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unidirectionality - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-30 01:44

2014-09-23 Tue

#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) [grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][pragmatics][subjectification][invisible_hand][teleology][drift][reanalysis][iconicity][exaptation][terminology][toc]

ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ­롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥

(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.


ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭򴶤뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸ򽦤ФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼

1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)


ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ

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2014-09-22 Mon

#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) [grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][productivity][construction_grammar][analogy][reanalysis][ot][contact][history_of_linguistics][teleology][discourse_marker][invited_inference]

#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) κǸDzʤ󵯤ĤäˡʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤפȤΤäĴ٤ƤߤȡʸˡӸݤʤΤ뤤Ϥ켫ȤưϸʤΤȤϡºݡʸˡθԤδ֤Ǥ褯ƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äϴϢʸˡθưäˤΰΰȯŸȳˤĤơTraugott εҤ˰͵򤷤Ƴ⤷
ʸˡϡ30;ǯۤɤ򤫤Ƹؤ礭ʥɤȤĹƤ礭ͤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥߤ븫Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤष "the expansion of various kinds" Ȥߤ븫Ǥ롥ξԤȤˡ̣ȲѲʸˡѲΩĤĤⲿ餫ηǴؤäƤȤߤƤ롤ä˷ŪѲȤδطɤȤ館뤫ˤäΩ줬ʬƤ롥
Ūˤϡʸˡ "reduction and increased dependency" ȤߤƤ̣ɺ (semantic bleaching) Ȳθ (reduction) åȤˤʤäȤǡ"unidirectionality from more to less complex structure, from more to less lexical, contentful status" (Traugott 273) Ȥθĥ롥θ Givón "Today's morphology is yesterday's syntax." ΰ⤤ŵŪ˽󤵤Ƥ뤬˰̲ǡΤ褦ʰΥǥƤƤ롥ǤϡΧ (autonomy) 򼺤¾Ǥؤν° (dependency) ٹ礤ʤ顤ĤˤϾäƤޤȤʸˡΥ饤ե뤬ɽƤ롥

discourse > syntax > morphology > morphphonemics > zero


θϡ1990ǯȾаʹߡ¿Ƚˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäǤϤʤޤӸݤȤߤ븫ΨŪʷˤʤȤ븫Ф졤ȤȤˡæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ָò (lexicalisation) ʤɤΩǰŦ褦ˤʤäȿΰĤȤæʸˡȤϲòȤϲȤɵ椵褦ˤʤꡤʸˡȤޤΥեɤϳ礷Ƥä
ʸˡΤ⤦1Ĥθϡreduction ǤϤʤष expansion ǤȤΤʸˡܤ줿ϡƤޤˤäɽ줿ꡤˡʡʤɤ˴ؤΤäܤܤ³ɸʤɤܤȡʸˡȤϤष¤ŪʳĥǤŬϰϤγǤϤʤȤפƤ롥㤨Сؼ줬괧ؤʸˡ뤳Ȥˤꡤͭ̾ˤ³褦ˤʤꡤŬϰϤ̤Ȥʤäʸˡ̣ΰ̲ݲǤ뤳ȤͤСŬϰϤȤϼǤ롥 (productivity) γȸƤ褤ܸΡ֤Ȥǡפξɽɸؤȯãʤɤ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥª줺ष autonomy ͭƤȤͤ롥ˤơʸˡϸѲ (pragmaticalisation) βȤӤĤ褦ˤʤä
ʸˡ2ĤθҲ𤷤ǯǤʸˡϿäơʤȯŸȳ뤲Ƥ롥㤨С1990ǯιʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) оˤꡤʸˡθǤ̣ȷ֤Υڥ󥰤ռʬϤܤ褦ˤʤä㤨Сñפ A lot of fans is for sale. ʣפ A lot of fans are for sale. ؤѲ A lot of our problems are psychological. Τ褦ɽƤΤߤȡʸˡȤȤΰʬϤȤ狼롥ۤˡgive an answer make a promise ʤɤΡַڤư괧ܹ԰̾פʣ⡤ʸʸˡʸˡδ뤳ȤǤ
ʸˡΰˤĤƤˤʤäƤ̤ϡȤͶƳ (invited inference) ŦƤ롥ޤ (analogy) ʬ (reanalysis) Τ褦ʸŤǰФƤ⡤ʸˡΰ⡤ưŤᥫ˥Ȥ顤ƲλߤʤƤƤ롥ȤΤϡʸˡȤϰʬϤǤȤͤ졤ʬϤȤϴ¸ι¤ȤȤ٤ʤƤʤΤȹͤ뤫ǡΥǥȤʸˡꤹȡŬ (Optimality Theory) ˤʬϤȤƤ롥ܿʬϡʸˡμѤȤⰷ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʸˡΰϸ¤ʤȤäƤƤ롥

Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Grammaticalization." Chapter 15 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 271--85.

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2014-09-20 Sat

#1972. Meillet ʸˡ [grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][analogy][word_order]

ε#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) ڤ grammaticalisation γƵǰäƤʸˡϡ1980ǯʹߡˤưܤӤ褦ˤʤäơޤǤ롥ʸˡιͤΤ19뤤Ϥ긫뤬#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡǽʸˡȤѸѤƸ椷Τ Antoine Meillet (1866--1936) Ȥ롥ʲMeillet ʸˡΰˤĤ3Ƥ
ޤMeillet ˤСʸˡȤ "le passage d'un mot autonome au rôle d'élément grammatical" (131) Ǥ롥󤲤ƤϺȤʤäƤŵŪʤΤФǡե󥹸 pas 꼭ȤƤȯãѸǤ have be Ѥλʤʣȯãջ֤̳ɽ魯ư줫̤ɽ魯ưȯãʤɤǤ롥
ʤMeillet ϡƥǤŪͳä礬ե󥹸 SVO ʤɤθؤȸ경򼨤ʸˡȤȤ館Ƥ롥ѸˤǤСűѸ줫ѸʹߤˤƤθθ경⡤ƱͤʸˡȤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θǤϡŤʳǤϴ˼ͳä櫓ǤϤʤŪʸŪװˤѰۤ˶ޤοĴ碌ơ礬ŪʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤäȤMeillet ϤʸˡäƤȤߤΤǤ롥ʣȯãʤ˵󤲤ȸθ경Ȥ㤬ƱʸˡפȤѸΤȤǰΤϤ´뤫⤷ʤʣθȤ߹碌ʬŪʰ̣ȤδطæʸˡŪʵǽؤȺƲᤵƤäǡ̤Ȥ롥
ˡMeillet ʸˡˤĤƵƤΤϡʸˡȯŸȤʸ̮ˤƤǤ롥Meillet ϡʸˡȯãˤ2ढꡤ1Ĥ (analogy) 1ĤʸˡǤȤƤ롥ԤˤĤƤϡvous dites ǤϤʤ *vous disez ȸѤƤޤ褦ʲˤäư̲Ƥޤ褦ʥǰƬˤƤ롥Τ褦ϸηΤˤ礭ʱƶͿʤȯã¾ʸˡϿƥ꡼¤ηΤ˱ƶͿΤȤƶ̤Ƥ롥

Tandis que l'analogie peut renouveler le détail des formes, mais laisse le plus souvent intact le plan d'ensemble du système existant, la «grammaticalisation» de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du système. (133)


ǸˡʸˡˤĤƤФиڤˤĤơŪˤʬϤؤˤĤơMeillet ϼΤ褦ȯĤƤ롥

Analyse et synthèse sont des termes logiques qui trompent entièrement sur les procès réels. La «synthèse» est une conséquence nécessaire et naturelle de l'usage qui est fait de groupes de mots. (147)


Meillet Ϥͣ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƸڤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤդpas 꼭ȤƤȯãʤɤϡषne Ǥϼ夯줿Ĵ뤿̾ pas äȤȯȤʤäƤΤǤꡤդäΤʬϲλǤ롥Meillet ⤷äȻŦƤ뤳ȤõƤ

Meillet, Antoine. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales." Scientia 12 (1912). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 130--48.

