#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ϡޤϤäƲƤʤѸˤǤ롥QŪˤϡҲŪƶϤΤ London 濴Ȥ륤ѲȯϤȤʤꡤʤɼդŤƤϤѸǤϤषդθबعߤƤȤ㤬¿
ФơMillar Samuels ήεǽŪΩ줫顤"conservative radicalism" ȤͿƤ롥ȤƼ夲ƤѲϡ3;ʣ̾ they ˤűѸ hīe ִȡͤȲꤵƤ롤³ though ˤ þeah ִӻؼ those ˤ tho ִ
The issue with ambiguity between the third person singular and plural forms was also sorted through the borrowing of Northern usage, although on this occasion through what had been an actual Norse borrowing (although it would be very unlikely that southern speakers would have been aware of the new form's provenance --- if they cared): they. Interestingly, the subject form came south earlier than the oblique them and possessive their. Chaucer, for instance, uses the first but not the other two, where he retains native <h> forms. This type of usage represents what I have termed conservative radicalism (Millar 2000; in particular pp. 63--4). Northern forms are employed to sort out issues in more prestigious dialects, but only in 'small homeopathic doses'. The problem (if that is the right word) is that the injection of linguistically radical material into a more conservative framework tends to encourage more radical importations. Thus them and their(s) entered written London dialect (and therefore Standard English) in the generation after Chaucer's death, possibly because hem was too close to him and hare to her. If the 'northern' forms had not been available, everyone would probably have 'soldiered on', however.
Moreover, the borrowing of they meant that the descendant of Old English þeah 'although' was often its homophone. Since both of these are function words, native speakers must have felt uncomfortable with using both, meaning that the northern (in origin Norse) conjunction though was brought into southern systems. This borrowing led to a further ambiguity, since the plural of that in southern England was tho, which was now often homophonous with though. A new plural --- those --- was therefore created. Samuels (1989a) demonstrates these problems can be traced back to northern England and were spread by 'capillary motion' to more southern areas. These changes are part of a much larger set, all of which suggest that northern influence, particularly at a subconscious or covert level, was always present on the edges of more southerly dialects and may have assumed a role as a 'fix' to sort out ambiguity created by change.
Millar Conservative radicalism ̾ΤȤDz⤷ƤηϤ˼ޤƤᥫ˥ϡƵǽŪȤ뤬Υᥫ˥बѤȤơܿ (dialect contact) ȽѰ۷ (variants) ζ¸äȤפǤ롥ܿ (contact) η̤ȤƷ֤Ѱ (variation) εޤ졤ηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ˤꡤ֤Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ѳ3 contact, variation, systemic regulation ФäƤ롥Millar conservative radicalism Ȥͤϡ츫ԲĻĤؤθѲŤȤˡӤŪͿƤ褦˻פ롥
they though Ѳ˴ؤ̤ȤƤϡ#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]) ȡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ([2011-04-10-1]) ȡ
ʤMillar (119--20) ϡ3;νñ̾ she ˤűѸ hēo ִˤ conservative radicalism Ʊ褦ŬѤǤȹͤƤ褦she ˤĤƤϡ#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1]), #793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲([2011-12-27-1]) ȡ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
ɸνϸϡĥäʸΤǡ?˴ؤƤϡ?ˤĤơʤȡˡפΰ̣Ѥ롥ŵŪˤ "As regards the result, you need not worry so much." Τ褦˿ƳΤѤ롥ǽŪˤֻȤäƤ褤
ʣֻϡŪˤϡ#1201. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤֻȯ ([2012-08-10-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸȯãƤ٤ as regards ϽѸǤϤʤѸǤȯãȹͤ롥OED regard, v. ˤȡ 8b ˤˡҤƤꡤȤƤ1797ǯ "A distinction is made, as regards moral rectitude, in the minds of many individuals." ȤʸƤ롥
b. as regards, as regarded (now rare), as regarding: with respect or reference to
Ʊưθʬ줫ȯŸ regarding, prep. ƱͤѤ뤬νȤƤ1779ǯ " The servant was called, and examined regarding the import of the answer he had brought from Madame la Comtesse." ʸƤ롥̾˸³ regarding ˤĤƤ17㤬ꡤ줬ʬʤΤֻʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ
ǯκ٤Ϥˤ衤as regards regarding ѸˤʤäƺդưͳֻǤȲ᤹뤳Ȥ礭ʰϤʤOED ˵ܤΤ as regarding ޤơư regard ֻʣΰ۷18Ⱦդ˳ȹͤ롥
Τ٤#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) ˤꡤas regards Ƥߤas regarding 2ۤɥҥåȡˡ70ǯ֤Ȥ˶ڤä٤ޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤä
| Decade | Frequency | Corpus size |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 | 5 (5) | 10,480,431 words |
| 1780--1850 | 70 (18) | 11,285,587 |
| 1850--1920 | 347 (6) | 12,620,207 |
than ϷƻӵθѤΤ̾Ǥ롥 as [so] . . . as ΤΤ褦ˡas äоݤӵ as åȤ¤롥ʸˡ˾Ȥ餻иѤȤʤ뤬Ūʸڤ뤷ߤǤǸ롥OED as, adv. and conj. B. 5 ǤϡΤ褦ˤ롥
5. After the comparative degree: than. Now Eng. regional (Yorks.), Sc. regional, Irish English (north.) and U.S. regional.
