ɸϡ#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1]) ǿ줿ƹͤƤߤβ̤礭ϸˤäưۤʤȤϤȤʤޤäѤʤ¸ߤʤȤϡãηкѤȤߤɬŪʸ֤Ǥ롥
Greenberg ϸȴϢƸ (word order typology) ˤȡθʿʸˤ졤Ū졤ưθϡŪ (1) SVO, (2) SOV, (3) VSO, (4) VOS, (5) OSV, (6) OVS 6बǽǤ롥ʣθ⾯ʤʤ¿θˤŪͥʸϷޤäƤ롥ĤޤܸȤΤ¸ߤ롥ܸĸΤۤȤɤ줬ŪԤѥʤ (1), (2), (3) Τ줫롥ۤ (4) θϤٳǧ뤬(5), (6) ˾ʤȤʬäƤ롥
¾ (19) ꡤ줾δܸ褦
| ܸ | |
|---|---|
| (1) SVO | Ѹ졤եɸ졤졤ҥ |
| (2) SOV | ҥǥ졿ɥ졤ȥ륳졤ܸ졤ī |
| (3) VSO | ŵָ졤륺졤⥢ |
| (4) VOS | ޥ졤ĥĥꥫΥޥ |
| (5) OSV | Хɸ̥θˡ |
| (6) OVS | ҥ奫ʸʥ֥饸Υָ |
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) Ƥ7ǯǯФäEthnologue (20th ed) κǿǤФΤǡSummary by language size ɽ3ˤꡤüԿˤȥå23κǿ
| Rank | Language | Primary Country | Countries | Speakers (20th ed, 2017) | Speakers (16th ed, 2009) | (13th ed, 1996) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese | China | 37 | 1,284 million | 1,213 | 1,123 |
| 2 | Spanish | Spain | 31 | 437 | 329 | 266 |
| 3 | English | United Kingdom | 106 | 372 | 328 | 322 |
| 4 | Arabic | Saudi Arabia | 57 | 295 | 221 | 202 |
| 5 | Hindi | India | 5 | 260 | 182 (242.6 with Urdu) | (236 with Urdu) |
| 6 | Bengali | Bangladesh | 4 | 242 | 181 | 189 |
| 7 | Portuguese | Portugal | 13 | 219 | 178 | 170 |
| 8 | Russian | Russian Federation | 19 | 154 | 144 | 288 |
| 9 | Japanese | Japan | 2 | 128 | 122 | 125 |
| 10 | Lahnda | Pakistan | 6 | 119 | 78.3 | |
| 11 | Javanese | Indonesia | 3 | 84.4 | 84.6 | |
| 12 | Korean | Korea | 7 | 77.2 | 66.3 | |
| 13 | German | Germany | 27 | 76.8 | 90.3 | 98 |
| 14 | French | France | 53 | 76.1 | 67.8 | 72 |
| 15 | Telugu | India | 2 | 74.2 | 69.8 | |
| 16 | Marathi | India | 1 | 71.8 | 68.1 | |
| 17 | Turkish | Turkey | 8 | 71.1 | 50.8 | |
| 18 | Urdu | Pakistan | 6 | 69.1 | 60.6 | |
| 19 | Vietnamese | Viet Nam | 3 | 68.1 | 68.6 | |
| 20 | Tamil | India | 7 | 68.0 | 65.7 | |
| 21 | Italian | Italy | 13 | 63.4 | 61.7 | 63 |
| 22 | Persian | Iran | 30 | 61.9 | ||
| 23 | Malay | Malaysia | 16 | 60.8 | 39.1 | 47 |
ϢСʡɡåɤΡؿοʲ٤Ȥ¾ΰ褫ҥȤƸοʲˤĤƹͻƤ³ƥåɤȤʬܤƤȺ٤ˤĤƤƶƤߤ
ˤοˤĤƤϡԤˤäƿΰ㤤ꡤ롥ΰ㤤ˤä뤫Ȥϡ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1]) #1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1]) ʤɤΤǷ֤ʤ1Ĥˡָפȡפζ̤ҴŪˤĤʤȤ𤬤롥ߤ˶ᤤطˤ뤤ĤθѼ1ΤȤˤª뤫뤤ϳơΩª뤫ϡФиŪʴΤߤǷꤹ뤳ȤǤʤԤªϡŻ결 (lumper) θԤΩǡԤϡʬ결 (splitter) θԤΩǤ롥
