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speech_act - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2018-02-07 Wed

#3208. ݥ饤ȥͥäűѸ [speech_act][politeness][solidarity][anglo-saxon][oe][face][pragmatics][historical_pragmatics]

Ѹ˸θԤǡűѸȯù԰ (speech_act) ȤƤ Thomas Kohnen ˤС󥰥ʸˤƤϸŪʰ̣Ǥ negative politeness ϤۤȤ¸ߤʤäȤä̿ȯù԰٤ˤơűѸǤϸŪʥݥ饤ȥͥάѤ줺ľŪ Ic bidde eow þæt . . . (I ask you to . . . ) þu scealt . . . (thou shalt . . .) Ѥ줿Ȥ󥰥ʸǤϡnegative politeness ϻ¾ǧʤ褦
solidarity ʤ positive politeness άϡuton (let us) ʤɤɽꥹȶŪʸ̮ʤɤǤǧ뤬ȤΩäƻѤ櫓ǤϤʤäɤ饢󥰥ʸűѸǤϡͼΥݥ饤ȥͥǤ츽٤ƱƤäȤȤ̸Ūˤ٤ŪꤵƤݥ饤ȥͥѸθŤʳˤƻ¾ԺߤäȤȤϡ̣ǥå󥰤ȯǤ롥Lenker (328) ˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Politeness as face work may thus not have played a major role in Anglo-Saxon society. This highlights the intrinsically culture-specific nature of phenomena like politeness and suggests in accordance with other cross-cultural studies that the universal validity or significance of politeness theory --- as devised by Brown and Levinson . . . --- is a gross mistake. Negative politeness in particular is fundamentally culture-specific, reflecting the typical patterns of today's Western, or even more particular, Anglo-American, politeness culture . . . . The study of Anglo-Saxon pragmatics thus does not only affect our understanding of the historicity of verbal interaction but also challenges issues of universality.


Lenker, Ursula. "Old English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 21 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 325--340.

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2018-02-01 Thu

#3202. Ѹ˸ˤͭ˾ʬ [pragmatics][historical_pragmatics][speech_act][discourse_analysis][corpus]

Ѹ˸1ͼԤǤ Jucker ϥɥ֥å1ǡʬˤӤ뤤ȹͤ3ĵ󤲤Ƥ롥ȯù԰ (speech_act) ŪѲ (dialogue) ηȯŸäΰȯŸǤ롥ֺݤλͤȤʤ褦ϢսѤƤ

At present, three areas of research appear to be particularly promising. First, the research on the history of speech act has only just started to attract more than just occasional research efforts. . . .
   Second, the research of the evolution of forms of dialogue is still in its infancy. . . . Culpeper and Kytö (2010: 2) [= Culpeper, Jonathan and Merja Kytö:. Early Modern English Dialogues: Spoken Interaction as Writing. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.] ask: "what was the spoken face-to-face interaction of past periods like?" in a systematic way and approach this question from various angles. In particular they look at the structure of conversations, at what they call "pragmatic noise", i.e. pragmatic interjections or discourse markers, and social roles and gender in interaction.
   And third, the evolution of domains of discourse appears to be a very promising field of research. The existing work on courtroom discourse, the discourse of science and news discourse needs to be continued, and other domains should be tackled.


ä˺äƤ顤Ѹ˸θǰƬˤ뤤ϤŪѤǤ륳ѥԻ¿Ԥʤ褦ˤʤäƤ㤨СCorpora of Early English Correspondence (CEEC), Corpus of Early English Medical Writing (CEEM), Corpus of English Dialogues 1560-1760 (CED), Corpus of English Religious Prose (COERP), Old Bailey Corpus (OBC), The Corpus of Early English Recipes (CoER) ʤɤ󤲤Ƥۤˤ Corpus Resource Database (CoRD) õ줿

Jucker, Andreas H. "Linguistic Levels: Pragmatics and Discourse." Chapter 13 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 197--212.

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2017-01-26 Thu

#2831. performative hypothesis [pragmatics][speech_act][syntax][verb][performative_hypothesis][performative]

#2674. Ūʸ3Ĥħ ([2016-08-22-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡʸˤϡĥĽʸ (constative) ȡξ˹԰٤ȼʸ (performative) 2ब롥ͤ褦ˤäƤϡĽʸĽҡפȤȯù԰ (speech_act) ԤʤΤǤΤ顤1οʸǤȤʸˤϡΡֿԡפưľɽ魯Ūʸ (ex. I command you to surrender immediately.) ȡǤʤżŪʸ (ex. Surrender immediately.) 뤳ȤͤС㤨 You're a stupid cow. Τ褦̾ĽʸϡʸƬ I hereby insult you that . . . ʤɤä򤹤٤ĽҡפȤԤɽ魯żŪʸʤΤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ˡĽʸϼ¤ϿʸǤꡤʸƬˡI hereby + ư (performative verb) פʤɤƤΤȲ᤹벾performative hypothesis ȸƤǤ롥
βϹϼƤʤȤƵ󤲤 I hereby insult you that you're a stupid cow. ȤʸͤƤߤ褦ʸỤ̄Ūˤʤ̾ȯäȤƤϤʤԼǤ롥Ūˤʸε餢롥ˡŪ˱ƤȤʬοư줬ֱĤ (lie) ֶ (threaten) ʤɤʸƤߤȤɤޤޤʸΤԼΩäƤ롥ˡƤư줬ʹ꤬ΤꤹˡϤΤȤ⤢롥
β1970ǯ󵯤줿1980ǯʹߡ̣줾Ω줫꤬Ŧ졤ȽƤǤ˲βȸäƤ褤Ȼפ뤬Ƭ˵󤲤̿פʤɡοư˴ؤƤϡʷŪȤƻȤΤ⤷ʤʾ塤Huang (97--98) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-24-1]