[Compare German besser als better than, classical Latin tam...quam as..as, plus quam more than.]
ʸ⡤c1300ǯν㤫顤Ѹ˻ޤ15㤬夲Ƥ롥MED as (conj.) θ 3(b) ΤȤˡ3ĤʸƤ롥Ĥ˵褦
c1300 St. Edward Elder (Laud) l. 38 in C. Horstmann Early S.-Eng. Legendary (1887) 48 (MED), Fellere þing nis non ase wumman ȝware heo wole to vuele wende.
?a1425(1373) * Lelamour Macer (Sln 5) 67b: Also this erbe haviþ mo vertues as endyue haþe.
(1460) Paston 3.241: I hadde never more neede for to have help of my goode, as I have at this tyme.
a1475(?a1430) Lydg. Pilgr.(Vit C.13) 2914: Hys lordshepe was nat mor at al, As ben thys lordys temporal.
?a1600 Marriage Wit & Wisdom (1846) iii. 27, I had rather haue your rome as your componie.
1893 H. A. Shands Some Peculiarities of Speech in Mississippi 17 Illiterate whites..say: 'This is better as that', 'I'd rather have this as that', etc.
ʤthan ѤȤƤ as ˤĤƤϡٹ (447) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ϺˤƤϤޤѸǤϤ뤬ˤϤʤ¿Ѥ줿Τǡθνˤ롥
ȤС
Darkness itself is no more opposite to light as their actions were diametrical to their words.---James Howell.
I rather like him as otherwise.---Scott.
ƥ졤ɥĸǤ⸶ξӵξȤǤƱ³Ѥ뤷ե que ⤽Τ褦¾٤ȡषѸ줬 as than ̤ۤפΤǤϤʤȤפƤ롥ӵ as than ٤ŪˤŪǤϤäѸ줫ѸˤƤʬۤĴ٤Ƥߤͤꤽ
as than θ츻ˤĤƤϡ줾#693. as, so, also ([2011-03-21-1]) ڤӡ#1038. then than ([2012-02-29-1]) ȡޤӤֻ to ˤĤƤϡ#1180. ޥӵȶӴֻ to ([2012-07-20-1]) ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ɸʸϡѸʤɤǤ褯 as ѤʸǤ롥Though he is young, he is rich. ʤɤȸȤ롥ޤYoung though he is, he is rich. ȤȤǤΤǡˡȤƤ as = though ȹͤ褦ˤפ롥ȤȡȤʤƻ줬³˰ưȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
Ūˤߤȡas though ιʸεϰۤʤ롥ʸˡʤɤ˲⤵Ƥ̤ꡤas ξʸϡAs young as he is, he is rich. κǽ As äΤǤꡤФӾɽ魯°ޤʸȤȤˤʤ롥ºݡä˥ꥫѸǤϺǽ As ⸫롥ޤǼФӾΤǤ뤫顤ΰ̣Ͼ˸ꤵʤʸ̮ˤäƤϡYoung as he is, he is reckless. Τ褦ˡͳɽ魯ȤȤʤꤦ롥OED as, adv. and conj. B. 4 ȤȡŪʵȯã褯狼롥
ιʸνФ1200ǯǡso young as . . . ηǸ롥϶ѸؤĤʤä
c1225 (?c1200) St. Katherine l. 173 (MED), Þohte þah..se ȝung þing as ha wes, hwet hit mahte ȝeinen þa heo hire ane were aȝein se kene keisere.
ˡ1300ǯ as young as . . . ηФߤޤ³
c1300 St. Michael (Laud) l. 656 in C. Horstmann Early S.-Eng. Legendary (1887) 318 (MED), And ȝeot, ase gret ase þe eorþe þinchez and ase luyte ase heo is, þare nis bote þat seouenþe del.
Ǹˡ17ˡƬ as ä young as . . . η롥
a1627 H. Shirley Martyr'd Souldier (1638) ii. sig. D2v, Darke as it is, by the twilight of my Lanthorne, Methinks I see a company of Woodcocks.