"lumper" "splitter" ȤƾΤϡſؤʬǾѤƤΤΤ褦̤ˤϿˤϡֱ͡סָ͡סֵ͡סֿ͡פ4ʳǿʤǤƤ뤬ϿؼԤˤȤäƤƤʬΤ褦ǡŪˤϤäȺ٤ʬवƤȤ֤äȺ٤פˤ٥뤬ꡤȤδ֤Ǥ⡤礭ޤȤᤢ lumper ȡȤȤʬ splitter Ȥǡפʬ餷ŪˤϿؼԤ10ͤ10̤ʬबȤ⤤ξϸˤƤƱȤȤ⤷
ͤޤǤˡŻ결ʬ결ˤ롤ſμ̾оɽå (99) Ƹ褦
| ̾ | Ż결μ̾ | ǯǯ | ʬ결ʬ˴ޤޤ̾ |
| ǥԥƥߥʹ | 700--450 | ǥԥƥåѡǥԥƥߥإȥץǥȥͥ | |
| ͤȥۥ⡦ϥӥꥹ | ȥԥƥեʹ | 420--300 | ȥԥƥեȥԥƥʥȥԥƥС륨륬ꡤ˥ȥץץƥץ |
| ȥԥƥեꥫ̥ | 300--240 | ȥԥƥեꥫ̥ | |
| ѥȥץܥʹ | 250--130 | ѥȥץܥѥȥץԥȥԥƥ | |
| ѥȥץ֥ȥ | 200--150 | ѥȥץ֥ȥ | |
| ͤȵ | ۥ⡦ϥӥꥹʹ | 240--160 | ۥ⡦ϥӥꥹۥ⡦ɥե |
| ۥ⡦쥯ȥʹ | 198--1.8 | ۥ⡦쥯ȥۥ⡦륬ۥ⡦ե | |
| ۥ⡦ԥʹ | 70-- | ۥ⡦ƥå롤ۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ۥ⡦ͥǥ륿ۥ⡦ԥ |
θʬहݤ2ĤδǤַפȡֱƶפϡɤδطλŤǤ⤢롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤơ餳Ƥ (see #369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#371. ƶɬ̤Ǥʤ ([2010-05-03-1])#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δطޡ ([2014-08-09-1]))
ȱƶϡ줾̻֤ȶ֤δطˤ̤Ȥ롥Ȥϻּ˱äˤνļؤƶȤϼŪܴطˤ벣ؤˤַפȡֱƶפȤΩϡʪʬؤǤȤΡַפȡʳפΩ롥
ʬʬ (cladistics) Ǥϡּ˱äʬˤפȤַפλ顤ɤδطŤʤ롥ȤƤδطߤ˶ᤱСħ⤽ƤΤϼħƤ¨طᤤȤСɬ⤽ʤʤȤƤϰۤʤ뤬Ķʤɤ˱ƻ褦ʷ֤ȯã뤳ȡʼ̿ʲˤ롥Τ褦ʷȤ̵طŪƱ (homoplasy) ȤŪʶᤵǤϤʤŪƱ˴ŤƽĤʬλϡʳ (grade) ˤʬȸƤФ롥
å (70) ͤˤơĹʬहˡ夲褦ַפλˤСʲΤ褦ʬव롥
ҥ²ѥ²²²
ҥȲʡ
ҥ²ѥ²²²
εǡĸϤۤ¿ʤȤ̣ΤϡŪʬۤФȤǤ롥衼åѡեꥫʿΤ˴ĸ줬¿εǤϡܤʸȤĤġŪкߤ˾Ƥ
Ѹˤ봧ȯãϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡؼ줫θŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) η̤Ƥ롥¾θǤƱͤŪȯãȤƤȤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥ҤΤ褦ŪʤޤȤޤ꤬뤳Ȥ顤 (139) ϡŪ˸Ϣȯã䤹Ȥ¦̤褦˻פפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤĹˤ錄ܿˤ (linguistic_area) ιͤطʤˤ롥
Ƕͭβǽϡȯͼ칽¤˻ޤܸ͡⤽βǽ1ĤǤ롥εǤ줿褦ˡưƬĸˤФи뤬θνΤʤǤ1ۤɤߤ줺ʬۤϤФäƤΤǤ롥㤨С٥ȸɡإ֥졤ӥ졤ȥͥʤɤưƬĴĸ췲Ǥ롥
Ǥϡ2ĤθŪħ˲餫ϤΤ (139) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
ֽŵŪ˸褦ˡ̤ˡʸƬȤΤϡФܤʤξᡤˤƺǤŪʰ֤ȹͤ롥ưƬξϡΰ֤̾ŪǤǤʤư줬ơ̾ꡦɽΤʸƬ֤Ѥˡ̾ŪǤ˴դꡦζɬŪ⤯ʤäƤȹͤ롥
ȴϢơưƬĸʤ餺Ȥ⡤礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡܡɾΡ۷פȡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡּ졽Ρּ۷פȤŪʶ̤ͤʤСԤǤξܤˤɽ蘆ΤǡΤ褦ʡʳ̤ɸμʤפǤ뤬ԤǤϴΤ褦Ūʼʤᤵ䤹Ȥ⤢ꤽɾȡѸϳΤ (1) ۷Ǥꡤ(2) ĸǤ뤫顤ȤȤ褤Ȥˤʤ롥
ǽҤ٤ƤȤϡĸŪưŤǤ⤢ꡤĸȤͤ˴Ť쳰ŪưŤǤ⤢롥ʬۤϡ餯θ⳰װߤ߹äơ٤ФΤ
ָˤȤäƴȤϲסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ136--41ǡ2003ǯ10Ͽ
ѸؽˤƴۤɽܤϤʤȸ롥ΤˡɤΤ褦ʾ˴줬ɬפ뤤פŪΤȽǤ뤳ȤϺǤ롥줿ܸ˴Ȥबʤˡ䤬ʤȤ⤢롥ȤϲʤΤȤϱѸؤ˹ͻƤȯãˤĤƤѸˤǤФƤޤϻĤäƤʡ#154. űѸη se ζޡ ([2009-09-28-1])#156. űѸ se ʻϲ ([2009-09-30-1])#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ʤɤεȡˡ
(136--39) ˤСνϤȡȤϤۤɹ櫓Ǥʤޤϰ²Ƥߤ褦ȤȰĸˤϴϸ줺ΰˤ⡤ŵꥷ괧줬ȯãΤС¸ߤʤä5ʹߤˤʤȥ˥䥢ɸ˴줬졤˸˥ޥɡޥɡ٥ȸɡХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ȯãʥХ륫ϢǤϸ괧줬ȯãȤˤĤƤϡ#1314. ([2012-12-01-1]) ȡˡΰǤϡ٥졤å졤졤ϥʤɤ줬٤Ǥ롥
