƤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥衤̺ϡǴġѥԥ륹СʸۡˡڴʡݴʡХ顼ʳ¿աɡߥޡΥѥߥܿҤաˡ桤Ѥȥޥơ̵ֲ̤ܺμˡѤæڤοˤʤ͡ʤΤѤƤ٤ơ椬͡ʤ줿褯äƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤϡ2ǯ̺֡βԤǤȸäƤ褤  *

ѽӡػʸ١1992ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-12-19 Sat

#2427. ̤ʸ [grammatology][hieroglyph][timeline]

̤ʸβɤؤ̴ϡ͡ΥޥͶ鷺ˤʤJean-François Champollion (1790--1832) ˤå (Rosetta stone) ˵줿ץʸʥҥաˤβɡSir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810--95) ˤܸʸβɡMichael George Francis Ventris ˤ륯쥿ʸBβɡζͺˤʸβɤβʤɤɤȡΥߥƥ꡼ʤ說說롥߲ɺȤʤǤꡤܳŪʲɤ֤ܤƤΤˡޥʸ롥򤭤ηвˤܤΥʤ
ΰפʤɤȯʪ˵Ƥʸηϡˤϡ줬ΤʸǤʤ¤ꡤȯϤ٤̤ʸȤư롥ˡŷͤνиαˤ褯ɤʤǤ椯Τ⤢СޤäνФʤΤ⤢롥ץʸʸBΤ褦ˡֲɤʸȸƤФƤϤƤ⡤٤ƤɤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ɤʬĤäƤȤΤ̤Ǥ롥̤ɤȴɤϡޤ٤ȤȤ館ɬפ
嵭â񤭤äǤ⡤ˡ뤤Ϥ̤ۤɤȤäƤ褤ʸηϤʤ¿¸ߤ롥ӥ󥽥 (175) ˤޤȤƤ̤ʸƸ褦ɽΡ*פΰϡؼԤδ֤ǰոפƤʤȤ򼨤

ʸθƤ̾ȯ줿ǸŤȤΤǯʸΡ̤졧Ρ̤
ʸ󡿥饯3000ǯ̤̤
ʸѥ2500ǯ̤*
ֵҥաӥ֥ʥХΥ̤̤
ʸA쥿18ϴ̤
եȥαեȥʥ쥿18̤̤
ȥꥢʸ̥ꥢ8ϴ
ʸʥ200ǯϴ
ϡʸ150ǯ**
󥴥19̤̤


̤ʸˤϡ礭ʬ (1) ϴΤʸ̤Ρʥޥʸʤɡˡ(2) ̤ΤʸϴΡʥȥꥢʸʤɡˡ(3) ʸ̤Ρʥʸ󥴥󥴤ʤɡˤʬ롥ˤ衤ǽŪ˵Ƥ줬ǤΤȽʤСɤԲǽȤȤˤʤ롥򤭥ߥƥ꡼ɤǤߤޥʸСλϴñˤˬʤ

ӥ󥽥󡤥ɥ롼ˡһ ۻҡˡʸεˡҥաե٥åȡ١ϸҡ2006ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-12-06 Sun

#2414. ʸǯɽʥӥ󥽥ǡ [timeline][history][grammatology]

#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1]) Ȥεĥäǡʸǯɽϲ٤ϥӥ󥽥 (12) ǯɽ򼨤ʤ˾ܤơͭѡ