Young as he is . . . ιʸŪˤϾ嵭Τ褦ȯŸƤ櫓̣ŪŪ though ȴϢŤ褦ˤʤäΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥Young though he is . . . Ϥޤ֤ǤꡤƻǤϤʤưʶˤƬ뤳ȤǤ (ex. Go to Kyoto every week though he does, Jim likes Tokyo better.) 顤ƱȤ as ǤǤ褦ˤʤä (ex. Try as she may, she never seems to be able to do the work satisfactorily.) as though δ֤ˡŪ (analogy) Ѥ̤
as ΤιʸˤĤơٹ (p. 215fn) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤΤǡѤƤ
褳η as...as ǤäΤǡas ʸ˴פΤǤϤʤ as ʤæΤǤ롥Eliot The Mill of the Floss, I. iii Big a puzzle as it was, it hadn't got the better of Riley. Ȥʸ뤬Big μ a ΤΤʸƬˤ As ФλѤΤǤ롥
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
³ȤѤ for ˡ롥ʸŪǤϤ뤬ƤФŪʺŪ˽Ҥ٤ȤѤ롥դǤ for ˥ޡߥåʤɤζ֤졤ڤٻߤȼʸĤ褦
It was just twelve o'clock, for the church bell was ringing.
We listened eagerly, for he brought news of our families.
I believed her --- for surely she would not lie to me.
He found it increasingly difficult to read, for his eyesight was beginning to fail.
She remained silent, for her heart was heavy and her spirits low.
The man was different from the others, with just a hint of sternness. For he was a coroner.
for ϡͳҤ٤ŵŪʽ°³Ǥ because, since, as ʤɤˡʬŪ˽Ťʤ롥ºݤʤɤǤ "I did it for they asked me to do it." ʤɤľܤͳҤ٤ because ˶ᤤ⤢롥Ĥǡbecause ʤɤν°³ȤŪۤʤꡤ椨ष³Ȥʬव뤳Ȥ⤢롥
㤨Сfor Ƴ˻äƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ (ex. * For he was unhappy, he asked to be transferred.) ޤit is . . . that ζĴʸζĴΰ֤ for äƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤbecause A and because C ʤɤ and ˤ֤Ǥ뤬for A and for B ʤɤȤϤǤʤľ just, only, simply, chiefly ʤɤ֤ȤǤʤ
for ³餷̿ȤΤǤ롥㤨СŵŪ³ or ǤϡI may see you tomorrow or may phone later in the day. ʤɤȼ줬Ʊ硤2ˤϾάǤ뤬for ǤϾάǤʤ (ex. * He did not want it, for was obstinate)
Quirk et al. (927--28) ϡ°³³ʬŪʴϤʤȤʤ⡤Ūˤ for ԤʬहΤŬڤȹͤƤ롥if because Τ褦 prototypical ʽ°³ǤϤʤΤΡprototypical ³Ǥ and or γ֤Τۤ礭ȽǤƤ롥Quirk et al. (927) ˤŪ6ȡ̤齾°ؤϢ³ɽʲ˵褦ɽΡ֡ޡפϾˤäƤϳܤʤäꤹ뤳Ȥ֡ߡפ (and) yet 褦 and ʤɤ֤ǤդǤ뤳Ȥ
(a) It is immobile in front of its clause.
(b) A clause beginning with it is sequentially fixed in relation to the previous clause, and hence cannot be moved to a position in front of that clause.
(c) It does not allow a conjunction to precede it.
(d) It links not only clauses, but predicates and other clause constituents.
(e) It can link subordinate clauses.
(f) It can link more than two clauses, and when it does so all but the final instance of the linking item can be omitted.
Table 13.18 Coordination--conjunct--subordination gradients
ʤOED MED ˤȡŪˤ³ȤƤ for ϡűѸ줫Ѹؤβϴ˽ФƤ롥
1123 Peterb.Chron. (LdMisc 636) an.1123: Ac hit naht ne beheld, for se biscop of Særes byrig wæs strang.
c1150 Serm. in Kluge Ags. Lesebuch 71 Hwu sceal þiss gewurðen, for ic necann naht of weres gemane.
1154 Anglo-Saxon Chron. anno 1135, On þis kinges time wes al unfrið..for agenes him risen sone þa rice men.
ñΤ³ȤѤ for ȤȤơűѸǤ ðe ȼä³첽 forþam, forþan, forði 줿13ˤ for that ʤɤ compound connective ⸽줿³ȤƤϼŪǤϤΤΡƳȸŤˤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ʸɤǤơthe choice is between rhyme or prose Ȥ˽Ф路between ˤ³ and ԤȤchoice θ촶˰ or ѤƤΤ餷˥缭ŵǤϡˡˤĤưʲΤ褦˿Ƥ롥
1(3) between 1980 to 1990 choose between war or peace Τ褦 and to or ѤΤ((ޤ))to from A to B䡥or choose, decide ʤɤưϢ줹Ȥ¿Ѥ롥 choice [decision] A or B ȹͤʢ2ˡ
2[̡ʬ] Ĥδ֤[]ĤΤɤ餫?choose ? peace and war ʿ¤褫Τ줫֡Ԣand or Ѥ뤳Ȥ롨 1 [ˡ](3)
OED Ǥϡ"between" 18 ̡ʬۤˡƤ뤬or ѤʸϵƤʤƱMED Ǥ bitwene 7 ˡб뤬Ϥ or ʸϤʤ"between A or B" 㤬ĸ줿ΤȤ䤤ˤϡܤ˥ѥĴ٤ɬפꤽ
ѸˤĤơBNCWeb ư "{choose/V} between_PRP + or_CJC" ȤƸʸʬȤۤ8ǤϤ뤬㤬줿 Written books and periodicals Ǥ롥Ū狼䤹4褦
. . . in 1627 Emperor Ferdinand ordered all his Bohemian subjects to choose between Catholicism or exile.