²γϤȡ桼饷ΦˤơϤΥإ֥졤ӥ졤䡤¾ϥ졤ɥӥ졤Х졤Υˤߤ뤬ŪˤϸꤵƤ롥եꥫΦǤϡ괧ĸȤ⤿ʤ줬äƤ뤬ΤȤƤϴ줬褯ϰȤ롥˥ϰǤϡȥꥢѥץˤϴ줬ʤȥͥˤϡĸ췲ȤưƬ礬ŪϰˤƳǧ롥ѡեԥߥͥ硤˥塼ɥ˥硤ե硤ݥͥʤɤθۤˡϤưƬĥޥΥޥ饬ˤⴧ줬롥ꥫΦܤȡĸŪʤʿαߤΥå졤ƤΥ顦ݥݥ륫졤ޥ䥪ȥ߽ΰʤɤ˸롥
ʾΤ褦˸̾Ƥȡĸ줬¿褦˺Ф뤫⤷ʤ餢ΤʤǤϾʬʤˤʤѸפʥ衼åѽˤ뤫Ȥäơ褷ŪʸǤϤʤȤõƤ
ָˤȤäƴȤϲסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ136--41ǡ2003ǯ10Ͽ
#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1]) ڤӡ#2843. Ruhlen ˤθ² ([2017-02-07-1]) ˰³θ²ʬˤĤơRuhlen ȤΤΤǤϤʤΤʤˤ˻ȡѤƻٻƤ Cavalli-Sforza et al. ءųءؤθ礷ƺ夲طޤ롥Ruhlen (33) "Comparison of the Genetic Tree with the Linguistic Phyla" ȤƷǤƤޤϡCavalli-Sforza ˤޥåԥ龯ѤƤ褦ˤä٤ϡŪʬȸŪʬबȤϸʤޤǤ٤Ŭ礷Ƥ뤳Ȥ *
ؼԤ¿ϡε ([2017-02-07-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡؤȸؤ̤ľܷӤĤ뤳ȤФ礭Ƥ롥ξԤΤΤ褦Ŭϡˤ狼ˤϿʤäʬ礭ȤʤäƤ륢ꥫ轻̱νΰ֤ŤˤĤơοޤˤСؤȸؤ۸Ʊ3ʬˡٻƤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤȤХʥʷ̤Ȥʤ롥
ʤߤˡǤܸīȤȤ˥륿²˽°Ƥꡤ˥졤٥åȸ졤̸ʤɤȤƱ륿²ǴطäƤ롥ޤ²ϡͲ Nostratic Eurasiatic ˽ʣ°²Ȥ֤ŤǤ롥νʣ°ˤĤƤϡθؼԤ Greenberg 褫ƤʬफƳʲιޤ۵ (Ruhlen 20)
?????? Afro-Asiatic
?????? Kartvelian
?????? Elamo-Dravidian
NOSTRATIC Indo-European
Uralic-Yukaghir
Altaic
Korean
Japanese EURASIATIC
Ainu
Gilyak
Chukchi-Kamchatkan
Eskimo-Aleut
#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1]) εǿ줿 Ruhlen ϡñ쵯ĥʬƤäΤȤ12ͲꤷƤ롥ޤǤ⡤ŪʸؼԤ#1115. Nostratic ² ([2012-05-16-1]) #1116. Nostratic Ķ Eurasian ء ([2012-05-17-1]) ƤƤRuhlen ŪˤήǤ롥
Ruhlen (29) ǤϡޤΤΤͿƤ餺12ͲʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
1. Khoisan
2. Niger-Kordofanian:
a. Kordofanian
b. Niger-Congo
3. Nilo-Saharan
4. Australian
5. Indo-Pacific
6. Austric:
a. Austroasiatic
b. Miao-Yao
c. Daic
d. Austronesian
7. Dene-Caucasian:
a. Basque
b. (North) Caucasian
c. Burushaski
d. Nahali
e. Sino-Tibetan
f. Yeniseian
g. Na-Dene
8. Afro-Asiatic
9. Kartvelian
10. Dravidian
11. Eurasiatic:
a. Indo-European
b. Uralic-Yukaghir
c. Altaic
d. Korean-Japanese-Ainu
e. Gilyak
f. Chukchi-Kamchatkan
g. Eskimo-Aleut
12. Amerind
ʤ嵭Ǥϡꥫ轻̱νʬहˤäơGreenberg Ƥ褦ˡAmerind, Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleut 3Ĥθ²˽äƤ롥ޤᡤʬ¿βսˤĤ褬뤳ȤαդĤġ嵭ʬबRuhlen ˤΤǤ뤳ȤĴƤ
Na-Dene դ֥ǥ͡ (the Dene-Caucasian hypothesis) ˤĤƤϡ#652. ([2011-02-08-1]) ȡޤ²ȤüԿˤĤơ#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1]) ȡ
Ruhlen, Merritt. The Origin of Language. New York: Wiley, 1994.