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2014-09-19 Fri

#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ [drift][grammaticalisation][generative_grammar][syntax][auxiliary_verb][teleology][language_change][unidirectionality][causation][diachrony]

Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤ򼨤ȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥

Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)


So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)


Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ

Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.

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2014-04-17 Thu

#1816. drift ˬ [drift][gvs][germanic][synthesis_to_analysis][language_change][speed_of_change][unidirectionality][causation][functionalism]

Millar (111--13) ѸˤˤŤƿꡤdrift ʶήˤˬƤܥ֥δϢ뵭ϡcat:drift 򻲾ȡˡ
Sapir ξ drift ϡѸʤѸȤ1ˤˤѲΰؤΤä drift γǰϳĥ졤Ϣʣθ˶̤ƤߤѲĬήؤ褦ˤʤäˤäơѸ drift в졤ޥˤߤ drifts ӡȤ櫓 drifts ®٤ӤȤ褦ˤʤäMillar (112) ⡤ΥޥȤ顤Ѹˤˤ drift ˬƤ롥

A number of scholars . . . take Sapir's ideas further, suggesting that drift can be employed to explain why related languages continue to act in a similar manner after they have ceased to be part of a dialect continuum. Thus it is striking . . . that a very similar series of sound changes --- the Great Vowel Shift --- took place in almost all West Germanic varieties in the late medieval and early modern periods. While some of the details of these changes differ from language to language, the general tendency for lower vowels to rise and high vowels to diphthongise is found in a range of languages --- English, Dutch and German --- where immediate influence along a geographical continuum is unlikely. Some linguists would suggest that there was a 'weakness' in these languages which was inherited from the ancestral variety and which, at the right point, was triggered by societal forces --- in this case, the rise of a lower middle class as a major economic and eventually political force in urbanising societies.


񤤤Ƥ Millar ȤǸʸμ "Some linguists" Τʤ1ͤǤ롥Samuels ήεǽŪʴˡҲŪװͤ碌ơѸ drift θġθѲθõȤΩSapir drift = "mystical" ȤȤ館ऱǤ¤Ū褦ȤΩǤ⤢롥⤳Ω˻ǤꡤȤ櫓ҲŪװ "trigger" ǽ˴ؿ󤻤Ƥ롥Ϣơ#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޥӤȤˤĤƤϡMillar (113) ϡdrift οʹԤ٤ϼŪ˼ޤͿƤ롥ʲ˾Ѥޤ򼨤ʤä˰Ϥޤ줿ϡŤʳǤθɽ魯ˡ

Drift in the Germanic Languages


οޤϡ#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) Ǽ Lass ˤ륲ޥΡָŤ (archaism) οľ̤ηɽ路ΤȤǤ롥ξ硤drift οʹ٤ȸŪʡ֥󤵡פδطˤȤɤߤˤʤ롥
οޤǤϡEnglish Afrikaans ANALYTIC ζˤ˰֤Ƥ뤬 DRIFT λȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ⡤DRIFT η³򴶤ѲϿʹǤ롥

Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-05-02-1] [2020-05-01-1]

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2014-01-19 Sun

#1728. Jespersen θ [language_change][teleology][evolution][unidirectionality][drift][history_of_linguistics][artificial_language][language_myth]

ѸˤμȤDZѸ줬ФƤѲ⤹ȡָϤɤɤѲƤƤפȤȿ򼨤ȤΤۤ¿ϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) (2) ˵󤲤ָѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤפƱΤǤꡤѤȤǤƤ֤٤Τ⤷ʤεǤҤ٤ȤꡤѲϿǤǤʤȤΤθؼԤθǤ롥ȤĤƤϡ̾ʸؼԤΤʤˤ⡤ѤȾԤǥޡαѸؼ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) ⤽1ͤǤ롥