The main characters are all glorified psychopaths, with little to choose between hero or villain in terms of basic humanity.
. . . Mapleton, already out of breath, had to choose between talking or using his energy to keep up.
It is for you to choose between clinical or disciplinary action.
Ʊͤˡ̾ "{choice/N} between_PRP + or_CJC" θ̤⻲Ȥ줿
"between A or B" Ϥޤ˵ʹ¤餫ä˵ʸˡǹ⤵ƤǤʤԤ줬̡ꡤȽ̣ˤ or θ촶ˤ褯Ǥ뤷or λѤˤä¿Ǥ between θꤵΤ顤Τ褦ʸˡϤष侩٤ȹͤ롥
then Ӥ³졦ֻ than 츻ŪƱǤ뤳ȤϡޤΤƤʤߤΤ褦˷־ζ̤ΤˤʤäΤϡճȿ1700ǯǤ롥
ξεȤƤϡޥĸλؼ̾촴 *þa- åʷꤵƤ롥Ȥȡthat the ȤƱΰۤʤˤʤȤˤʤ롥åʷ "from that; after that" ۤɤ̣λؼ̾ŪˡȯŸ³Ūˡȹͤ롥ĤޤꡤJohn is more skilful; then (=after that) his brother John is more skilful than his brother. ǡǤ롥Ӥ³ȤƤˡϡťեꥸ졤ť졤ŹϥɥĸǤǧƤꡤŪޥĸʳȯãƤ褦
OED ˤȡ̤⤢롥űѸλ³ þonne "when" ͳ褹ȤǡWhen his brother is skilful, John is more (so). Ȥ칽¤äˤʤäƤȤΤǤ롥ƥ then ɽ魯 quam ˡٻƤ롥
ߤǤ⡤then than ϼ夤ȯǤ϶̤ʤʤΤǡֻκƱ䤨ʤ (Common Errors in English Usage HP )
[2011-11-30-1]ε#947. Ѹֻפǡmarginal preposition ȤƵѸֻ1Ĥ save 롥Υ졼٥ȤƤʸ줢뤤Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿?ơפΰդǡʸϤȵ롥
They knew nothing about her save her name.
Answer the last question save one.
Every man she had ever loved, save her father, was now dead.
No one, save perhaps his wife, knows where he is.
All that remained to England in France, save Calais, was lost.
ֻϡָ̱츻Ūư save ȴϢŤ뤳Ȥ뤬ºݤˤϸťե sauf, sauve 1300ǯμѤǤʤäȤ⡤ư save ȸ츻Ū˴Ϣ뤳ȤϳΤǤˡθťեñ "keeping safe or intact" ۤɤΰդηƻǡ켫Ȥϥƥƻ salvus ñåʷ salvō 뤤 salvā ؤΤܤ롥salvus "unharmed, sound; safe, saved" ΰդǤꡤ㤨 salvo iure ȤС"law being unharmed" ˡ˰ȿˤۤɤɽ路åʹʸǤꡤѸǤΩʬ칽ʸ롥
ֻ save ϤΤ褦ͳǤ뤫顤衤³̾Ϸƻ save ƱʤǤ롥ΤȤ顤̾礬гʤǤϤʤʤǸ뤳ȤǤٹ (270--71) ˤСShakespeare ޤǤϼʸ³Τ̤ۤä褦 (ex. I do entreat you, not a man depart, / Save I alone, till Antony have spoke. (Julius Cæsar, III. ii. 65--66.) ʹߤϡŪʤֻ᤹̾Ȥưռ褦ˤʤꡤߤ˻äƤ롥
save ˤϡ餫³ȤƤˡ⤢ꡤߤǤ save that Ȥ Little is known about his early life, save that he had a brother. Τ褦㤬롥ɬ that ȼʤŤˡǤϡľ˸֤;̾줬ʤгʤˤäơ³줫ֻ줫̤줿櫓ǤꡤξʻǤ as, but, except, than ʤɤ롥ٹ (271) ϡֺǤ save ϤμгʤȼʤФʤʤĥκϤʤפȤƤ롥
ѸˤĤƤ MED "sauf (prep.)" ڤ "sauf (adj.)", 7 ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ֻ졤³졤ư졤졤̾졤طʤɤǽ (function word) 뤤ʸˡ (grammatical word) ȸƤФ졤äȤƤĤ (closed class) ȸ롥̾졤ư졤ƻ졤Ƹ (content word) ȸƤФ졤 (open class) 롥
塤ĤȤϡ˴ޤޤοͭ¤Ǥꡤʸùܤɲä뤳ȤʤäŪʰ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥްդ뤬ºݤˤĤؿùܤɲäȤȤϤ롥㤨СֻϡĤ1ĤǤϤ뤬ޤޤƤοŪ¿ʤĤ¿ˤβǥꥹȤ˲äƤùܤǤ롥ʣ¾ʻ줫ˤ줿ֻ⾯ʤʤ
ʲϡQuirk et al. (Sections 9.7--9.8, 9.10--9.11) ˵ƤȼʬˤֻΰΤǤ롥Ѹˤֻۤ줬äΤȶäФ
1. Simple prepositions
(a) Monosyllabic prepositions
as, at, but, by, down, for, from, in, like, near (to), of, off, on, out, past, per, pro, qua, re, round, sans, since, than, through (thru), till, to, up, via, while, with
(b) Polysyllabic prepositions