ߡˤ7ۤɤθ줬ԤʤƤȤ뤬ΤǤ "popular" ʸϲۤȤɤο͡ϡֱѸפ뤫⤷ʤºݤˤ "popular" ΤˤƤʤ¤ꡤμΤΤ餯¿ܿͤˤȤäơ"popular" ʸȤϡǹäƤפΤȤꤵ뤬ǤϡֹפȤϲΤȤѤƤο뤤ϡΤ褦ʹѤѤƤ͡ο̸ȤƺѤƤݵؤο2Ȥƶ餷ƤοδᤵС"popular" ޤꡤǤ "popular" ʸ줬Ȥ䤤ФȤǤɤδ "popular" ȤʤΤˤĤơפϤʤ褦˻פ롥"popular" "top" "significant" ֤Ȥǡϲ褷ʤ
㤨СüԤοȤȤǤСѸ졤ڥˤĤ3̤Ȥʤ롥2ȤääСѸ1̤Ф롥ǤϡֱѸפϰϤˤʤꡤ㤨СѸפȤԥ䥯쥪üԤϱѸüԤ˴ޤΤȤä䤬롥뤤ϡɤΥԥ䥯쥪ޤᡤɤޤʤΤ
ޤθȤηкϤ䵻Ϥʤɤ⡤θɬפΤǤϤʤιŪ˳ƤФۤɡθŪѤ䤹Ū "popular" Ȥʤꤦ뤫Τ褦ʡֹפϲˤäƷפФ褤ΤкѳưϤʸϤ̱γ礫餫νŤߤŤˤƤ⡤δ̵¤Ǥ롥
ͤ "popular" λɸ٤Ʒ˴ޤФȤˡϤȤʤͤŪʤ褦ʻɸ¿ɤΤȤüԤ2üԤοʤɡǽʴ¸Υǡ濴ˤʤ顤Ūʡְפ̣ơǤ "popular" ʸФȤȤˤʤʤ餶ʤְפˤϡԼǡĿŪʹޤޤ뤫⤷ʤŪǥŪʹޤ뤫⤷ʤ
ȤȤϡ츫ñǼ¤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡGooden (8--9) Ȥ줿ܥ֥Ǥϡ#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])#2263. μüԿӡ ([2015-07-08-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])#1592. ѸüԤοפ뤳Ȥͳ ([2013-09-05-1]) ʤɤϢ롥
Gooden, Philip. The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. London: Quercus, 2009.
ε#2757. Ferguson ˤҲŪʡȯŸפٹ礤 ([2016-11-13-1]) ˰³Ferguson ʸ˰͵ʤ顤ʶƱΡˤˡˤĤƹͤ롥Ferguson (25) ϡؼԤŪ˹ȤȤñ̤ƹθʤȤ٤äƤҲؤΩ줫ϡȤȤƹͤ뤳Ȥɬפȼĥ롥
From many points of view . . . it is desirable to use the nation as the basis for general sociolinguistic descriptions: communication networks, educational systems, and language "planning" are generally on a national basis and national boundaries play at least as important a role in the delimitation of linguistic areas as any other single social barrier.
Ferguson ϡȤȤƸλѾҤȤԲķǤꡤ٤ƤιȤˤĤưӤǵҤ뤳ȤˤꡤӤǤ褦ˤʤ뤷Ǥ褦ˤʤȼĥ롥Τ褦ʹ̤εҤ"national sociolinguistic profile" (26) Ǥ롥ΰӤˤĤƤϡͽŪʤΤȤʤ顤ιܤƤ (26)
. . . how many major languages are spoken; what is the pattern of language dominance; are there national uses of a LWC [= language of wider communication]; for each major language spoken in the country, what is the extent of written uses of the language (W0. --- W2.) and what is the extent of standardization (St0. --- St2.) and its nature (multimodal? range of variation from the norm?).
ޤǤˡ褽 Ferguson Ƥ̤ˡֹȤμҲŪسԡפεҤʤƤEthnologue Τ褦ʥǡ١褦ˤʤä
Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.
ε#2757. Ferguson ˤҲŪʡȯŸפٹ礤 ([2016-11-13-1]) ˰³Ferguson ʸ˰͵ʤ顤ʶƱΡˤˡˤĤƹͤ롥Ferguson (25) ϡؼԤŪ˹ȤȤñ̤ƹθʤȤ٤äƤҲؤΩ줫ϡȤȤƹͤ뤳Ȥɬפȼĥ롥
From many points of view . . . it is desirable to use the nation as the basis for general sociolinguistic descriptions: communication networks, educational systems, and language "planning" are generally on a national basis and national boundaries play at least as important a role in the delimitation of linguistic areas as any other single social barrier.
Ferguson ϡȤȤƸλѾҤȤԲķǤꡤ٤ƤιȤˤĤưӤǵҤ뤳ȤˤꡤӤǤ褦ˤʤ뤷Ǥ褦ˤʤȼĥ롥Τ褦ʹ̤εҤ"national sociolinguistic profile" (26) Ǥ롥ΰӤˤĤƤϡͽŪʤΤȤʤ顤ιܤƤ (26)
. . . how many major languages are spoken; what is the pattern of language dominance; are there national uses of a LWC [= language of wider communication]; for each major language spoken in the country, what is the extent of written uses of the language (W0. --- W2.) and what is the extent of standardization (St0. --- St2.) and its nature (multimodal? range of variation from the norm?).
ޤǤˡ褽 Ferguson Ƥ̤ˡֹȤμҲŪسԡפεҤʤƤEthnologue Τ褦ʥǡ١褦ˤʤä
Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.