. . . in all those instances in which we are able to examine the history of any language for a sufficient length of time, we find that languages have a progressive tendency. But if languages progress towards greater perfection, it is not in a bee-line, nor are all the changes we witness to be considered steps in the right direction. The only thing I maintain is that the sum total of these changes, when we compare a remote period with the present time, shows a surplus of progressive over retrogressive or indifferent changes, so that the structure of modern languages is nearer perfection than that of ancient languages, if we take them as wholes instead of picking out at random some one or other more or less significant detail. And of course it must not be imagined that progress has been achieved through deliberate acts of men conscious that they were improving their mother-tongue. On the contrary, many a step in advance has at first been a slip or even a blunder, and, as in other fields of human activity, good results have only been won after a good deal of bungling and 'muddling along.' (326)


. . . we cannot be blind to the fact that modern languages as wholes are more practical than ancient ones, and that the latter present so many more anomalies and irregularities than our present-day languages that we may feel inclined, if not to apply to them Shakespeare's line, "Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms," yet to think that the development has been from something nearer chaos to something nearer kosmos. (366)


Jespersen ɤΤ褦ˤƸѤĤ˻äΤࡼʥ (84--85) ϡJespersen 1928ǯ Novial ȤФطʤʬϤΤ褦ɾƤNovial ˤĤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи͹ ([2011-12-11-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

बؤɤ夤ΤϤۤοͤξ⤤äߤΤǤꡤޤΤʤˤäȤŤ顤äȤ⿼򤪤ƤΰĤΤǤäȤΤϡθΨ֤ηкӤƤߤФ褤ȤͤǤ롥ˤĤŤΤϡʿŪˤϡǤդΰˤĤƤߤƤ⤢ȤˤĤƤߤƤ⡤鸫ȡθѲ¤Ԥθ¤꾡äƤΤȤͤǤ롽ϡäȤŪ˳ǧƤȾΤ뤽Τ褦ʡֿפȤƼΤ褦ʤΤ󤷤Ƥ롥ʤŪȤñ㲽뤳ȡɽǽͤû̡ʬŪĤޤŪ¤ȯãμͳʥˤ֤ε§ζŪʿ̴ˤǤ롥ʡظο⡤ä˱Ѹȹ礷ơ١ˡޥƥͤߤȤ˸ƤȤäȤΤˤϤԤΤʤˤ桼ȥԥָΤ뤷Ȥ⸫ʤħ¤ȿФˡɥĤʸˡˤäƹƤäФȤƤϤäѤ襤äΤȹͤƸȡ¤˶ŪǼ襤ȤΤϡδʲϤޤäƤ˻ĺ˰֤ƤꡤˤϤĤͤ˷֤ȹ¤ѻˤǤ롤Ȥäʡָθס


ĤޤꡤJespersen ϡʤƾʤ餺ߤˤϤäƤָѲϴʾ֤δǤפȤѤйơѤǤФȤȤˤʤ롥ػŪˤ Jespersen ɾǤϤʤ
ˤҤ٤褦ˡJespersen ήθѤϡߤθؤǤϰŪ˼ƤʤˤĤơ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ڤӡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ

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2013-08-31 Sat

#1587. ˤϸΥȥԡ緹΢դƤ뤫 [drift][unidirectionality][synthesis_to_analysis][entropy][i-mutation][origin_of_language]

ѸˤΤߤʤ餺ޥˡˤϰˤΤñ㲽򼨤Ƥ褦˸롥ۤȤɤ٤ƤΰǡʤϤʸˡƤζʬ֤ȤȤƤʤäƤƤ뤷֡ˤƤ礫ʬϤؤȸ෿ѲƤƤ롥²˸뤳ή (drift) ˤĤƤϡ#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ۤ drift γƵˤƤ
ζήñ㲽Ʊ뤷Ƥ褤ΤȤϻĤ롥षĸϡʸˡƤʬƤϤ뤬ηϤϴ̯ʤۤɤäĸϡߤΰ٤ơŪԵ§Ͼʤϻ֤ȤȤ allomorphy Ƥ椯Ȥ롥㤨 i-mutation ˤߤȡϲˤʤäΤ䤬Ʋ̮򼺤˷ŪʲȤʤä̤ȤơѲƤʤ֤ȼ֤Ȥ allomorphy ޤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤηԵ§ʥȥԡˤ礷[2011-08-13-1]ε#838. ηϤȥȥԡפ򻲾ȡˡ˸ˤʤäơ (analogy) ¾βˤ allomorphy ä륱⤢뤬§ȤƸϻ֤ȤȤˤμΥȥԡ礷Ƥ椯Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ˤ餫˸ȾҤȥԡ緹ϡϤƳ̤ǧƤޤäƤ褤ΤȤΤϡνȯǤĸϤޤŪ˺Ʒ줿ΤˤʤǤ롥⤷ƷԤƬΤʤ˸ϥȥԡ緹򼨤ΤȤ⤬ˤäȤ顤̤ȤƺƷĸϡʤ餽Τ褦ʲԹΤ褤ֲäȤʤ
ºݤ Comrie Τ褦ʳؼԤϡΤ褦ʲäưĸȤ館Ƥ롥Comrie (253) ꤷƤΤϡ"an earlier stage of language, lacking at least many of the complexities of at least many present-day languages, but providing an explicit account of how these complexities could have arisen, by means of historically well-attested processes applied to this less complex earlier state" Ǥ롥ˤϡϤȤñηϤȤƻϤޤä֤ȤȤʣƤȤ󤬤롥Comrie ΤϡβսǤΤ

[I]t is unlikely that the first human language started off with the complexity of Insular Celtic morphophonemics or West Greenlandic morphology. Rather, such complexities arose as the result of the operation of attested processes --- such as the loss of conditioning of allophonic variation to give morphophonemic alternations or the grammaticalisation of lexical items to give grammatical suffixes --- upon an earlier system lacking such complexities, in which invariable words followed each other in order to build up the form corresponding to the desired semantic content, in an isolating language type lacking morphophonemic alternation. (250)


Ʒ줿ĸ򺬵ˤƸѲηɵ椹뤳ȤˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤޤƤ䡤˷꤭ǺƷФȤ뤳Ȥϡ˴ȤΤ褦˻פ롥Comrie (247) ϰĸƷ˴ؤ realist Ω[2011-09-06-1]) ΤˤƤ뤫顤ȥԡ˾Ǥμºߤ򿮤ƤȤȤˤʤ롥controversial ʵ

Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-01-1]

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2013-02-28 Thu

#1403. drift Ū Ritt λ [drift][teleology][unidirectionality][causation][language_change][functionalism]

ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǽ夲ʸǡRitt ˸ؾνפǤ drift ήˤˤޤȤĤᤤȤƤ롥drift ϡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) Ǥ夲Τ褦󼨤뤳ȤǤ롥üԸĿͤϼοδ֤ĶƸѲ³褦ȤưŤʤɤäƤʤϤʤΤˡʤĶƤȤפʤѲΤ줽ΤΤüԤĶۤȤ̿äƤ뤫Τ褦ʿ񤤤򸫤ΤϤʤ Ritt (215) ΤȤФǼȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

[S]ince individual speakers are normally not aware of the long-term histories of their languages and have no reason to be interested in them at all, it is difficult to see why they should be motivated to adjust their behaviour in communication or language acquisition to make the development of their language conform to any long-term trend.


ФRitt (215) ϸüԤˤĤƤ3Ĥ򤹤뤳ȤDzǤȽҤ٤롥

First, . . . the case can be made that even though whole language systems do not represent historical objects, their constituents do, because they are transmitted faithfully enough among speakers and thereby establish populations and lineages of constituent types which persist in time. Secondly, when speakers make choices among different variants of a linguistic constituent, they are not completely free. Instead their choice is always limited (a) by universal constraints on human physiology and (b) by socio-historical contingencies such as the relative prestige of different constituent variants. Since it would be against the self-interests of individual speakers to resist them, their choices can be expected to reflect physiological and social constraints more or less automatically. Thirdly, a speaker never chooses among isolated pairs of constituent variants. Instead constituent choice always occurs in the context of actual discourse, where any constituent of a linguistic system is always used and expressed in combination with others.


ƶä٤ȤˡüԤϾ嵭˴ŤưˤơŪҲŪʵȤƵǽƤˤʤȤ򤬼 (215--16)

In such interactions between constituents the role of speakers will be restricted to responding --- unconsciously and more or less automatically --- to physiological and social constraints on their communicative behaviour. In other words, speakers will not figure as autonomous, active and whimsical agents of change, but merely provide the mechanics through which linguistic constituents interact with each other.


ΥǥˤСüԤϡġθܤߤȤΩƤƤͥåȥΤʤư롤ŪӼҲŪʵǽͿ줿޼ȤȤˤʤ롥üԤѲμΤǤϤʤ޲ǤȤϡ controversial

Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-03-1]

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2013-02-07 Thu

#1382. ָѲϤѲǤ [language_change][teleology][drift][unidirectionality]

ѲɤΤ褦ˤȤ館뤫ȤˤĤƤϡѲγƵǰäƤ̾ʸʱѸ˳ؼ David Crystal (2) θѲѤΤƤߤ褦

[L]anguage is changing around you in thousands of tiny different ways. Some sounds are slowly shifting; some words are changing their senses; some grammatical constructions are being used with greater or less frequency; new styles and varieties are constantly being formed and shaped. And everything is happening at different speeds and moving in different directions. The language is in a constant state of multidimensional flux. There is no predictable direction for the changes that are taking place. They are just that: changes. Not changes for the better; nor changes for the worse; just changes, sometimes going one way, sometimes another.


Ѹˤܸˤ衤νִ֤ˤ⡤¿θܤۤʤ®٤ǰۤʤѲƤ롥"multidimensional flux" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥ޤѲŪŪ줿 (teleology) ϤʤȤˤ⻿롥ŪˤϤäƤ˰㤤ʤŪ˰ݤ³뤳ȤϤʤʴϢ unidirectionality γƵ򻲾ȡˡŪȤϤäƤ⡤drift ȤƸڤ²ˤޤοΤ褦ˡǯȤĹˤ錄ְŪʡ⤢ˤϤ롥Τ褦˲餫ˤ衤줬ɤǤȤǤȤʹѤޤǤϤʤȤȤǧƤ褤Crystal Τ褦ˡ"just changes" ʤΤ
#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ӡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ǤƱ褦ʵ򤷤ΤǡȤ

Crystal, David. "Swimming with the Tide in a Sea of Language Change." IATEFL Issues 149 (1999): 2--4.

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2011-10-10 Mon

#896. Kodak ͳ [etymology][root_creation][conversion][unidirectionality]

[2011-10-02-1]ε#888. ˤĤư͡פǿ줿 Kodak ˤĤơꥫμ̿᡼åҤʡʼ˥եˤˤĤ줿ɸǡåҤ϶ȼ George Eastman (1854--1932) ¤Ȥ롥캬ŵȤƵ󤲤뤳Ȥ¿
ɸȤƤνФ OED ˤ1888ǯǡ̾Ȥơ֥åʤǻƤ줿˼̿פθǤ1895ǯСˡ1891ǯˤ᤯ʻž (conversion) ФơưȤƤΡ֥åǻƤפиƤ롥 Kodaker, Kodakist, Kodakry Ω³˸졤Υåο͵꤬ŤФ롥ǿͤǤñ˻ƤǤΤǡΤȤʸ "You press the button, we do the rest" 褯ɽ蘆Ƥ롥ꥫѸǤϡ֥å󥹡פΰ̣ Kodak moment ʤ¸ߤ롥
Kodak ȤȯˤĤƤϾܤаޤ񤭻ĤƤ롥¹Ȥʤ뤬Mencken ˵äƤ Strang (24) Ѥ롥

To the history of kodak may be added the following extract from a letter from its inventor, George Eastman (1854--1932) to John M. Manly Dec. 15, 1906: 'It was a purely arbitrary combination of letters, not derived in whole or in part from any existing word, arrived at after considerable search for a word that would answer all requirements for a trade-mark name. The principal of these were that it must be short, incapable of being mis-spelled so as to destroy its identity, must have a vigorous and distinctive personality, and must meet the requirements of the various foreign trade-mark laws, the English being the one most difficult to satisfy owing to the very narrow interpretation that was being given to their law at that time.' I take this from George Eastman, by Carl W. Ackerman; New York, 1930, p. 76n. Ackerman himself says: 'Eastman was determined that this product should have a name that could not be mis-spelled or mispronounced, or infringed or copied by anyone. He wanted a strong word that could be registered as a trade-mark, something that every one would remember and associate only with the product which he proposed to manufacture. K attracted him. It was the first letter of his mother's family name. It was "firm and unyielding." It was unlike any other letter and easily pronounced, Two k's appealed to him more than one, and by a process of association and elimination he originated kodak and gave a new name to a new commercial product. The trade-mark was registered in the United States Sept. 4, 1888.'


Eastman ȤȤơåҤHPˤ⼡Τ褦ʵҤ򸫤Ĥ뤳ȤǤ

I devised the name myself. The letter 'K' had been a favorite with me -- it seems a strong, incisive sort of letter. It became a question of trying out a great number of combinations of letters that made words starting and ending with 'K.' The word 'Kodak' is the result.


(phonotactics) ȲͿݤŰŪ˹ͤȴǤεʸ캬Ȥ
Strang (24--25) ˤȡ㤫ϡּ̿פ֥եפȤ̾ȤƤ Kodak λѤ뤬ɸ鴰̾첽ȹͤ hoover ݽˤʤɤȤϰۤʤꡤ̾첽ٹ礤㤤ΤǤϤʤȤɸȤƻϤޤä塤֤ʤ̾첽ƤӾɸȤƤΤ߻Ȥ뤳ȤˤʤäȤޤꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥̣ˡѲɬǤϤʤȤ򼨺ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ

Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

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2011-03-13 Sun

#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) [drift][synthesis_to_analysis][grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][teleology]

Ѳ drift ֥ɥեȡήήѲפˤĤơܥ֥οǼ夲Ƥ (see drift) Ѹ drift ϥޥɤ drift ѾƤꡤԤϰ² drift ѾƤ롥ѸˤȴϢƻŦǤ⸲ drift ϡanalysis synthesis ؤθ෿ѲˤĤƤϡMeillet 򻲾Ȥ[2011-02-12-1], [2011-02-13-1]ʤɤǼ夲
ʤ drift ȤΤΤĹ餯ƤƤ뤬ޤ̤Ǥ롥Ѳˤ drift ϥήǤϤʤήؤ⡤û֤ήǤϤʤˤ錄äƻ³ήǤ롥Ի׵ĤʤΤϡѲμΤǤüԤϡѤݤ˲θѲήʤɰռ⤷ƤʤϤˤ⤫餺θѲή򼡤طѤǤ椯ȤǤ롥Ѳ drift ȤϡüԤΰռĶȤǺѤƤߤϤʤΤ⤷ȤȡüԤΩͭΤȤȤˤʤ롥褬Τɬ
drift ȤѸϡꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) ǽ˻ȤäΤǤ롥"Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift." (150) ȸäƤꡤ줽켫ΤưϤȤʤäή߽ФƤ뤫Τ褦ʵҤǤ롥θͭФ Sapir Ȥ褷Ƥս꤬롥

Are we not giving language a power to change of its own accord over and above the involuntary tendency of individuals to vary the norm? And if this drift of language is not merely the familiar set of individual variations seen in vertical perspective, that is historically, instead of horizontally, that is in daily experience, what is it? (154)


Sapir ϡѲ켫ȤϤˤäƤǤϤʤüԤˤŪѰ̵ۤռŪˤäȤȤǧƤϤ롥

The drift of a language is constituted by the unconscious selection on the part of its speakers of those individual variations that are cumulative in some special direction. (155)


üԤʤ drift ʬ褦ʶˡޤǤظѲ䤷ʤƤ椯ΤϡѤ餺̤ΤΤޤޤǤ롥ɤΤȤSapir drift Ȥ mystical impressive ʸݤǤȤΤ褦Ǥ롥

Our very uncertainty as to the impending details of change makes the eventual consistency of their direction all the more impressive. (155)


դäСSapir ϱѸ줬ä¾줫Ѥ뷹 drift ǤȹͤƤ롥

I do not think it likely, however, that the borrowings in English have been as mechanical and external a process as they are generally represented to have been. There was something about the English drift as early as the period following the Norman Conquest that welcomed the new words. They were a compensation for something that was weakening within. (170)


Ǹ "something" ȤϲʤΤ
ѲΰȤϡ30ǯδ֤ grammaticalisation θ椬ʤȤˤäƿ̿᤭ޤ줿grammaticalisation ϸѲ unidirectionality ˾ƤƤ뤫Ǥ롥Lightfoot ϡ˷㤷ۤ򾧤Ƥ롥⤷˰ drift Ȳꤹȡ̤˸ˤ˥ǤʤϤüԤˤθưϤ򵢤ȤϤǤʤȤȡϤʤΤmystery ʳΤʤˤΤǤʤǤϤʤ (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, p. 399)
Sapir 衤drift Ϥޤ˲򤫤Ƥʤ

Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. 2nd Vol. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.

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2009-12-16 Wed

#233. Ѹˤλʬ (2) [periodisation][germanic][unidirectionality][speed_of_change]

ε[2009-12-15-1]ǡGrimm ˤλʬˤ "triadomany" äȤ˸ڤˤɥĸˤ Old High German, Middle High German, New High German ػʬΩˤϡñ˻Ĥλ夬˱ä󤵤줿ȤȰʾˡפʸѲ˴ؤޤߤäϡѲ ( directionality ) äƤꡤѲ®٤ϻ夬ʤˤĤ٤ʤäƤƤȤĥǤ롥Grimm ҤΰͤǤ Förstemann ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

die Veränderung der deutschen Sprache zwischen dem 9. und 13. Jarhundert durchschnittlich eine etwa dreimal so große Schnelligkeit besessen hat als zwischen dem 13. und 19. Jahrhundert, daß also das Sprachleben in jener Zeit etwa dreimal so stark war als in dieser. (84)


ʿѤ 9 -- 13 θѲ 13 -- 19 θѲ3®ԤϸθѲ3®ȤȤˤʤ롥ˤֻܡפƤꡤ"triadomany" ε̣ǻǤ롥⤽ѲΤɤ¦̤٤ƻܤʤΤѲ®٤ͲǤΤȵ䤬롥DzפʤΤϡGrimm ˤ Förstemann ˤ衤ѲȤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ѳ®٤θƤʾ塤ưƤȤȤˤϤǤ롥
ѲϤ˿ʤ ( unidirectional ) ΤʤΤˤϡѲ礭꤬ޤޤƤ롥

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 13.
Förstemann, Ernst. "Über die numerischen Lautverhältnisse im Deutschen." Germania: Neues Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und Alterthumskunde 7 (1846): 83--90.

Referrer (Inside): [2009-12-17-1]

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