about, above, across, after, against, agin, along, alongside, amid(st), among(st), anti, around, atop, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between (tween, twixt), beyond, circa, despite, during, except, inside, into, notwithstanding, onto, opposite, outside, outwith, over, pace, pending, throughout, toward(s), under, underneath, unlike, until, unto, upon, versus (v, vs), vis-à-vis, within, without
2. Marginal prepositions
bar, barring, excepting, excluding; save
concerning, considering, regarding, respecting, touching
failing, wanting
following, pending
given, granted, including
less, minus, plus, times, over
worth
3. Complex prepositions
(a) Two-word sequences
up against, as per
as for, but for, except for
apart from, aside from, away from, as from
ahead of, as of, back of, because of, devoid of, exclusive of, inside of, instead of, irrespective of, off of, out of, outside of, regardless of, upwards of, void of
according to, as to, close to, contrary to, due to, near(er) (to), next to, on to, owing to, preliminary to, preparatory to, previous to, prior to, pursuant to, subsequent to, thanks to, up to
along with, together with
à la, apropos (of)
(b) Three-word sequences
in aid of, (in) back of, in behalf of, in cause of, in charge of, in consequence of, in (the) face of, in favour of, in front of, in (the) light of, in lieu of, in need of, in place of, in (the) process of, in quest of, in respect of, in search of, (in) spite of, in view of
in accordance with, in common with, in comparison with, in compliance with, in conformity with, in contact with, in line with
by dint of, (by) means of, by virtue of, (by) way of
on account of, on behalf of, on (the) ground(s) of, on the matter of, (on) pain of, on the part of, on the strength of, on top of
as far as, at variance with, at the expense of, at the hands of, (for) (the) sake of, for/from want of, in exchange for, in return for, in addition to, in relation to, with/in regard to, with/in reference to, with/in respect to, with the exception of
ΰˤ١ˡѰʤɤθ¤ƤΤޤޤƤ뤬۷194ĤΡʷֻ줬Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ĤȤϤʤʤ˭ʸ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ϴܵɽ魯̾ƳȤǤ뤬how Ƴ줿̾¾ that Ʊεǽ̤㤬롥say tell ʤɤãư˸³㤬¿ۤit is strange [funny, odd] ʤɤνˡηƻθѤ㤬롥
- He told us how she had arrived at the end of the party.
- She told me how she had read it in the magazine.
- It is strange how he could persuade her.
how ϡμʤ֤ΰ̣ɽ路ƤȤǤ뤬ñ that ѤȤɤ롥ʤȤʹˤȤäƤۣǤꡤhow ΰ̣ƤȸʤΤˤ how ΤˡϡֱάפȤʸŪޤɸŪפȤ⤵뤬õȤʤŤȤ狼롥㤨СOED ǤϤˡ "how, adv.", 10 ˵äƤꡤϸűѸ Ælfric ȤʤäƤ롥
10. With weakened meaning, introducing an indirect statement, after verbs of saying, perceiving, and the like: = That. Formerly freq. how that, and in mod. dialect speech as how . . . see how still more or less calls attention to the manner.