Ferguson ϡ "language 'development'" ¬ˡƤƤ롥'development' Ȱ䤬뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡϿʲŪʸѤ˴ŤƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲŪȯŸٹ礤¬ȤߤǤ롥Ferguson (23) Ū˵ƤΤϡֽդλѤٹ礤 ("the degree of use of written language") ȡɸಽ١ ("the nature and extent of standardization") 2Ǥ롥
1ܤλɸǤֽդλѤٹ礤פˤĤƤϡ绨Ĥ W0, W1, W2, W3 4ʳǧȤ (23--24) ʳߤʬ̤ꡤ̤صŪʻɸȤäƤ褤
W0. --- not used for normal written purposes
W1. --- used for normal written purposes
W2. --- original research in physical sciences regularly published
W3. --- languages in which translations and resumés of scientific work in other languages are regularly published
2ܤλɸǤɸಽ١פϡäȹäƤ롥λɸˤ2Ĥ¦̤ꡤ1ΤΤ "the degree of difference between the standard form or forms of a language and all other varieties of it" (24) Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤѼ֤κٹ礤˴ؤ¦̤ǤʴϢơ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) Ȥ줿ˡ
2¦̤ "the nature of the standardization and the degree to which a standard form is accepted as such throughout the community" (24) Ǥ롥Ferguson (24--25) 3ʳꤷ
St0. --- "a language in which there is no important amount of standardization" (ex. Kurdish) (24)
St1. --- a language which "requires considerable sub-classification to be of any use. Whatever scheme of classification is developed, it will have to take account in the first instance of whether the standardization is unimodal or bi- or multimodal, and in the case of more than one norm, the nature of the norms must be treated" (ex. bimodal Armenian, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Norwegian; multimodal Hindi-Urdu) (25)
St2. --- "a language which has a single, widely-accepted norm which is felt to be appropriate with only minor modifications or variations for all purposes for which the language is used" (24)
¬ΤλɸȤƹӺǤϤ뤬ʬ䤹ǤͥƤ롥
Τ褦¬ͤ˴ŤơʶƱΡˤҲŪ褦Ȥߤϡۤˤ⤢롥#1519. ҲŪؤƻ ([2013-06-24-1]) #1547. μҲŪ°7 ([2013-07-22-1]) ȡ
Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.
#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1]) ǡμפ뤳Ȥ˿줿ϡ̱²ɴʻŵ٤ˡ̵ʸפȤĤΤǡƤ
̵ʸ (unwritten language) Ȥϡ֤ʸ˽뤳ȤʤȤȤǤϤʤԤʤɤˤäƽ뤳ȤȤƤҲ夷Ƥ餺줬̿䵭ϿΤȤƵǽƤʤפǤ롥̵ʸοˤĤƤϡܹƤ (186) ΤʤȤϸʤ褦ǡEthnologue ˤθοפȤʤ顤ȡʸ줿ϡˤ餯%ʤΤǤϤʤºŪΤۤȤɤʸ̵ʸʤΤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
εǤ줿̵ʸüԤʸΤʤȤɬ⤤ʤȤդǶʸƤǽϤ뤫ºݤˡ¿ο͡Τ褦ʾˤƤ롥դ˸Сǡʤ뤤ǡ˶ȤΤϡʤΤǤ롥
ȥꥢ̵ʸä̱²ʸ̵ʸȤݸ褦Ȥ뱿ưʤɡΤĤϰǾݻλߤʤƤϤ롥Τ褦ʸ (language_planning) ϤޤŪȤϤ¿θ줬ϰζʸ줫ΰϤ亹̤ˤ餵ƤΤ֤
(187) ϡ̵ʸ˴ؤο (language_myth) ˸ڤĤġ̵ʸҲˤߤƬ礭ŦƤ롥
ʸʤɽ̡ˤʤΤǤϤʤȹͤ⤢뤬ϤषդǤ뤳Ȥ¿ʸʤ餳ɽ˰ηͿߥ˥ΤʤΤˤ褦ȤռƯʤ䥢եꥫθ̱äȤꡤޤ2,0003,000⤢ΤͤƤߤ褦㤨иȤΤϡҲαΤѥȤɽΤǤ뤬ˤϱƧжѤȤޤޤʷƳƤ롥
άʸϡޤޤʤΤʸѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨С̾̾ϽεϿΤȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ¿ϰǤߤ롥㤨СեꥫʤɤǤϡפȤ̾ϡ²ӤƤȤޤ줿Ҷפ襤äȤλҶƻפƤʤ˵ޤΤ֤˹鷺ƻǻҶȤäǤ롥̾ϸĿͤ¾θĿͤȶ̤ǤʤƱ̿̾ԡʤϼȤƻҶοơˤˤȤäƽפʽҶ̾˵ϿƤΤǤ롥ޤٿͤФơ褦˥åҶ̾Τ¿