ɹϻʵ25,000ǯʹߡֻϸʸפλ塥ʸŪߥ˥
8000ǯʹǴڤΡ֥ȡפ׻˻Ȥ롥
3300ǯ饯Υ륯ǡ᡼ͤǴĤ˵ߤϤ롥
3100ǯ᥽ݥߥܸʸλѤϤޤ롥
3100ǯ?3000ǯץȤǥҥդλѤϤޤ롥
2500ǯѥɤ˥ʸȯ
18쥿ʸAи
1792ǯ?1750ǯХӥ󲦥ϥӤμϥˡŵǤ˹ޤ롥
17?16ѥ쥹ʤǡǸŤΤΤȤ륢ե٥åȤ롥
1450ǯ쥿ʸBи
14ꥢΥåȤǥե٥åŪܸʸȤ롥
1361ǯ?1352ǯץȡĥ󥫡󲦤μ
1285ǯǥ襤ॻ2ȥҥåȷ򵭤
1200ιιùʸǤϤޤ롥
1000ǯ泤ǥե˥ե٥åȤλѤϤޤ롥
8̥ꥢ˥ȥꥢե٥åȤи
650ǯץȤǥҥդǥƥåǤ롥
600ǯꥫǥޥʸʳʸˤλѤϤޤ롥
521ǯ?486ǯڥ륷쥤μ٥ҥȥʸܸʸɤΥȤʤäˤޤ롥
400ǯ˥ե٥åȤɸΥꥷե٥åȤˤʤ롥
270ǯ?232ǯ̥ɤǥ֥顼եʸȥƥʸˤꡤ硼ļ᤬˹ޤ롥
221ǯīδס
2ǻ椬ȯ롥
1೤ܤࡿإ֥饤ʸǵ롥
75ǯܸʸκǸʸ롥
2̥衼åѤ˥롼ʸи
394ǯץȤΥҥդˤǸʸ롥
615ǯ?683ǯᥭǥѥ벦ŵޥԻԥѥ󥱤ۡ
712ǯܺǸŤʸءظŻٴʴǽ񤫤Ƥˡ
800ǯǰѤȯ롥
9ǥ롦ե٥åȤͰƤ롥
1418ǯ?1450ǯĩβμϥ󥰥롦ե٥åȤͰƤ롥
15衼åѤ1ʸĤβưγͰƤ롥
1560ǯ楫ȾǥǥǡޥΡ֥ե٥åȡפϿ
1799ǯץȤǥåȡȯ롥
1821ǯꥫ轻̱ˤ²Ρ֥ե٥åȡפͰƤ롥
1823ǯץȤΥҥդݥꥪˤɤ롥
1840ǯʹ󥽥󡤥ҥ󥯥ˤ᥽ݥߥܸʸβɡ
1867ǯץ饤ȯ
1899ǯǹùʸιޤ줿ιȯ롥
1900ǯ󥹤ˤ륯ΥåȯʸA, BƱꡥ
1905ǯʥȾΥ顼ӥȡ롦ϡǥǥԡȥ꡼ʥʸȯ
1908ǯ쥿ǡ֥եȥαספȯ롥
1920ǯʸȯ
1940ǯŻҷ׻ʥԥ塼ˤȯ
1948ǯإ֥饤줬饨θѸȤʤ롥
1953ǯȥꥹˤʸBβɡ
1950ǯʹޥʸβɡ
1958ǯΥԥ󥤥Ƴ
1980ǯɥץåȯʸŻҲ롥
2012ǯ1223ޥǸߤ祵뤬


ӥ󥽥󡤥ɥ롼ˡһ ۻҡˡʸεˡҥաե٥åȡ١ϸҡ2006ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-21 Sat

#2399. ݷʸǯɽ [grammatology][timeline][hieroglyph][link]

ݷʸ (hieroglyph) ϡʳγʸ (pictogram) ȯãȹͤ롤ʸ̾ͤ븶ʸǤ롥ʸθñ̤бƤ餺̩ˤпʸȤϤʤäơֳʸפȤƾΤΤΤμ̷ޤǤ롥ݷʸθñ̡ʺǽʸˤƤŵŪ˸ˤбƤ롤βΡɤߡפäƤ롤ȤߤΤǤ롥ݷʸ⡤¿ʤȤάƤȤϤ˻ʪ򤫤ɤäǤȤǡɤʸȶ̤뤬εεǽϳʸȷŪ˰ۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
ŵŪʾݷʸȤơҥ (hieroglyph) ȾΤ륨ץʸ褯ΤƤ롥ξܺ٤٤ʻϤޤ˳Ȥˤդ路η֤3000ǯĹˤ錄äƤۤȤѲƤʤȤ顤̤ˡֳʸפȾΤ뤬嵭餹ȳʸǤϤʤäʸݷʸȾΤ٤Ǥ롥ʸϤΤ褦ŵŪʾݷʸǤ뤳Ȥ顤Ѹ hieroglyph ϥץʸ˸¤餺᡼ܸʸùʸʤɤޤơ˾ݷʸ̣ȤʤäƤ롥
ʲƣ (250--51) ǯɽȤˡݷʸ (hieroglyph) 򼨤

 ץȡɡ쥢Φ
  ԻԹȤΩ3300  
     
 ץ첦īλϤޤꡤҥդλϤޤ3100᡼ݷʸλϤޤ3100  
3000    
     
     
 ץȸŲ2700--2200   
  ܸʸλϤޤ2600  
   ʸʸλѡ2500--1500 
  åɲ2350--2150  
     
     
     
2000ץ沦2000--1800ˡ쥿ʸ2000--1450   
     
   ֲī18--1050 
 ʸA1700--1450ˡեȥס17Хӥ˥1830--1530  
 ץȿ1570--1090ʥʸ16  
  ҥåȾݷʸ1500--700ˡҥå1460--1200  
 󥢥ƥνס1370ˡʸB14--12 ùʸ14--11 
  ҥದʸ13  
   ī塤1120--256ˤΤȤ˶ʸλ 
     
1000 åꥢ1000--612  
     
     
 ǥƥåλϤޤ700ˡץȡī663--525   
  ڥ륷6溢--330  
     
 ץȡץȥޥī323--30   
   221--206ˤ˾信ʤդĤˤ俽ˤλϤޤ 
     
1 ܸʸν1  
    
 ץʸλϤޤ200 ܴʺδˤλϤޤʸ200ˡʸܤˤĤ200 
     
 ҥդκǸ394   
 ǥƥåκǸ452   
    ޥʸޥʸλѡ6--10
     
     
     
     
1000    
     
    ƥʸƥʸλѡ1220--1521
    1400--1533
     
     
     
     
 ݥꥪ󤬥ҥդɡ1822ƥեȤܸʸɡ1802ˡ󥽥ܸʸɡ1835ùʸȯ1899 
 ʥʸȯ1904--05ˡȥꥹʸB   
2000    


ʸˤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])
#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])
#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])
#2398. ʸη (3) ([2015-11-20-1])

ƣ Ϻؾݷʸ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-10-24 Sat

#2371. ݥȥǯɽ [history][timeline][portuguese][map][age_of_discovery]

ε#2370. ݥȥ줫θüѡ ([2015-10-23-1]) ǡݥȥ줫ŪʼѸߤμѸäϡ15--16˥ݥȥ뤬ιȤŸˤäƤ롥طʤ򤹤٤ϿޤźĤġݥȥǯɽإʥʥ른եåι񡡥ݥȥ٤δ (p. 60--61) Ƹ褦