ѸǤ how that Τ褦ʣ³ηǤ褯Ѥ졤 MED entry for "hou" (conjunctive adv.), 4. ˭٤˸Ĥ롥
how ΰ̣³ؤȶŤƤǡʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) Ȥª뤫⤷ʤȤƤ when where ʤ¾εǤ褦ʤȤꤦ뤬how ϼʤ֤˸¤餺طʤɽ魯ΤˤѤ졤Ǥ٤Ǥ롥How are you? How do you do? ʤɤɽˤ how ΰ̣μ夵ȡ
and ϸѸǺѤ³Ǥ롥BNC ٥ꥹȤˤȡ桤Ʋ4̤٤ؤ (Frequency Sorter) ߤǤϤäѤ³ (coordinate conjunction) ȤƵǽ뤬ŤѸǤϽ°³ (subordinate conjunction) ȤơŪˤ if Ʊξ³ ȤѤƤȤϡޤΤƤʤ㤨Сand it please you ȸ if you please ̣
OED Ǥϡand, conj.1 C ιǡˡꤢƤ롥MED Ǥ and (conj. (& adv.)) 5 ǰƤ롥and if ( = if ) and but if ( = but if ) Ȥ߹碌Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢ (Mustanoja, p. 469) an 1600ǯ˸롥
and ΤˡεԾܤǤ롥Middle High German unde Old Norse enda бˡ뤬ѸΤΤϤθ줫αƶȤΩȯãȹͤۤʤ褦űѸ줢뤤ϽѸѤƤߤѤȤʤäƤ롥ѸϾ嵭 MED ΥڡȤƤ餦Ȥ褤Kyng Alisaunder 齦㤬äʬ䤹ȻפäΤǡʲ2ȤѤSmithers ǤꡥֻϰѼԡˡBƥȤLƥȤȤǥӤǤand θˡʬ䤹
He wolde al Perce habbe yȝiue
And he miȝth haue had his lyue. (B 4645--46)
Y wolde Y hadde al Perce y ȝeue
Wiþ þat Y myȝte haue þy lif (L 4614--15)
And þou dude hym ouȝth bot good,
He wolde sen þine herte blood, (B 7754--55)
Hadestow don him ouȝt bote gode
He wolde seo þyn heorte blode (L 6475--76)
2Ȥ⡤BƥȤǤ And ѤƤ뤬LƥȤǤ̤³줢뤤֤ˤɽ路Ƥ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.
[2010-10-18-1], [2010-11-07-1]εƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) 夲³ though ([2011-04-06-1], [2011-04-07-1]) ǵƤȤ˻פФΤѸؤΤƤ "though" "they" Ʊ۵ͤǤ ( Samuels 69--72 )
ѸǤƱǤˤä֤͡ä˶üȤ[2009-06-20-1] "through" ֻͽۤȤ³ "though" äξǤ롥MED, "though" Ǹֻ˭٤ʬ˴ؤҤ٤ȡѸ쥤ǤϡűѸ West-Saxon þēah ͳ褹 þeiȝ ʤɤ첻ͥäϤǤ˾ääƤꡤþei ʤɤֻ⸫롥ǤϸťΥɸƱ ( cognate ) ͳ褹 þouȝ ʤɤθ첻ͥä
;̾ "they" ˰ܤȡǤϸűѸ hīe ͳ褹 hy ʤ <h> ƬˤķŪͥä (űѸο;̾ηϤ[2009-09-29-1], [2009-10-24-1]Ѹ Chaucer ο;̾ηϤ[2009-10-25-1]ȡˡǤϸťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿 þey ͥäŪˤϡ þouȝ "though", þey "they" Ȥ߹碌 þeiȝ "though", hy "they" Ȥ߹碌˰Ϥ褦ȤƤ
ǡ̤ذϤƤΤϿ;̾ þey "they" Ǥ롥줬˿Ū hy "they" äִƤäǤ þey "though" "they" ξ̣뤳ȤˤʤꡤƱ۵ͤƱ۵ͤ餱˲äΤϡ٤ȽŪ³ "though" Τۤä"though" ϡ"they" Τ˶̤ þouȝ ʤɤθ첻줿̤ȤơȤ߹碌ˤѤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ơ줬ɸѸˤäƤ롥
þouȝ "though" þey "they" ʬΤϡhy "they" þouȝ "though" פȤ߹碌ȤʸڤƥȤ1ĤʤȤǤ ( Samuels 71 ) Ȥþey "they" Ȳꤷͽۤ þey "they" þeiȝ Ȥ߹碌ϡΥƥȤˤƼºݤʸڤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʥƥȤǤȤȤϡþey Ʊ۵ͤû֤³ʤäȤ롥Ʊ۵ͤƴ֤ʤþouȝ "though" Ȥǡ꤬褵줿ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ʾ夬Samuels "though" "they" Ʊ۵ͤ˴ؤǤ롥Samuels ƤʤΤϡʤ þey "they" ޤǽȤȤǤ롥¤ϡˤϤ⤦1ĤƱ۵ͤǤ롥 hy "they" ϡ첻ӽñ;̾ hē ȷ־ζ̤Ĥʤʤ롥 h Τ˶̤ th η֤ʣ;̾ȤƳ뤳Ȥˤäơ;̾ηϤˤƱ۵ͤ褷褦ȤΤǤϤʤΤ褦˹ͤȡþey "they" 1ܤξͤ褷ǤϤ뤬2Ĥξͤ⤿餷ĥܿͤǤ⤢äȤˤʤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ε[2011-04-06-1]ǡthough although θˡκ˿줿Ʊǡ
4000Ķʤ The Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus (the LSWE Corpus) ȤѸʸˡBiber et al. (845--46) ǤϼΤ褦ˤ롥
Both of these subordinators [though and although] occur in all four registers [conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose], although the registers show different preferences of use. Conversation and fiction show a slightly greater use of though (concessive clauses are, however, uncommon in conversation generally). News shows no particular preference. In academic prose, although is about three times as frequent as though. Although seems to have a slightly more formal tone to it, fitting the style of academic prose . . . . The greater use of although by writers of academic prose may also result from an attempt to distinguish this subordinator from the common use of though as a linking adverbial in conversation . . . .