Τ褦ˡ̵ʸ줽̵ʸҲˤƤϡʸʤ餳˭ʸʸݤȯãƤΤǤ롥ʸ䤬礭ʤФʤۤɡʸݤषƤȤϺ桹ܤˤƤȤǤ롥
Ϣơ#1685. ƬΤĵϤȰҿ ([2013-12-07-1]) ȡ
м̵ʸס̱²ɴʻŵ١Ω̱²ʪۡԡˡǡ2014ǯ186--87ǡ
ε#2473. եˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-03-1]) ǤϡեοηϤΰˤߤ20ˡθˤĤƼ夲ե顼Ρؿˡ٤ˤȤäƥѥѥįƤȡˤϼ¤͡ʿΤȻפΤ餵롥οηϤظˤ10ˡ5ˡ20ˡ60ˡʤɤιͤϡθפȸƤФ뤬ʤΤ褦¿ͤ줬ޤƤΤ
ʹ֤ݲݤˤϡθ§Ƚθ§Ȥ2Ĥθ§ꤦ롥θ§Ȥϡñ1ɽ魯ΡʤȤˤɬפʿñ¤٤ƤȤȯۤǤ롥ñˡɽ魯礭ʤʤñ㤵ؤäƤ롥Фơθ§Ȥϡ1ƤФƸߤΩ̸ĤεƤˡǤ롥㤨С䤿ξѤƤ륢ӥϡ<1>, <2>, <3> ʤɤδ֤˸ߤ˼ʷŪϢʤᡤθ§˴ŤƤȤ롥θ§ϸΨϤ褵ȿбطŵʤФʤʤȤû꤬롥
Τ褦ξ§ˤϰĹû뤿ᡤºݤˤξԤĹ꤬¤˳褫褦ʷǿηϤƤĤۤɤοФƸߤΩƤ礭ϤενַפγǰƳ櫓Ūθơʹ֤Ƭ˰ŵ뤳ȤΤǤΤϡĤĤδ֤ˤȤɤޤꡤ줬10ˡ20ˡʤɤ߽ФΤ
äơοηϤ¿ȤϤäƤ⡤¿θ˴ѻפϡ˵褦ʿ˸¤Τ¤Ǥ롥3ˡ7ˡ18ˡʤɤޤʤΤФơ10ˡ5ˡ20ˡ60ˡʤɤŪ褯ΤϤʤ
10ˡϤȤ櫓ŪǤ롥ϡְ㤤ʤʹ֤λؤοȴط롥̾ξλؤѤƿ10ˡȯãΤϼҼ5ܻؤǿȤȤǤϤʤäơ5ˡưפǤ롥פʤΤϡ10ˡˤ5ˡˤʹ֤ζβ˶Ūħ˰¸ƤˤŪäǧʤȤȤŪ˹ͤʤС¿12ǿ7ʤɤΤۤͥƤ뤳ȤǤΤؤϤʤˤʹ֤ΤˤĤƤȶ¸ߤǤꡤθ§ȼŵôθȡ10ȤϤʤ˥ХȤƤȤ롥ơ10ϤŪȤʤäƤȹͤ롥
ؤޤƹͤȡ20ˡȤȯۤⰭʤ褦˻פ롥εǤ줿褦ˡºݤ˥ȸ졤ƥ졤ޥʤɤǤ˾ᤤ20ˡΥǥäƤҤΰŵôϤ礭ʤ롥äơ20ˡΤˤ衤θˤƤʬŪ10ˡʤɤȤƤ뤳Ȥ¿㤨СεDz⤷褦ˡƥ viginti (20) ϸ츻Ūˤ210ɽ魯ʬ롥
Ǹˡʤɤˤߤ60ˡͤ褦60ǤϰŵôҾǤʤȤưפ˻뤷ºݤˤŪʤ꾮ƳƤΤ60ˡˤŷʸؤؤʤɤγؽŪͭפ¦̤褦ե顼͡Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥60ϡֺǤ¿ޤǤϺǤ⾮Ǥⰷ䤹ΤǤ (42) Ȥ1ǯ֤ϡüȤ360Ǥꡤ餯ˤäƱߤ360ʬ䤬Ԥʤ줿ΤǤޤߤ6ʬ1θȾ¤Ȥ¤顤οˤäƱߤ6ʬ䤹뤳ȤԤʤ졤η60ȤͥˤʤäΤ (42) ȤѷŤѤ10ʬ뤳Ȥˤäʿ̤60ʬԤʤ줿 (42) Ȥ60ȤФ줿ΤĤ̱²η礫Ȥǡ̱²ˡ¾ؤȤüʤǤ6˴Ť⤿餷 (43) ʤɡΤ⡤ΤˡŪͿƤȤϤߤʤ60ˡͳˤĤϤʤȤ٤Ǥ롥
ե顼ϾܤäƤʤΤʤˤ12ˡȯۤĤΤ⤢ (cf. dozen) Ͼ嵭60ˡȴϢΤǤϤʤʥե顼p. 42ˡ
ե顼른ˡ 졦 ȡˡؿˡϿɤΤ褦ˤƤ١ʿҡ1988ǯ
ˤοˤĤơ뤤ϸοȤˤĤơ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1]) ˤƤοȤȤˤϡ̡Ƭ줬ǰƬ֤Ƥ뤬ȤȤǤФɤĤޤꡤʸηϤμˤĤΤϢϡ#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1]) ǰäƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
餫ʤȤϡʸηϤοϡʸƬ˸οⰵŪ˾ʤȤȤǤ롥ŪʸοˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬ǹԤƤ˸¤äơȤꤢ7000ꤷ褦ʸηϤοˤĤƤ⡤ͻˤä¿ΤФĤϤ뤬 (7--8) ˤС400य餤ǧȤ롥οϡ˹ԤƤʸηϤμȤ⡤ʸȯ鸽ߤ˻ޤǤθź˹ԤƤʸηϤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤοˤϡǤѤȤʤäץʸܸʸʤɤޤޤ뤷̤ʸ (#2427. ̤ʸ ([2015-12-19-1])) ޤޤ롥
ǤϡʤʸηϤμϸƬμⰵŪ˾ʤΤǤñʤС٤ƤθƬ줬бäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ顤ȤȤˤʤ롥#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1]) ʤɤǼ褦ˡȯϸƬȯ⤺ä٤Ƥ롥˾塤Ƭ礯ҲϤʤä礯Ҳ¿¸ߤƤ
ºݡŪ٤ʸäƤʤ顤ʸ⤿ʤäҲ⤢롥ꥫΦ˱ɤϹ٤ʸŸʤȤ⺣ΤȤʸȸƤ٤褦ΤȯƤʤޤ̤ο͡⡤Ĺˤ錄Ѥʤ϶ʸ桼Τ褦ĹԽߤʤ⡤ɽʸ⤿ʤäʰԡp. 8ˡ
бʸηϤ礯ƬüԽĤʤҲɬ̵ʸҲȤϸ¤ʤȤդ⤷μҲ¿ҲǤꡤ2ȤʸηϤĸȤʤθˤɤ߽ƤС餫ͭʸҲǤ (cf. #1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1])#1608. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ (2) ([2013-09-21-1]))
⤦1Ĥͳϡϡζۤơ˻ۤơȻ䤹ȤȤ롥ܸʸޥե٥åȡʸʤɤŪʳȻʬۤͤƤߤʬȤꡤμפʸηϤϡ䤹ۤʤرѤ졤ĶŪѤƤĤޤꡤ1ĤʸʣθɽΤѤΤ̤ʤΤǤ롥ƬʸǤϤ뤬ϰؤΤʸŪʿȯǤꡤۤɽפʲͤӤӤΤϰعŤʤϤʤ
ܥ֥ǤϡäդȽդγơˤĤơ#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1]) βĥäεʤɤǡ͡˵Ƥդ뤤ϽΤ⤦1ĤħȤơΤʸηϤƬζۤŤ䤹ԡ䤹Ȥ뤳ȤǻŦƤ
ůذμŵʸ١Ʋ1998ǯ
üԿˤĤơƼפʲεǰäƤ
#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])
#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])
#398. ²Ⱦʬ ([2010-05-30-1])
#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])
#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1])
#1375. ͥåȤλѸȥå10 ([2013-01-31-1])
ϡ־ INFOGRAPHIC: A world of languages - and how many speak them ꤹ뵭ȰʲΤ褦ʿޤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ

ƤüԿ˴ؤפϡEthnologue ˴ŤƤ褦Ǥ롥ǹԤʤƤ7102θΤ5ͰʾüԤʤƤΤ23ΤߤǤꡤ2341ͤСȤ
绨ĤʿޤʤΤǿŤɤޤʤФʤʤˤĤνζʬɽƤʤɡ褯פƤ롥ˤϳؽƤΥ⤢ꡤΤѸϷȴƤΥȥåפ15ͤγؽԤʤȸޤƤ롥
ؤǤϡΤ˶̤뤳ȤϤۤԲǽǤ롥θŤˤĤƤϡ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) #1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) ΤۤϰˤĤơ#1499. ʥӥ "semicommunication" ([2013-06-04-1])#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1])#1658. 륯֥륯μҲء ([2013-11-10-1])#1659. ޥɥ˥μҲء ([2013-11-11-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲Ƥ
衼åѤ˸¤äƤ⡤ˤ֤СΧŪä줬¾ΧŪϰ̤žꡤդ¾ΧŪäΧŪʸϰ̤ؾʤȤȤ֤Ƥ㤨СԤˤǤϼΧƤ Provençal Low German ˤ줾 French German 1ؤž㤬롥ޤԤˤ϶ḽο¿㤬롥Trudgill (128) ˤС϶ˤƥ衼åѤǹȤοäȤεǤ롥
The rapid increase in the number of independent European nation-states in the past hundred years or so has therefore been paralleled by a rapid growth in the number of autonomous, national and official languages. During the nineteenth century the number rose from sixteen to thirty, and since that time has risen to fifty.
Trudgill (127--28) ꡤ衼åѤ1800ǯޤǤɸಽ줿졦Ѹ졦դȤǧΤ褦ˤʤäƤŪ˵СIcelandic, Swedish, Danish, German, Dutch, English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Polish, Hungarian, Greek, Turkish ʤɤǤ롥ˡ1900ǯޤǤˤϰ̤ƤΤϡNorwegian, Finnish, Welsh, Rumanian, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Serbo-Croat, Bulgarian ʤɤǸˡ20δ֤˼ΧƤȤƤ Irish Gaelic, Scots Gaelic, Breton, Catalan, Romansch, Macedonian, Albanian, Basque, Luxemburgish ʤɤ롥
ѼθŪϡΧȤʤȸȤ礭ѤȤʤޤǼҲŪϰ̤ѤäȤȤˤʤĤޤꡤŪǤϤʤҲŪǤ롥ȴϢơ#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1]) Ǽֹȡʳءˡפΰ̣ƴ̣Ʊ椫2ĤΰѤϽפǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])#398. ²Ⱦʬ ([2010-05-30-1]) ʤɤεǡθο䤽줾üԿˤƤμפϺƻŦƤǧǡϸ² (language_family) ȤθȤüԿפȤϤäƤ⡤W. Bright Ԥθɴʻŵ (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. New York and Oxford: OUP, 1992.) ˵äƤ Crystal (289) ͤμˤʤ1980ǯȾߤοפǤ롥
| Language Family | Languages | Speakers |
|---|---|---|
| Indo-European | 386 | 2,500,000,000 |
| Sino-Tibetan | 272 | 1,088,000,000 |
| Austronesian | 1212 | 269,000,000 |
| Afro-Asiatic | 338 | 250,000,000 |
| Niger-Congo | 1354 | 206,000,000 |
| Dravidian | 70 | 165,000,000 |
| Japanese | 12 | 126,000,000 |
| Altaic | 60 | 115,000,000 |
| Austro-Asiatic | 173 | 75,000,000 |
| Tai | 61 | 75,000,000 |
| Korean | 1 | 60,000,000 |
| Nilo-Saharan | 186 | 28,000,000 |
| Uralic | 33 | 24,000,000 |
| Amerindian (North, Central, South America) | 985 | 22,400,000 |
| Caucasian | 38 | 7,800,000 |
| Miao-Yao | 15 | 5,600,000 |
| Indo-Pacific | 734 | 3,500,000 |
| Khoisan | 37 | 300,000 |
| Australian aborigine | 262 | 30,000 |
| Palaeosiberian | 8 | 18,000 |
| Isolates | 296 | 2,000,000 |
| Total | 6,533 | 5,022,648,000 |

ε#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1]) Ǽ褦ˡɽθϡŪʻʣǤ롥ˤʬˤꡤ礴Ȥ˻Ūʸ줬ۤʤȤٴ֤ϰŪϢȤȤʤäƤ롥ΩȤȱʩμΤȤߤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤ϰΰݤˤװȤʤäƤ롥ΤȤơϰǤϵ콡θ줬ŪΤۤ˼ȤƱѸե١Ȥ쥪ʡ#1531. pidgin creole ʬۡ ([2013-07-06-1])ˡ̱θԤƤꡤϹäƤ롥ʲEncylopædia Britannica 1997 εȤƤޤȤ롥
쥪ˤĤƤСJamaica ˤѸ١Υ쥪줬褯ΤƤ롥Jamaica Ǥϡ饸⡤ʤɤǥ쥪줬ѤƤꡤФɸѸԺߤǤ롥ʷϵˤꡤ쥪ɸѸȤΤϤޤڤؤ뤳Ȥ̾ǤJamaican creole ζˤĤƤϡJamaican Creole Texts Ȥ줿ˡJamaica ˸¤餺æ̱ϲФ the Commonwealth Caribbean Ǥ⡤̤˱Ѹ١Υ쥪줬Ƥ롥
ե١Υ쥪ѤˤĤƤϡHaiti ŵȤƵ롥Jamaica ξƱͤˡHaiti Ǥ⥯쥪줬Ϥ˻ѤƤꡤºݤ¿ι̱ɸեʤ#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1]) Haiti ˤ diglossia ˤĤƿ줿褦ˡ쥪ϡѼɸեФƲѼȤư֤ŤΤΡٹ礤ǤФषͥǤ롥Guadeloupe Martinique ʩΥƥǤϡեܹȤ߹ޤƤ뤿ˡɸեλѤŪǤ롥
ڥ١Υ쥪ϡCuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic ʤɤμפʥڥϰˤƤȯãʤäAruba, Curaçao, Bonaire ʤΥƥǤ Papiamento ȸƤФѸκ쥪줬äƤ롥Puerto Rico Ǥϡ̱ˤꡤꥫѸαƶڥ줬äƤ롥
̱θȤƤ Hindi, Urdu, Chinese ԤƤ롥ѻ߸ˡ̱Ȥƥɤ餳ϰˤäƤ͡θǤ롥üԤ¿ϡ줾ϰˤŪʸؤȽƱƤäƤ롥㤨СTrinidad and Tobago ǤϹ̱4䤬ɷϰ̱δ֤ Hindi Urdu λѤϾʤʤäƤƤȤؤʹȤȤ
[2013-05-30-1]ε³ԡ¿Ѥξ֤ǤȤ¤ˤĤơCrystal (409--10) ˸ڤĤΤǡɲä
[M]ultilingualism is the normal human condition. It is a principle which often takes people by surprise. If you have lived your whole life in a monolingual environment, you could easily come to believe that this is the regular way of life around the world, and that people who speak more than one language are the exceptions. Exactly the reverse is the case.
Speaking two or more languages is the natural way of life for three-quarters of the human race. There are no official statistics, but with over 6,000 languages co-existing in fewer than 200 countries . . . it is obvious that an enormous amount of language contact must be taking place; and the inevitable result of languages in contact is multilingualism, which is most commonly found in an individual speaker as bilingualism.
There is no such thing as a totally monolingual country. Even in countries that have a single language used by the majority of the population, such as Britain, the USA, France, and Japan, there exist sizeable groups that use other languages. In the USA, around 10% of the population regularly speak a language other than English. In Britain, over 350 minority languages are in routine use. In Japan, one of the most monolingual of countries, there are substantial groups of Chinese and Korean speakers. In Ghana, Nigeria, and many other African countries that have a single official language, as many as 90% of the population may be regularly using more than one language. (409--10)
Ѥˤ⤢ȤꡤܤǤǤŵŪñȤȤߤʤ뤬Ȥƥ̸䡤īڹ줽¾ΰ̱졤ܼäʤɤμøԤƤ롥ޤΰʤΤΰʤΤȤ䤤ˤäƤϡüԤΤ٤ƤɸܸȤ̣ˤơ2ѼԤȸƤӤ롥ޤӥͥʤɤDZѸʤɤѤ¿ܸüԤܿͤ⡤ܹ⳰¿Ѥ˹Ƥ͡ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥٤κ졤ܤ¾ϰƱͤ¿ϰǤȤǧϽפ
ܤ¿ѾˤĤƤϡEthnologue Japan Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
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