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2016-08-22 Mon

#2674. Ūʸ3Ĥħ [pragmatics][speech_act][performative]

Austin ȯù԰ (speech_act) ˤСʸˤϡĥĽʸ (constative) ȡξ˹԰٤ȼʸ (performative) Ȥ̤롥㤨СMy daughter is called Elizabeth. ĽʸI name this ship the Princess Elizabeth. Ͽʸ򤵤롥
ʸˤϡι԰٤ɽ魯ưŪ˴ޤŪʸ (explicit performative) ȡޤޤʤżŪʸ (implicit performative) 롥㤨СI command you to surrender immediately. ŪʸSurrender immediately. ϰżŪʸǤ롥Ūʸˤ԰٤ɽ魯ưʸξˤ commandˤư (performative verb) Ȥ
Austin ϡѸˤŪʸ̣ŪħȤơ3󤲤Ƥ롥(1) ưޤǤʤħȤȤ٤ˡ(2) hereby դä뤳Ȥǿʸ뤳ȤĴ뤳ȤǤ롤(3) 1;ñμ줬Ωǽư֤ľˡñ㸽߷ư줬Ѥ롥3Ĥħ碌ŵŪʿʸ򤤤Ĥ󤲤Ƥ

I hereby christen this ship the Princess Elizabeth
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
I sentence you to ten years in prison.
I promise to come to your talk tomorrow afternoon.
I apologize for being late.

Austin ȤǧƤ褦ˡ(3) ħͭʤŪʸ⤢롥Huang (97) äʲʸˤߤ褦ˡ1;ʣμ줬Ωľ⤢뤷ʳο;Τμ줬ΩĤȤǽǤ롥ư줬;ΤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꤦ뤷߿ʹԷư֤οʸ⤢ꤦ롥

We suggest that you go to the embassy
You are hereby warned that legal action will be taken.
Passengers are hereby requested to wear a seat belt.
Notice is hereby given that the Annual General Meeting of O2 plc will be held at The Hexagon, Queens Walk, Reading, Berkshire RG1 7UA on Wednesday, 27 July 2005 at 11.00 am for the following purposes: . . . .
The management hereby warns customers that mistakes in charge cannot be rectified once the customer has left the counter.
It is herewith disclosed that the value of the estate left by Marcus T. Bloomingdale was 4,785,758 dollars.
Are you denying that the government has interfered? --- I am denying that.
You are being discharged on the grounds of severe temperamental unsuitability for service in the Royal Navy.

˲οʸϤʤ褦⤷ I christened this ship the Princess Elizabeth last Sunday. ȸäȤƤ⡤ĽʸǤꡤʸȤϤʤꤨʤ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-24-1] [2017-01-26-1]

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2016-08-13 Sat

#2665. ȯù԰٤Ŭ [pragmatics][speech_act]

Austin Searle θǤϡȯù԰ (speech_act) Ŭڤ˿Ԥ뤿ˤĤξŬ (felicity conditions) 롥ȯù԰٤ϤΤ褦ʾ郎줿ǤϤƼ¸ΤǤꡤ Searle ˤСΤ褦ʾȯù԰٤Ф§ (constitutive rules) ΤΤǤ⤢롤Ȥ (Huang 104, pp. 101--02)
Ūˤϡȯù԰٤Ŭϡ(i) ̿ (propositional content), (ii) (preparatory condition), (iii) (sincerity condition), (iv) ܼ (essential condition) 4फʤ롥ä Sʹ H԰٤ Aɽ e ȤȤ㤨С« (promising) Ȥȯù԰٤ФŬϡʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Huang 105)

Searle's felicity conditions for promising
   (i) Propositional content: future act A of S
   (ii) Preparatory:
      (a) H would prefer S's doing A to his not doing A, and S so believes
      (b) It is not obvious to both S and H that S will do A in the normal course of events
   (iii) Sincerity: S intends to do A
   (iv) Essential: the utterance of e counts as an undertaking to do A


(i) ̿ϡȯäˤʤ̿ƤΤȤǤꡤȯù԰٤˴ؤʬȤ˻ĤȯΤؤ«ξˤϡS A Ԥʤȡפˤʤ롥(ii) λϡŪɬܾΤȤǤꡤH A οԤ˾ǤȤȤ䡤äƤƤ A ʤȤȤ S H ΤäƤ뤳Ȥʤɤ롥(iii) ϡS A Ԥջ֤뤳ȤǤ롥(iv) ܼϡe S οԤΰջ֤ΤȤȯƤ뤫ݤȤ롥ξΤ٤ƤʤСŬڤ«ι԰٤ȤϤʤʤ
Ʊͤˡ (requesting) Ȥȯù԰٤Ŭ󤲤Ƥߤ褦 (Huang 105)

Searle's felicity conditions for requesting
   (i) Propositional content: future act A of S
   (ii) Preparatory:
      (a) S believes H can do A
      (b) It is not obvious that H would do A without being asked
   (iii) Sincerity: S wants H to do A
   (iv) Essential: the utterance of e counts as an attempt to get H to do A