ޤƱ p. 842 ɽϡŪ though fiction ¿although academic prose ¿Ȥǧ롥ˤ뺹ƤȤη̤
Τ褦Ըơ BNC ( The British National Corpus ) ˤꤳΤƤߤ롥BNCweb ǡ{although/CONJ}, {though/CONJ} 줾측Written/Spoken, Text Domain, Sex of Author/Speaker, Perceived Level of Difficulty ʤ͡ʥѥǽиʬۤʬϤΩä̤ʲ˼ʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡˡ
ޤWritten/Spoken κˤĤƤϡͽۤȤꡤξȤ Written ؤФ꤬㤷ʺ۷ though 0.66344 although 0.49770 ǡ餫˽դФˡLog-Likelihood Test Ǥϡp < 0.0001 Υ٥ǽդäդͭպΤ˼줿
ꡤäˤ뺹ⶽ̣դäդξǡalthough ͭպäλѤФäƤ롥though ˤĤƤϡ although ۤɸǤϤʤʤդǤ p < 0.05 ͭպˡ
ˡText Domain ̤٤ߤ롥9 Text Domain ̤ ( Natural and pure sciences, Applied science, World affairs, Social science, Commerce and finance, Arts, Leisure, Belief and thought, Imaginative prose ) 100νиɸಽͤǡξ Text Domain ٤ղΤʲοޤ

Text Domain ˤäξνи٤оŪʷ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū sciences ( = academic prose ) although ΩImag(inative) Prose ( = fiction ) though ¿Log-Likelihood Test ǤϡText Domain ˤиκ p < 0.0001 ͭդǤ롥
ľŪˤԸη̤ͽۤȤǤϤ뤬although νˤؽѻʸǸѤȤ줿
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
°³ though although θˡμʰ㤤ϡԤĥäȤʸѤ뷹ȤHuddleston and Pullum (736) Ǥϡ"Although and though are alternants, the latter slightly more informal." Ȥ롥إϥѸ켭ŵ٤θˡˤȡ¾ˤƸθˡ˼Τ褦ħ䷹Ȥ
(1) ̣ξǤϤۤƱǤ뤬 though ΤۤϤ뤫̤θǡalthough ϤʸŪ
(2) It's expensive, though. ֤Ǥ⤤פΤ褦ʸŪˡ although ˤϤʤ
(3) as though, even though though although Ѥ뤳ȤϤʤʸƬǤ Although it is expensive. (ɡäѤ⤤)Τ褦ˡȤѤ롥
(4) young though he is (㤤ȤϤ)Τ褦ʹʸ although Ѥʤ
(5) ԤƳȤ(ǤϤʤ)ޤä¤Ҥ٤ʤɤǤ although ΤۤѤ뷹롥
Mizuno (41--42) ˤȡξħӸϰ̣õǽδ͡ˤʤƤMizuno ϡ(al)though Ƴ뽾°Ԥ뤫³뤫ȤŪʴˡ̣ʬ ( standard concessive, rhetorical concessive, contrast, rectifying concessive ) ݤ碌ơCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) fiction newspaper articles ФʬϤ
ĥٹ礤Ȥΰִط̣ʬʤɤˤäơѸˤ though although θˡκ뤳Ȥϼθˤä餫ˤƤ뤬κˤƤȤŪʴθϤޤʤΤǤϤʤ
ŪŪˤϡalthough though ˶դ all ղä줿ʣǤ롥Ѹ "even though" "even if" Τ褦˾䲾ɽȤѸǤ "all though", "all if", "all be it" ( PDE "albeit" ) Τä֤夷 "though all"' "if all" ɽ⤢ä ( OED, "all" 10c ) ³ؤ "all" ղäѸǤ̤ΤȤǤꡤ[2011-03-21-1]εǼ夲 also ⤽1Ǥ롥OED εҤˤȡalthough ϤΤ褦 though ζä1400ǯޤǤˤ϶դ though θطˤʤʤꡤֻȤƤ1֤褦ˤʤä
ѸǤϡ˽Ҥ٤褦ξθˡκϳΤˤꡤthough ñʤطªǤԽʬǤ롥κŪ¦̤ȤСʶ餯Ȼפ뤬ˡOED "practically only a variant" ȤҤûŪȤȤˤʤ졤̣Ѱ ( register ) ʤɤؤꡤ⤷Ѹˤθоݤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Mizuno, Yoko. "A Quantitative Analysis of Although and Though Clauses: Their Commonalities and Differences." Studies in English Literature. Regional Branches Combined Issue. Vol. 3 (2011): 47--66. (As Hokkaido Review of English Literature 55 (2010): 41--60.)