Map of Portugal

4200ȿŪʼҲˤäơݥȥΥݥǡ䥴른ͥ˵褬Ƥ롥
500ŴΥȿͤݥȥۤ롥
201񤬥ݥȥߤ۲ˤ
140ޤȿͤ񹳤ƻۤ礹
27޹륫롦ȥݥȥդ°륷˥Ĥ롥
567ޥϤȿͤ٥ꥢȾ˻ۤ礹롥
711ඵ̤η⤬٥ꥢȾ˿롥θ7ǯΤ˥٥ꥢȾΤۤΤࡼͤΥޥīλ۲ˤ롥
1096֥르˥ȤΥꥱݥȥȤʤ롥
1143ե󥽡ꥱȤʤꥤ٥ꥢȾ¾ʬʬΥΩݥȥ벦񤬷񤵤롥
1249ե3٥ꥢȾ礫ǸΥࡼͤɤФݥȥ񶭤Ω롥
1416ꥱҳҤ쥹˳ϤȹҳعĤꡤҳ夬Ϥޤ롥
1488ݥȥ͹ҳΤΥХȥᥦǥ˾ޤҳΤ˥ؤιϩΩ롥
1494ڥȥݥȥ뤬ȥǥ㥹हӡ̥ꥫΦȯϤξʬ䤹롥
1497ޤɤؤ2ǯ֤ιҳ˾Фθ塤ݥȥͤΥؤɤȤǰפϤޤ롥
1500ڥɥ쥹֥뤬֥饸ãݥȥȥꥫΦȤǰϩ򳫤
1572륤ǡ󥤥ݥȥͤαʱξħȤʤإ른٤
1580ڥ󲦥ե2ݥȥ벦ե1Ȥ¨̤ݥȥϥڥʻ礵롥
1609ݥȥ벦ե2٤ƤΥꥹʥꥹȶ̤˲ࡼ͡ˤ̿롥ηˤꡤݥȥкѤ礭˼򤦤롥
1650졼ˤμȤʤ롥
1755Ͽ̤ꥹܥ򽱤6ͤ˴¿ηʪݲ롥ꥹܥϥݥХߤλشΤȺƷ롥
1807ʥݥ쥪󡦥ܥʥѥȤݥȥ˿񲦥祢6ϥ֥饸ƨ졤1821ǯޤǥ֥饸ˤ롥
1822祢6©ҤΥڥɥ֥饸Ω֥饸Ȥʤ롥
1846̱˪ˤꡤ⤬ͳݼΤդĤϤʬ롥
1890ꥹκǸĭ򤦤ơեꥫˤ뿢̱ϳײ롥
1908񲦤ĹˤꥹܥǰŻ롥ˤޥ̥2Ȥ¨̡
1910̿Ϥޥ̥2̤1Ω
1911ˡ򡥽ǧ롥
1916ꥹܥǥɥٽᤵ졤ɥĤ۹𡥥ݥȥϢ¦Ȥ1ェޤ2ǯ臘
1926ǥå48ǯ֤ˤ錄뷳Ϥޤ롥
1928ȥ˥ǡ顦饶뤬̳ä˽Ǥ롥
1932饶뤬Ȥʤꡤ䤬ȺۼԤȤʤ롥
1933֥ɡΥʿȡˡ׷ˡ򤷡μͳ¤ȥ饤ȿܱưػߤ롥
1936饶뤬ڥǥե󥷥ե󥳾Ψ뱦Ϥٻ
19392Ω롥Τꥹ쥹ζϤѤ뤳Ȥǧ롥
1947ȺȿФꥹܥιϫƯԤȷˤܤð
1949ξ󵡹 (NATO) ߥСȤʤ롥
1955ϢʹϢˤ˲
1961ɤݥȥο̱ϥʻ礹롥󥴥顤˥⥶ӡȿ𤬤롥
1968饶뤬ȯݤ줿塤ޥ륻Τ˽ǤȷˡˤȤŤ򤪤ʤ
1974̿͡ǡ衼åѺĹȺݤ̱׵ˤꡤܤ̱ѡ
1975̱Ϥä˥ӥ⥶ӡܥ٥ǡȥᡦץ󥷥ڡ󥴥Ωǧμ³λ롥
1982ʸ̱褹롥
1986ޥꥪ쥹60ǯ֤ʸ̱ΤȤʤ롥˥Х롦ХФ˽Ǥ衼åϢ (EU) ʤǤ衼åѷкѶƱΤ˲
1999Ǹ˻ĤäƤڤǤޥڿ̱¹ִԤ롥
2002̲ߥɤλѤᡤ桼˰ܹԤ롥


15ȾꥱҳҤˤҳפ󤫤ȡ1Ⱦδ֡ݥȥꡤδ򤭤᤿λΥݥȥγˤäơѸܸˤŪʸäήΤǤ롥
θ塤16Ⱦ˥ڥ󲦥ե2ˤäʻ礵˵ڤӡݥȥιϤŪ˸Ƥ17˥֥饸˶ۤȯȡݥȥϺƤӳϤ᤹Ȼפ줿٤¿ǰ׶̤Ƥषꥹ˵ۤƤꥹǤλȳ̿٤뤳ȤˤʤäꥹȤδطǤС19ˤݥȥϥꥹΰϤˤꡤեꥫǤο̱ϳײ򤨤ʤʤäаޤ롥ݥȥˤȤäơꥹϡ˾ŤƱǤʤ⡤ȤܤξΤ󤳤֤äΤǤ롥
ݥȥιǤݥȥܤСߤ̾Ω1ĤǤ롥#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) ˤС7̤θǤꡤüԿ2Ͷ᤯ȸѤƤ롥

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