Can you drive me home? Ȥȯù԰٤ŬڤΩ뤿ˤϡ֤ʤ֤DzȤޤפȤ̿ˤĤơֻפ֤ʤפžǤ֤ˤꡤޤʤäƤʤȤȤΤäƤꡤäƤ餤ȤפäƤꡤĤȯäˤꤽΰտޤϤȿƤ롤ʤɤν郎ʤФʤʤ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ѻҡȯù԰١סظ١翮סԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ93--107ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-24-1]

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2016-07-23 Sat

#2644. I pray you/thee please [politeness][pragmatics][historical_pragmatics][speech_act][sociolinguistics][felicity_condition]

#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ ([2015-08-03-1]) κǸ˴ñ˿줿褦ˡѸǤΰΥݥ饤ȥͥȥƥȤƤϡShakespeare ѽФ褦ˡI pray you/thee, prithee, I beseech you, I require that, I would that ʤɤ褯Ѥ줿Ѹˤʤȡä˸Τˤƿष17껶ȯŪ˸ϤƤ please (< if you please < if (it) please you) ͥȤʤäƤѤɽΤ褦ѲƤطʤˤϡäΤ
εˤĤƤϡplease Ω˴ؤʸˡȤƸŪ˹ͻ褦ȤΩ줬ǡҲʸ˳ؤ˸δܤȤΩ⤢롥ԤΩ줫ϡ㤨С19 pray 촶ȤƶŪʴްդĤ褦ˤʤäˡ̾ΰɽȤƤϤդ路ʤȴ褦ˤʤäȤƤ롥
Busse ˸Ω줫餳Ѳܶᤷλ˾ä꤫ʹؤȰܤȤݥ饤ȥͥȥƥžäΤǤϤʤȿ¬Ƥ롥Ť I pray you ΥפŬ (felicity condition) ϡä꤬ʹˡ򤷤Ƥ餤ȻפäƤפȤǤΤФơ (if you) please ΥפǤϡä꤬ʹˡ򤷤褦Ȥտޤ뤫ɤ֤ͤפȤǤȤ㤤롥ԤŬϡCan/could you pass the salt? Τ褦ʵηѤˤ⸫ΤǤꡤΤ I pray you ʤɤ⸽Ūʶ롥
Busse (31--32) Ϥο¬򼡤Τ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

Pragmatically, the redressed command and the question have in common that they ask for the willingness of the listener to do X (willingness on the part of the hearer being a felicity condition for imperatives to be successful). Yet, indirect requests with pray/prithee put the focus on the speaker and assert his/her sincerity: Speaker sincerely wants X to be done.

The diachronic comparison of requests with pray to those with please on the basis of the OED and the Shakespeare Corpus has led me to the assumption that the disappearance of pray in polite requests and the subsequent rise of please as a concomitant can be explained pragmatically. This is to say that at least in colloquial speech a shift in polite requests has taken place from requests that assert the sincerity of the speaker (I pray you, beseech you, etc.) to those that question the willingness of the listener to perform the request (please). . . .However, in more formal types of dialogue, verbs that express the speaker's sincere wish that something be done, such as I beseech, entreat, implore, importune, solicit, urge, etc. you still persist.


⤷ѲѸ줫ˤƤΥݥ饤ȥͥȥƥ礭ʿܡä꤫ʹؤξΰܹԡ򼨺ƤȤСϱѸ˼ҲΰȤʤ

Busse, Ulrich. "Changing Politeness Strategies in English Requests --- A Diachronic Investigation." Studies in English Historical Linguistics and Philology: A Festschrift for Akio Oizumi. Ed. Jacek Fisiak. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2002. 17--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-01-19-1] [2017-01-16-1]

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2016-02-14 Sun

#2484. may ʸǤޤǡ [word_order][syntax][auxiliary_verb][subjunctive][pragmatics][speech_act][optative][may]

may ˤĤơ#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1])#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1])#2478. may ȴ let ȯã ([2016-02-08-1]) ǰäƤˤĤơǶᡤʸ줿Ѹ may ʸγΩϡűѸμ˸ŪװѤ߽Ťʤä̤ǤꡤīͼäΤǤϤʤȤݤŪʻƱäǤ롥
ξܺ٤ˤϿʤ (82) may ʸǤޤǡפꤹǿ޼Ū󤷤ʬѤ롥

a. STAGE 1: OE ?
   I wish that NP-Nom[inative]. + V-S[u]BJ[unctive]. ̽°
   ... (so) that NP-Nom. + V-SBJ. ̽°
b. STAGE 2: OE ?
   NP-Nom. + V-SBJ. ̼͡ex) God bless you!
   X + V-SBJ. + NP-Nom. ̼͡ex) Long live the Queen!
c. STAGE 3: Late OE ?
   I wish that NP-Nom. + MAY + Inf[initive]. ̽°
   ... (so) that NP-Nom. + MAY + Inf. ̽°
d. STAGE 4: ME ? *EModE/ME ?
   NP-Nom. + MAY/MIGHT + Inf. ̼͡ex) Thy voyce may sounde in mine eres.
   *X + NP-Nom. + MAY/MIGHT + Inf. ̼ ex) from dyssese he may us saue.
   X + MAY/MIGHT + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼͡ex) ai mighte he liven.
   Cf. (X) + MOTE + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼ ex) mote þu wel færen
   Cf. LET + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼͡ex) late we hine welden his folc ...
e. STAGE 5: EModE ?
   MAY + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼͡ex) May the force be with you!


Ϣή˴ؤäƤװϡưν°ˡȸ硤³ˡѤˡ³ˡѤȤƤνư may ȯãνư motan εˡαƶlet ʸȤ䡤"pragmatic particle" ȤƤ may Ȥθȯãʤ¿ˤ錄롥餬ʣ߹礤1Ĥħˡޤ줿ȤʥꥪˡѸˤ˱Ѹؤ̣򴶤롥

ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ

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2016-02-10 Wed

#2480. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ (2) [imperative][exclamation][inflection][speech_act][verb][interjection][sobokunagimon]

[2016-02-05-1]ε˰³̿ưθѤˤĤơεΰˤäMustanoja (473--74) ̿ȴ (interjection) ζ˸ڤƤ롥βսѤ褦

There is a striking functional resemblance between the imperative and the interjections. Both are functionally self-contained exclamatory expressions, both are little articulate (the singular imperative has no ending or has only -e, and the subject-pronoun is seldom expressed), and both are greatly dependent on intonation. In fact many interjections, primary and secondary, are used to express exhortations and commands (a-ha, hay, hi, harrow, out, etc. . . .), and many imperatives are used as interjections (abide, come, go bet, help, look . . . cf. present-day interjections like come on, go away, hear hear, say, say there, etc.)


ˡMustanoja (630--31) Ǥϡư̿¾δȤʤäƤ㤬¿󤲤Ƥ롥

Brief commands, exhortations, and entreaties are comparable to interjections. Thus in certain circumstances the imperative mood of verbs may serve as a kind of interjection: --- abyd, Robyn, my leeve brother (Ch. CT A Mil. 3129); --- come, þou art mysbilevyd (Cursor App. ii 823); --- go bet, peny, go bet, go! (Sec. Lyr. lvii refrain); --- quad Moyses, 'loc, her nu [is] bread' (Gen. & Ex. 3331); --- help, hooly croys of Bromeholm! (Ch. CT A Rv. 4286; in this and many other cases help might equally well be interpreted as a noun). Somewhat similar stereotyped uses of the imperative are herken and listen, which occur as conventional opening exclamations in numerous ME poems (herkneþ, boþe yonge and olde; --- lystenyþ, lordynges . . . .


ưˤ̿򤢤δȯϪȤƤȤ館СưȤʻ°Ȥü𤬤ǡϳΤ˴ȵǽŪ˻Ƥ롥ѲǤ뤫Τ褦ưθѤȤΤϡԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-01-1]

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2016-02-08 Mon

#2478. may ȴ let ȯã [pragmatics][syntax][word_order][speech_act][emode][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][optative][hortative][may]

#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1]) κǸǿ줿褦ˡmay ʸ let ʸˤ롥Ūˤκǽ˸Ȥ˳Ū򼨤ľ3;μ뤳ȤǤŪˤϵꡦȤ̣ǻ̤äȯù԰٤ôȤǤ롥Ǹλ̤äƤ˴ؤƤСȯù԰٤⡤űѸ줫ѸˤŵŪư³ˡˤäɽ路Ȥ롥̻Ūˤϡmay ˤ let ˤ衤³ˡưѤ̳뱪ˡΩŪʤȤơꥢϤ᤿櫓Τ˻Ѥ경гơȴȤȯù԰٤ɸޡʤ "pragmatic particle" ȤƵǽ˻ämay let ŪȤƱ˰ȤȯۤϡεǸڤ Quirk et al. Τߤʤ餺Ѹ򸦵椷Ƥ Rissanen (229) ˤäƤ⼨Ƥʾp. 82 ⻲ȡˡ

   The optative subjunctive is often replaced by a periphrasis with may and the hortative subjunctive with let:
   
   (229) 'A god rewarde you,' quoth this roge; 'and in heauen may you finde it.' ([HC] Harman 39)
   (230) Let him love his wife even as himself: That's his Duty. ([HC] Jeremy Taylor 24)

Note the variation between the subjunctive rewarde and the periphrastic may . . . finde in (229).
   Of these two periphrases, the one replacing hortative subjunctive seems to develop more rapidly: in Marlow, at the end of the sixteenth century, the hortative periphrasis clearly outnumbers the subjunctive, particularly in the 1 st pers. pl. . ., while the optative periphrasis is less common than the subjunctive.


Rissanen ϡmay let ѤŪꡦˡȯãƱ˰äƤ뤬ξԤߤ˱ƶäɤˤƧ߹ǤʤȯãκˤĤƸڤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ԤȯãԤȯãˤ¥ʤ줿ȤߤƤǽϤ뤷ʤȤ Rissanen 򻲾ȤƤ뾾 (82) ϤΤ褦˲ᤷƤ褦ΰ̴طִطˤĤƤϤܺ٤Ĵɬפ츫Ȥޤǰۤʤˤߤ may let 򡤸ѡʾ˲η뾽ȤƸƶ٤ࡥ
ϢƵ may ˤĤƤϡ#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1]) 򡤴 let's δּѲˤĤƤϡ#1981. ּѲ ([2014-09-29-1]) ⻲ȡ

Rissanen, Matti. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.
ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ

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2016-02-06 Sat

#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 [imperative][subjunctive][verb][inflection][speech_act]

ε#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1]) Ƥ̩ܤ˴ؤΤȤơɸ꤬롥ѸˤǤϡưñ̿³ˡ߷Ūͻ礷Ƥаޤ롥¹ԤơξԤεǽʤ̿ȤȤ櫓ȯù԰ (speech_act) ⤬ͻ礷ƤȤаޤꡤѸˤƤϡϤ֤ˤƤⵡǽˤƤ⡤ĤƤä̤ƤȤʤ˻äƤ롥ξԤͻؤƻڤϡ1ĤˤϴŪʴ鵭Ҥ뤳ȤǤ롥̿ϡεǽҤ٤褦ˡ캬̵޷ˤظ䤹ä³ˡߤϷ֡ǽŪ˿ष̤Ȥľˡߤݤ߹ޤ줿
̿³ˡ߷ͻϡľŪξԤεǽŪˤä¥ʤ줿Ȥ뤫⤷ʤȤ櫓𡦾ɽ魯ΤѤ³ˡˤĤƤϡ줬ǽ̿Ȥȯù԰٤˶Ƥ뤳ȤưפǤ
εǰѤ Fischer (249) ϡ嵭ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In Middle English the forms of the imperative singular and the subjunctive present singular coalesced . . . . In function, the hortatory subjunctive and the imperative were practically similar already in Old English, where one finds them used side by side . . . . In the plural there was still a morphological distinction . . . when the subject pronoun did not immediately follow the verb. This situation was not to last, as the hortatory subjunctive was on its way out. . . . By the middle of the fifteenth century the plural imperative ending disappears.


Fischer ȯϡ2;Τñʣξˤ̿ˡ³ˡͻ礬֥١ǤȤȤ˵ǽ١Ǥ⤢äȤ򼨺Ƥ褦ɤ롥
ʣ̿ˤĤƤ⡤ñƱͤˡ15ȾФޤǤˤ̵ȤʤäƤȤ뤬Τˤʳ Chaucer դǤϡŪñʣηṲ̄Ǥ˻¾μͳѰۤȲƤ롥㤨СChaucer (CT III.186--7 [2:186--7]) Ǥ "Telle forth youre tale, spareth for no man,/ And teche us yonge men of youre praktike." ʤɤȸ̵ͭܤޤ뤷ڤؤäƤ롥
˻̤äƸűѸͻҤߤƤߤȡTraugott (185) ϡ̿ˡ³ˡεǽṲ̄ϡ9ޤǤˤϤ褽ĤĤäȤƤ롥

Because the imperative and subjunctive contrast morphologically, we assume that there was a difference in meaning, at least in early OE times, between more and less directive, more and less wishful utterances. By the time of Alfredian OE this difference was losing ground in many registers; charms, medical prescriptions and similar generalised instructions are normally in the subjunctive.


θ礹ȡͻϡϤ֥١ǤƱͤ˵ǽ١Ǥ⤢äȹͤΤ⤷ʤ

Fischer, O. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. N. Blake. Cambridge, CUP, 1992. 207--398.
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 168--289.

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2016-02-05 Fri

#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ [imperative][exclamation][inflection][speech_act][verb][interjection][sobokunagimon]

ɸϡѸ̿ʸ˴ؤơ#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ ([2015-08-03-1]) ¤ǡĹ餯˴Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ūˤϡ̸̿ĤΤΤǤ롥㤨СűѸΡֹԤפɽ魯ưˤĤơ2;ñؤ̿ 2;ʣؤ̿ gāþ gān Ǥꡤ줾֤ϰۤʤäƤѸʹߡζ޸ʿŪ˸¤ go ؤȼ̤
Τ褦ŪطʤϤˤ衤Ѹ򶦻ŪʴįСŵŪ̿Ѥưη֤ϡ븶ˤη֤ȴ˰פƤ롥äơ̻Ūʴȴ˵ҤΤǤСʤƤüԤʸˡȿǤƤȻפ뤬ˡ̿ȸȤѸ̤ɬפϤʤ̿ˤưθѤפȸäƺ٤ʤ⤷줬üԤζŪФȤСɽ魯̿εǽƱη֤Τʤ˶¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơǧξɤΤ褦ˤȤ館ƤΤ
ˤĤơ (83) ǻȤƤ Fischer (249) ΥȤäƤߤ

The imperative has a tendency to become invariant in form (this happened also in other Germanic languages), because it functions like a self-contained, exclamatory expression. Mustanoja (1960: 473) compares its function to that of (invariable) interjections. In an example like,

   (109) Help! Water! Water! Help, for Goddes herte! (CT I.3815 [1:3807])

help is as much an interjection as an imperative.


̿ȴòϤδȯϪȤƵǽŪ˻̤äƤꡤ椨θ캬ΤΡʱѸξˤϡʤˤѤȲǤٹ (157) òʸȤδϢǽҤ٤ƤդڤСΤ褦ʸ캬ϡָ줬ʸˡŪˤȤ줺ξεޤʤޤޤ˸ŪθԸ줿פΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥

ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ
Fischer, O. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. N. Blake. Cambridge, CUP, 1992. 207--398.
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

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2015-08-03 Mon

#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ [imperative][syntax][pragmatics][sociolinguistics][politeness][historical_pragmatics][emode][speech_act]

ɸϡĹ餯ˤʤäƤ뵿Ǥ롥Ѹ̿ʸǤ̾̾ you ά롥ؼоݤΤˤꡤĴΤ you 뤳ȤϤˤ衤ŵŪˤϾάΤ롼Ǥ롥ϸűѸǤѸǤƱ
Ūˤ͡ʹͤ̿ʸǼ̾䤦ȡʿʸȤŪʶ̤ȤȤ뤫⤷ʤϡ̿2;ñľˡ߷Ʊ֤ĤȤȤϢʤűѸǤ2;ñФƤϡ̿ľˡ߷ϰۤʤΤ̤ǤꡤŪ˶̤ƤˡǤϤɤΤ褦˰ƤΤǰʤ顤ϲʹˤΤʤ
Ūʵ⤢㤨С᤹̿оݤ2;ΤǤ뤳ȤϼǤ뤫顤̿ʸˤƼ򸲺߲ɬפʤȤǽ⤷ʤҲδϡ (125) ϡֱѸϼդĤάʤ̿ʸλϾά롥μʤ̿ᤵ줿ͤˤάʸˡϡݥ饤ȥͥȥƥΤȤ褦פȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϣơϡ̿ʸʳǤ you ǤϤʤ̿;̾ one ѤϤ뤫ǫǤȤҤ٤Ƥꡤ̿ʸǤμά negative politeness δΤŪʰ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ݥ饤ȥͥˤϡѸζŪˤȤɤޤäƤȤߤʤ٤⤷ʤȤΤϡѸǤϡ̾ź̿ʸΤۤǫäȤŦ뤫Fennell (165) ۩". . . in Early Modern English constructions such as Go you, Take thou were possible and appear to have been more polite than imperatives without pronouns."
Ѹ̿Ȥ԰٤˴Ϣݥ饤ȥͥȥƥȤƤϡI pray you, Prithee, I do require that, I do beseech you, so please your lordship, I entreat you, If you will give me leave ʤ͡ʤΤ¸ߤϢʤ please 17ݥ饤ȥͥΰռ͡ȿǤ줿λˡषդ̿ʸΥȥƥ1ĤȤƵǽǽȤȤ϶̣嵭ˤϡ褯Ƥ⸽Ѹμά򶦻ŪˤȤɤޤꡤ̻ŪͭϤ⤿ʤ
ˤĤƤϡͤƤ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

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2015-02-21 Sat

#2126. FTA FTA 򤱤ά [pragmatics][politeness][face][speech_act]

ݥ饤ȥͥνפƻΩƤȤơ#1564. face ([2013-08-08-1]) ȤǰŻ뤵Ƥface work εǤϡ̻Ҥ򶼤԰١face-threatening act (FTA) ܤ졤͡˸椵褦ˤʤäƤ
FTA ˤϡ(1) positive face 򶼤Ρ(2) negative face 򶼤Ρ(3) ξ򶼤Τ롥(1) ˤԻȽ԰סΤʤɡ(2) ˤϽ̿ᡤ׵ᡤơٹʤɡ(3) ˤǡҤʤɤ롥ϼȤʹ̻Ҥ򶼤԰٤ä꼫̻Ҥ򶼤Τ⤢롥㤨С줿ꡤհդɽꡤ򤹤Ȥ԰٤ϡä̻Ҥ˴ؤ԰٤Ǥ롥
͡ FTA 򤱤롤뤤Ϥθ̤¤餲뤿ˡ͡ʸŪŪάѤĤǤ롥Huang (117) ˷ǺܤƤ "Brown and Levinson's (1987: 60) set of FTA-avoiding strategies" οޤϡάʬषΤǤ롥Ѥޤ򼨤

FTA Avoiding Strategies
̻Ҥ򶼤ǽ⤤԰٤ǤФۤɡ¤餲뤿ˤǺά׵ᤵ롥οޤǤС˹ԤйԤ̻ۤҤ򶼤ٹ礤⤯¤餲뤿ά٤ˤʤ롥Сˤ5άǤⵤΤάȤʤꡤˤ1άǤ֤äܤάṲ̄Ͼ
ͧͤ˹ֵΡȤߤƤ餤Ȥꤷ褦οޤά1?5бΤϡ㤨мΤ褦ʸǤHuang 118)

1. On record, without redress, baldly:
   Lend me your lecture notes.
2. On record, with positive politeness redress:
   How about letting me have a look at your lecture notes?
3. On record, with negative politeness redress:
   Could you please lend me your lecture notes?
4. Off record:
   I didn't take any notes for the last lecture.
5. Don't perform the FTA:
   [John silently looks at Mary's lecture notes.]


15˸äơ̻Ҥݤĸ̤ι⤤Τǫɽ԰٤ȤʤäƤΤ狼ŪˡŪɽ԰٤ۤFTA ¤餲̤롥դΤϡά1ɬά2ʹߤ٤ƥݥ饤ȤǤϤʤȤϸڤʤȤɤˤϡषά3Τ褦ɽϤ褽褽ά2䡤Ȥˤά1Ǥ顤դ路ɽȤʤ롥Τ褦ʾǤϡषꤢ餵ޤ׵᤹Ȥά˾ޤΤȤʤ롥
ͤƤߤȡͤȿͤήƤȤˤϡĤǤߤFTAԤäƤ롤Ĥޤ̻Ҥ򶼤ƤȤäƤǤϤʤȤȤϡή߳ˤ뤿FTA򤱤롤뤤¤餲ά⡤ŸƤȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦άϤȤ˼Ԥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬¿ξ礽ʤΤǤꡤȤȤ˸ή߳ήƤ椯Τ褦ʿʹ֤ɤʣʹưȾ̵ռ˹ԤƤȤȤϡä٤ȤǤ롥FTA򤱤άפȤϤʤȤͥƥָߤ face ϡ (face-saving act or FSA?) ȤȤ館Сο͡αĤߤݥƥ˴롥

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-03-21-1]

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2014-10-14 Tue

#1996. ٤˴ؤ8 SPEAKING [ethnography_of_speaking][speech_act][communication]

٤ (speech) ˤ͡ʼब롥ä⤢Х䥸⤢뤷ռ⤢Ф⤢롥⡤Ƥⶵ١ԥåޤ͡ǤϡμΤ٤ʬहΤˡɤΤ褦ʴब̤ͤθ򤹤С饳ߥ˥νɤΤ褦ˤɸãƤΤ򤹤ǴͿŪǤϲҲؼ Hymes ϡƬ SPEAKING ΤȤ8ĤǤǧƤ롥Hymes 󤷤 Wardhaugh (259--61) εҤˤäơñ褦

(1) Setting and Scene. ԤϤ٤꤬ԤƤ֤ȾؤԤŪǿŪʴĶؤ㤨СΥꥹޥΥåΤǯƬϡͭ Setting Scene äƤ롥ܤǤСŷŲοǯΤդͭ Setting Scene äƤ롥

(2) Participants. äʹꡥäǤξԤ֤ȯäΤֵ̾Ǥϼˤ٤ϰ̹ԤǡʹʣǤ롥αäǤϡäʹȤϡåȼȤΤŬˤƤϡʹϿǤ롥

(3) Ends. Τ٤̤ƴŪ˴ԤƤŪ뤤ä꤬ĿŪܻؤƤŪ㤨ˡˤȯϡȽ濳𡤸𡤾ڿͤΤˤäƤʤ뤫ˤä礭ۤʤŪġ뺧ˤȯäϡҲŪŪͭƤƱˡϺؤθĿŪŪͭƤ롥

(4) Act sequence. Ū˻Ȥ줿ɽˤĤơ줬ɤΤ褦˻Ȥ줿ΤԤȤɤΤ褦ʴطΤȤ򤵤Τ٤ǤϡɤΤ褦ɽȯäƤꡤºݤ˲ԤƤΤȤǤ롥Ǥȯù԰ (speech_act) ι̤ͤ롥#1646. ȯù԰٤ʸ ([2013-10-29-1]) 򻲾ȡ

(5) Key. åݤΥȡͼ䵤ʬʤɡ٤꤬ڤ狼뤤ΤʳŪŪŪŪŪʹưȿꡤʤɤȼȤ⤢롥

(6) Instrumentalities. ߥ˥βϩ补äȤФ񤭸դäſʤɤ޲ˤȤɤޤ餺Ѥ졤ɡѰ⤵code-switching ϡʣ instrumentalities Ȥʬ뤪٤λȤȤˤʤ롥

(7) Norms of interaction and interpretation. ٤տ魯ιưڤӤ˴ؤ뵬Ϥ򤵤礭ۡ碌äȤΩ֤˴ؤʪŪΥʤɤˤƤεϤʤɤޤޤ롥#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ

(8) Genre. ȯäΥ롥Ȥ虜ʤʤⶵֵʤɤΤ˶̤ȯäμ򤵤

͡Ϥ SPEAKING γǤ˾դʧʤ餪٤ꤷƤȹͤ롥Wardhaugh (261) θ褦ˡ٤϶ˤʣʱİ٤Ǥ롥

What Hymes offers us in his SPEAKING formula is a very necessary reminder that talk is a complex activity, and that any particular bit of talk is actually a piece of 'skilled work.' It is skilled in the sense that, if it is to be successful, the speaker must reveal a sensitivity to and awareness of each of the eight factors outlined above. Speakers and listeners must also work to see that nothing goes wrong. When speaking does go wrong, as it sometimes does, that going-wrong is often clearly describable in terms of some neglect of one or more of the factors. Since we acknowledge that there are 'better' speakers and 'poorer' speakers, we may also assume that individuals vary in their ability to manage and exploit the total array of factors.


ʸˡäؽǤϸޥȤϤʤˤ٤ꤹ뤿ˤϡSPEAKING ҴǤ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥Ϣơ#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) ȡ#1652. 2콬Ǥ "communicative competence" ([2013-11-04-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-19-1]

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2014-09-11 Thu

#1963. ʸʸˡ [bnc][construction_grammar][syntax][cognitive_linguistics][prototype][web_service][speech_act][generative_grammar]

ʸʸˡ (construction grammar) ϡλȾδ֤ȯŸƤǧθؤ˴ŤʸˡǤ롥Lakoff, Fillmore, Goldberg, Kay ʤɤˤäƤ
ʸȤªΤΤϡˤĹ롥¤ؤǤ뤵Ƥήʸפιͤ⡤ض̤ƹΤƤ롥ʸˡоˤꡤιʸʸв졤ŪӸݤȤư褦ˤʤä
1970ǯȾǧθؤˤꡤʸñ˷ŪʴǤϤʤǽỤ̄Ūʴ饢ץ褦ˤʤäιʸϡع¤ΤǤϤʤ켫Ȥλʤˤΰ̣ľܹ׸ñ̤ǤȤͤ㤨СMe write a novel?! Ȥ츫˳Ūʹʸϡ켫ΤȼαΧʼȽ徺ĴΥȥ͡ӤӤˤȼ֤פްդ롥ޤThere's the bell! Τ褦ʹʸϡͺؤ夲ưȤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿γФľפɽ魯ȤäʸʸˡǤϡʸΤΤ̣ѡΧʤɤꤷƤª롥
ʸ̣ʤɤꤷƤȤäƤ⡤εζѰۤ롥㤨СIs A B? ιʸŵŪ˼ȯù԰٤ɽ魯Is that a fact? ϡ̾ǤϤʤüԤζäɽ魯ʤŪȯù԰ (indirect speech_act) Τ褦ˡʸʸˡϡʸȤΰ̣δطץȥŪ˹ͤɬפȼĥ롥ޤ귿ʸȤʤȡΤʤθ¾ΤΤ˸򴹤Ǥʤʤʤɡ̣ŪŪͻ̤Τʤʤ륱⤢롥㤨СThanks a lot, Thanks a million ȯŸ Thanks a billion ϲǽ*Thanks a hundred ԲǽȤʤ롥day in day out, month in month out ϲĤminute in minute out century in century out ԲĤǤ롤 (Taylor 225--28)
ʸʸˡϾ嵭Τ褦ʸˡؤΥꥢȤƤǯǤʸˡ¦Ǥ⹽ʸʸˡȿΤȿʬʤɤȯŸƤƤ롥ʸħˤʤäƤȤ
ʸʸˡȤߤ BNC ʸ˹ʸդǡ١http://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/ ǸƤꡤΥ󥿡եꥢǤ롥ܤ٤Ѹ칽ʸϿƤ롥

Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.

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2013-10-29 Tue

#1646. ȯù԰٤ʸ [ethnography_of_speaking][speech_act][pragmatics][face][performative][adjacency_pair]

#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1])#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]) εǡethnography of speaking ʬСΰָϡȯäʸȤ顤⤦1Ĥ夲롥ȯù԰ (speech act) ΰʸӤǤ롥
ȯù԰٤෿ϡAustin θŵŪʤΤ䤽ȯŸ Searle ΤΤΤƤHuang, pp. 106--08 򻲾ȡˡΤ褦෿ؤδؿϡȯù԰٤ȤüԤ˶ͭƤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ褦ˤʹ뤬ºݤˤ¿ȯù԰٤ʸ˰¸롥뺧ʤɤεŪŪʾ̤Ǥȯù԰٤ʸˤäưۤʤ뤳Ȥưפ򤵤ۤɴƤʤ̤ˤȯù԰٤ˤʸ֤ϸ롥ʲHuang (119--25) ˽äơ4夲褦

(1) ʸ¸ߤȯù԰٤̤ʸ¸ߤʤ硥㤨С«Ȥȯù԰٤ϡܸˤѸˤ⤢뤷¾¿ˤ¸ߤ롥եԥΥ󥴥² (Ilongot) ˤϤ줬ʤ󥴥²μҲǤ¤俿¤ҲŪʴطΤۤŻ뤵졤̤Ȥ«Ȥȯù԰٤⤽¸ߤʤΤȹͤƤ롥⤦1󤲤СȥꥢΥܥꥸˡ² (Yolngu) ǤϡդȤȯù԰٤ʤȤ롥
ޤ¾ˤߤʤüȯù԰٤ʸ⤢롥ȥꥢΥܥꥸˡWalmajarri ˤơ̴ֿط˴Ť뤤ϵ̳Ȥ׵᤹פȤðۤȯù԰٤ꡤư (performative verb) japirlyung ˤäɽ蘆롥οưϡ"I ask/request you to do X for me, and I expect you to do it simply because of how you are related to me" ۤɤΰ̣ɽ魯ϡȤʸλȤΩƤ줿ȯù԰٤෿ͭ˰ۤ򾧤ΤȤʤ롥

(2) ƱФơʸˤäưۤʤȯù԰٤ʤ硥㤨Сͤ­ƧǤޤäȤΤǤ쥢Ǥ⡤̾ϼպȤȯù԰٤ʤ롥ȤեꥫΥ² (Akan) ǤϡպǤϤʤƱȯù԰٤ʤ롥ޤ˾ԤơǸˤȤޤȤѸǤϿؤδդȻҤ٤Τܸ̾Ǥϡ֤⤤ޤפȿ԰٤ǧȯ򤹤롥ƱͤˡܸǤϡ£ʪäȤʤɤˤϡդ֤ߤޤפμպΤۤ򹥤ࡥ

(3) Ʊȯù԰٤Фơʸˤäưۤʤȿ硥˫դҤ٤ȡѸǤϴդʤΤ̤졤ܸ졤ݡɸʤɤǤϼݤ㡧֤ޤƤʤ򤪤Ǥ͡ס֤ޤä򤷤ƤʤΤǡסˡʤߤˡФƥΡȤʤܸüԤʬ˸줿˫դˤϥΡȤȤ򹥤ȤΤ⤷
ޤФФ1٤ϵŪʵݤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤܸŪˤŵŪȿǤ롥ֿТŪʵݢТŪʵݢפȤή (adjacency pair) ΤΤʸŪޤƤȹͤcf. ܤˡ

(4) Ʊȯù԰٤ǤäƤ⡤ľŪˤʤ뤫Ūˤʤ뤫ٹ礤ʸˤäưۤʤ硥ꡤպᡤʿʤɤ face-threatening act (FTA) ˤĤưۤʤ֤Ӹ椬1980ǯʹߡȤ櫓 Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) ̾βǿ䤷ʤƤˤĤƤС8ĤθѼ (German, Hebrew, Danish, Canadian French, Argentinian Spanish, British English, American English, Australian English) ӤȤArgentinian Spanish ǤľŪǡAustralian English ǤŪä
ܸΡ褷ޤפϡʸ̤ˤϡ֤礦˽פȤ̣ɽ魯ȤѤдŪʵݤȯù԰٤Ȥʤ롥ϡΰФľܥΡȸˤܸˤȤäơŪŪάʤΤǤ롥ºݤˡ줬ƤγȯŸ㤬롥1974ǯ˥ΤƣФܤݻԾμͳ᤿ƣŪʰ̣礤ǡ褷ޤפ I do my best. 줿θ塤ưʤܤФƥꥫ餻Ĥ򤹤˻äޤǤˡȯù԰٤ ethnography of speaking 褯椵졤̤ưʸΩηäȤξǾμãƤСΤ褦ʸʤä

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

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