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ε[2010-09-17-1]³ԡDracula ˸ƱΩɽ³3۷ while, whilst, whiles ٤20ȾʹߤαѼˤ٤٤뤳Ȥˤäơ60?110ǯ餤δ֤˵äѲΰüָѤѥϰʲ̤ꡥ
(1) Dracula ( Gutenberg ǥƥ ): 1897ǯꥹѸ졥
(2) LOB Corpus ( see also [2010-06-29-1] ): 1961ǯꥹѸ졥
(3) BNC ( The British National Corpus ): late twentieth centuryꥹѸ졥
(4) Brown Corpus ( see also [2010-06-29-1] ): 1961ǯꥫѸ졥
(5) OANC (Open American National Corpus): 1990ǯʹߡꥫѸ졥
(6) Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA): 1990--2010ǯꥫѸ졥
ƥѥˤ³ȤƤ while, whilst, whiles ٿ3Դ֤Ψϰʲ̤ꡥ
| while | whilst | whiles | |
| (1) Dracula | 14 (12.61%) | 95 (85.59%) | 2 (1.80%) |
| (2) LOB | 517 (88.68%) | 66 (11.32%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (3) BNC | 48,761 (89.41%) | 5,773 (10.59%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (4) Brown | 592 (100.00%) | 0 (0.00%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (5) OANC | 7,893 (100.00%) | 0 (0.00%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (6) COCA | 246,207 (99.82%) | 447 (0.18%) | 0 (0.00%) |
ϥι˻֤ƤޤȤꡤܤ⤹٤ɤ٤ƤΤǺäȤäӹŹˤϱѸܤޤʤäΤʥϥɤʤΤǡˡ Penguin Popular Classics ΰ֤Ƥäʪ̡ɺ Bram Stoker (1847-1912) ˤ̾ Dracula ص۷쵴ɥ饭 (1897) ˼äΥɥ饭ߤϥ롼ޥ˥ Transylvania ʥϥ鹭ϰˤξȤǤꡤιˤդ路Ȼפ줿450ڡΤǻ٤Ūˤ⤫ʤԵܳŪɤϤᡤ⿲˾ɤ³Ƥ뤬ޤɤ߽ʤ
ʪϤ⤷Τǰޤ뤬̣ɽȤϤˤʤѸɽˤܤαޤ롥ˤʤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥˡ³ whilst ٤Ǹ뤳Ȥ롥³ whilst ϸߤǤϥꥹѸʸħŪʷĥäǡwhile ٤٤㤤Ǥ Longman μˤ while Ϻ1000٥⡤whilst Ϻ2000٥ˡʤˤ while Ф뤬 whilst ٤ΤۤŪ˹⤯ǸߤΥꥹʸξȤϰۤʤ롥 whiles ʤɽǤϤ뤬졤Ĵ٤ʤФȻפΩäۤ1δ֤ˡ³ȤƤ while, whiles, whilst Τ줾٤ϤɤΤ褦ѲƤΤ
٤ͻϤˡƱΩɽ°³ȤƵǽ3η֤εƤߤäȤŪѤ while ϡ[2010-06-18-1]ˤ褦˸űѸǤϡֻ֡פ̣̾ˤʤä줬ʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) Ф³ȤƤεǽȯŸƤǽŪȯŸȤǤ whiles whilst while ƱͤǤꡤ̾ while ȹͤƤ褤2ϷŪˤɬפǤ롥
whiles θ -s [2009-07-18-1]ˤŪ° ( adverbial genitive ) Ǥ롥whiles 13˽Ƹ졤ñȤǤ뤤ʣŪˡ?ΤȤˡפɽ³Ȥ̤˸褦ˤʤäߤǤϥåȥǡֻפΰ̣ɽޤŸȤƤ while ƱѤ뤬ŪˤѸȤʤäȹͤƤ褤ϢȤƤϡϤŸȤƤ otherwhile(s) somewhile(s) 롥
whilst [waɪlst] Ͼ嵭 whiles -t ĤΤǡȤƤ14顤³ȤƤ16餪ʤƤ롥-t ղäˤĤƤϰβؤȤͤ뤬̣䵡ǽǴϢŤ against, amidst, amongst, betwixt ʤɤθθߤ˱ƶä̤ǤϤʤȤ롥θϤŪ°ʤ -s ꡤĺǾ -st ȤϢۤƯˡ-st Ĥ褦ˤʤäȹͤƤܸǤ?κˡפʤɤȤˡҤ褦ˡwhilst ϸߤǤϥꥹѸʸ˸¤졤ĥäǤ롥while Ӥ٤Ϲ⤯ʤʸϤǤܤˤ뵡Ϸ빽롥
³ while variants Ȥ whiles whilst η֤ˤߤȤǡ Dracula αѸȿ岼äѼǤγƷ֤٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤ褦
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow