ɸΡ֥塼ΥѥɥåפˤĤơ#3245. idiolect ([2018-03-16-1]) ǿ줿̤ơؿѸؼŵ٤ "sociolinguistics" ι (1124) εҤɤǤߤ褦
¤ؤǤϡñ̤Ωط˴ŤΩƤ빽¤餫ˤ뤳Ȥ濴ŪʲǤꡤΤ˸Ū֤ˤƤȤ館ϤǤŪǤ뤳ȤɬפǤȹͤˤѤϡϤŪʻѤˤƤñι¤ΤǤ (monolithic) ȤΤǤ롥ñΤ뤿ˡĿŪʤ졤̤ȤƤʬϼͳѰۡ뤤졦æȤڤΤƤɸϤҲ˶̤ι¤Ρʡˤ뤳ȤǤʤ顤ơĤˤϸĿ (idiolect) оݤȤȤ֤˻äLabov (1972a) Ϥ 'Saussurian Paradox' ȸƤ֡¤ñƸϼºݤλѾ̤ڤΥ졤ñ 'ideal speaker-hearer' θǽϤΤȤơϹ٤۲졤¤ͷΥ줿
ػŪˤϡ塼ϻϤ¤ؤϡ칽¤ŪǤñŪǤ뤳ȤռŪȤ뤳ȤǡɤθʤƤ褤ȤˡݤΤȹͤƤ롥ºݤˤŪǤʤñŪǤʤɤ¸ߤ롥ڤΤƤʤȤԤ⤢ȡιԤϳΤˡȤƤϰȤǤϤʤ variation variability ϡޤƤ֤ΤǤäơ¸ߤʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ŪۤȼŪ¤Ͼȿ롥äƤˤϡ¤ͷΥƤʤȤ䤤Ū˸椷Ƥˤϡޤ˾ɤˤäƤϤʤȤ䤬ɬפ
Ϣơ#2202. langue parole ([2015-05-08-1]) ȡ
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
ɸϤդʤΤ˸ؤ evidence ȤƹͤƤߤȤ⤷ΤǤϤʤǰƬ֤ƤΤϱѸǤꡤ٤ƤθƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦ʤȤϾʤ̸θˤƤϤޤΤǤϤʤ
̾¸ǽʸ¿ϱʸǤ뤳Ȥ¿ƤʸȤϡ줿λˤƤȤʸظǤꡤäդΤޤȿǤƤΤȲ᤹뤳ȤϤǤʤ夬ˤĤ졤Ȥ櫓ˤΤΤ褦˸ʸλʸȯãˤϡĤޤդäդκṲ̄ޤäƤ褦ʸˤäƤϡ줿ϿäդμΤФȤäưפˤʤäƤ롥ΤȤơ֤ȤȤˡäդ evidence ؤΥݾڤ褦ˤʤäƤ褦ˤߤ롥
ǶˤơɸȤΤȯãƤ¤롥ϡȯãƤʸˤơȤϸŪ˳֤ΤɸǽȤ;ʤ롥ȡθԤܤˤƤΤΤʸϡΤ˱ʸ٤äդȿǤƤǽ⤤ȤϤμ줬ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˤäƶ줿ѼԼäѼ郎ȿǤƤˤʤȤ⤤롥ΰ̣ǤϡΤ褦ʾڵΡǤΡŪäդФȤʤäƤȸΤǤʤΤȤơ֤ȤȤˡǤäդ evidence ؤΥ˸褦ˤʤäƤȹͤ롥
˵³СʸʸΤȤƤ⡤夬ˤĤ pragmatic mode 뤤 informal discourse syntactic mode 뤤 formal discourse ؤȿܤ "syntacticization" ηŦ Givón Τ褦Ԥ⤢ (Schaefer 1277) äդεʤ pragmatic/informal ϡsyntactic/formal ظḽνդȤƤʤȤϤ롥
嵭Υץ饹ȥޥʥŪ礹ȡŪäդؤΥӥƥϡȤ3ʤ2ⲼȤ餤ΥڡǿʤǤȤϸʤ̸ŪˤΤ褦ʰ뤫ɤϲ⤷ʤ˸ؤ evidence ȤưŪͤơޤǤϤʤ
Schaefer, Ursula. "Interdisciplinarity and Historiography: Spoken and Written English --- Orality and Literacy." Chapter 81 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1274--88.
#3198. 2ĬήȤƤ Anglo-American European Continental ([2018-01-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡä European Continental ή˸ϡŪʸؤȿ⤤ޤ#2884. HiSoPra* ˻ä (2) ([2017-03-20-1]) ǽҤ٤ȤꡤѸ˸̾ΤȤ˸椵Ƥ¿ϡαѸˤʸŪǡ֤ȤäˤäƤײ꤬¿ʸؤ˸ϡĴ뤫ȤݥȤ並ԤμƤμ˰㤤졤ߤ˶ᤤ֤ˤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥ǤϡξԤδ֤Dz̤ƤꡤۤʤäƤΤTaavitsainen ˤĤƹͻƤ롥
ʸؤζߤϡʤȤäƤ̤θѼˤĤƾܤμäƤ뤳ȤѸʸؼԤˤĤƤСűѸѸɤ뷱äƤꡤʸɤ߲פäꤷƤ (Taavitsainen 1463)
ʸؼԤϤޤƱˤʸʸ̮ (context) ˤ̤ƤʤȤԤƤˡ˸̣Ǥʸ̮Ż뤹櫓Ǥ뤫顤ξʬӤĤΤȤ⤤롥˸Ǥʸ̮νŻ뤬ʬ¸ΩפȤ⤤ΰηŪǤħ롥˸ԤȤƤ Taavitsainen (1464) ۩"We need to go beyond the text and consider linguistic, non-linguistic, and situation factors that might reveal communicative functions in a systematic and principled fashion. This is a task not addressed by traditional philology or historical linguistics."
ʸؼԤ˸ԤΤˤϡоݤȤƤɤΤ褦ʥƥȤ֤ȤǤ⺹롥ʸؼԤƤʸŪͤΤƥȤФ뷹롥ΰ̣Ǥϡʸػˤˤܤ롥˸ԤϡषŪǡ¾ʤץƥȤַ롥Taavitsainen (1467) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In the times of traditional philology, literary, and religious texts, or texts with curiosity value, were considered worthy of study. These choices had consequences for historical linguistics as early studies of the language of past periods were based on these editions. The paradigm has shifted to more everyday and ephemeral materials like the interest in private correspondence, notes, (auto)biographies and handbooks. With contextual assessments, the approaches to data have become more refined, and it is interesting that literary texts are gaining an important position in historical pragmatics . . . .
٤Ȥ館Х꤬ʤɤΤȤʸؼԤǤ⤢˸ԤǤ⤢븦ԤϾʤʤ˸ʸؤݤ줿ºŤĤĤȯŸƤǡʸؤ˸Ȥ٥ΤȤ˳赤ŤƤФ褤ΤǤϤʤ
Taavitsainen, Irma. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Historical Pragmatics." Chapter 93 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1457--74.
#378. ϸδܹ礫ݤ ([2010-05-10-1]) #2000. ˸ʬȲ ([2014-10-18-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡĬήˤϡ"the (Anglo-American) component view" "the (European Continental) perspective view" 2बȤ롥˸ФξԤ֤ȡԤŪʿ̤Ѳ뤿θȤ֤ŤǻǤ롥ԤϡΤߤʤ餺Ҳʸޤʸ̮ (context) Ż뤷ƻäɤ߲ƤȤԤŪʸؤȤ⤤
ϥɥ֥åΤϤǡJucker ˸Ҳ𤷤ʤ顤2ĬήΩΤ褦˴ʷɽƤ롥
Researchers investigating pragmatic explanations of language change in general usually adopt the narrow understanding of Anglo-American or theoretical pragmatics, while those studying the diachronic development of pragmatic entities adopt the broader Continental European or social approach to pragmatics.
ԤΥ Continental European Ǥ롥˥塼ä괬˸ŪʵθˡƱϤκǸ (566) ǡContinental European θμιԡ뤷Ƥ롥
In a wider Continental European understanding of pragmatics, the pragmaticist focuses not only on the communicative contexts for language change but also on the larger contexts of change in communicative practices, including not only text structures and the ensemble of genres in a particular field of discourse but also larger communicative patterns such as the gathering, transmission, and dissemination of news content.
ǽΰѤѤƤ "narrow" "broad" Ȥƻ⡤ҴŪʰ̣ˤϰϤιΤȤǤꡤɾŪʰ̣礤ϹƤʤȤϤξԤΥϤ˰ۤʤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥줾Ĭήɽ븦Ԥδ֤ˤϡ͡ʰ㤤롥Ƥμΰ㤤ȵҤΥХʬκش꤫˴꤫ʤȤȤ館뤫ŪȤȤ館뤫
2ĬήΩĴȤϡξԤɤΤ褦˽в뤫ԤäƤߤΤ褤ȻפäƤ롥ϤǹήõȤ櫓ǤϤʤ2ĤήΤޤήƤΤʤΤǤϤʤ#2883. HiSoPra* ˻ä (1) ([2017-03-19-1])#2884. HiSoPra* ˻ä (2) ([2017-03-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡ˸Τ褦ʿʬϡּ㤵פ椨Ǻߤ뤬γؽŪ仺į˾ǤΩˤʤɡȯȤƤΥɥХơ⤿äƤ롥2ĬήιįƤΤⰭʤ
Jucker, Andreas H. "Pragmatics and Language Change: Historical Pragmatics." Chapter 29 of The Oxford Handbook of Pragmatics. Ed. Yan Huang. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 550--66.
#3176. ȤưŪʿˤ륷ƥफ (1) ([2018-01-06-1])#3177. ȤưŪʿˤ륷ƥफ (2) ([2018-01-07-1]) εǡưŪʿ (dynamic_equilibrium) ιͤȤƥ˱ѤǤ뤫ȤˤĤ
ʡοǤϡưŪʿդʪʳؤα㤬¿Ƥ㤨СưŪʿȿפưŪʿշݽפʤɡˡưŪʿշݽפꤹ륨åˤơʡ (170--71) ϰȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥Ѳΰ̴ط (causation) ǼŪǤ롥
ΤǤϡߤϢؤ٤Ƥ¿δطǷҤꤢäƤ롥Ĥޤˤ⡤Τˤ衤ʬϤʤʬȸƤӡʬȤڤФΤʤΤҤϡߤ¾Χ뤤䤷Ƥ롥ΤȤˤϡִ֤ªƤߤȡȼ꤬褦˸롥ʬνִ֤ȡȷ̤ϵžƤ롥뤤ϡޤ̤ʿդưƤ롥Ĥޤꡤˤϡΰ̣ǰ̴طȸƤ֤٤Τޤ¸ߤʤʬʤȤˤϤ狼ʤʬƤ狼ʤΤǤ롥䤿ϳΤ˺ѥࡦեȤɬפʤΤμ꤬ϤɤˤΤ
ʡưŪʿˤƤϡ̿ɮƬȤưŪʿդˤ륷ƥˤȤäơ֤ܼŪʥѥǤ롥֤ΤʤDzƯ³Ƥ뤫餳ǽݤäƤȤͤäơǤϥѥȤץŻ뤵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥֤ǤϤʤư֤֡ǤϤʤ̻֤νŻȤ
塼θؤˤƤ⡤ѥ֤֡餫ˤ뤳Ȥ饨ͥ륮䤵Ƥǡץư̻֤֡θϤʤˤƤȤäƤ褤ԤԤȤˤȤäƤϡؤˤѥࡦեȤɬפΤ褦˻פ롥ȤϤʬʤȤˤϤ狼ʤʬƤ狼ʤפȤȤΰ̣Ǥ롥ѥࡦեȤȤäƤǤ롥
ʡ 졡ưŪʿ3Ͻ줿ˤΤ߹ߤΩġ١ڳڼҡ2017ǯ
#3162. Ű ([2017-12-23-1]) #3172. 饤ҥ㡼ηŪȯۤϥǤϤʤʸؤ ([2018-01-02-1]) ǻȤƤˤСʹ֤ιԤʤʪʬˡϡʬ͡ (group thinking) ȡַ͡ (tree thinking) ̤ȤȤʬहȽļηطȤʬहΤ (107) Ϥ줾˴ŤʳؤʬʳءפȡָŰʳءפȸƤӡξԤΤ褦оȤƤ롥
| ʬʳ | ʬ | ե | 硿 | ǧΥƥ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Űʳ | | ȥ˥ߡ | Ρʬ | ˡʥ֥ |
| ǰŪ | Ū | |
|---|---|---|
| ηϳ (Systematik) | (Phylogenetik) | |
| (Formverwandtschaft) | ط (Blutsverwandtschaft) | |
| (Metamorphose) | ȯ (Stammesentwicklung) | |
| ηϳŪʳ (systematischen Stufenreihen) | (Ahnenreihen) | |
| (Typus) | (Stammform) | |
| (typischen Zuständen) | Ū (ursprüngliche Zuständen) | |
| Ū (atypischen Zuständen) | Ū (abgeänderte Zuständen) |
| ʬʳ | Űʳ |
|---|---|
| ¤ (structural linguistics) | Ӹ (comparative linguistics) |
| (typology) | ˸ (historical linguistics) |
| (linguistic area) | ² (language family) |
| ܿ (contact, borrowing) | (inheritance) |
| (space) | (time) |
| (synchrony) | ̻ (diachrony) |
| ط (paradigm) | Ϣط (syntagm) |
| ѥ (pattern) | ץ (process) |
| ???? (variation) | ???? (change) |
| (type) | ȡ (token) |
| ե (metaphor) | ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) |
| How | Why |
ʲͤƴĤȤƹ⤯Ǥ뤿ˤϡ䤿ʬͤйϤĤ⤦ĤλȤȤƥԡ뤹ɬפ롥ȤСܤˤΤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡƤΤʻװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϼºݤ̿ץʬʪؤؤȤߤʤ롥ФơΤ֤ʤפΤ褦ˤäΤʵװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϿʲʪؤȤ٤
ѲΡ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפȡ֤ʤפ (how_and_why) ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2642. ѲμȻȤߤν̡ ([2016-07-21-1])#3133. Ѳ "how" "why" ([2017-11-24-1]) ǰäƤʪؤθˤ꿷ȯۤ줿롥
ؿʲͤҥȤϿݤɤηϲ뤫١NHKǡ2010ǯ
Francis Bacon (1561--1626) ήиλ۲Ȥ William Whewell (1794--1866) 롥οʪϡǤ˺ƤָŰء (aetiology) ϻϤʪǤ롥ΰѤŰؤȳΩܻؤ (101--02) ͳǤϤ롥
ʳؤϡꥷ ɦӦɦʸˤ츻Ȥơذ̳ء (aetiology)٤ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥ΤȤФϤ줬褦Ȥ¬γޤȤ館ƤϤʤʤʤ顤Ūʰ̴طǤϳؤΤ褦ʱʵṲ̄ʳؤޤǤ롥䤬礷褦ȤΰϡǽʲǤϤʤ¤βоݤȤ롥줬줫褦Ȥϼؤʬʤϡ¸ (Ц˦, ϦͦӦ) ʪоݤȤȤͳǡظʪء (palaeontology)٤̾ŤƤ롥ǡΤդĤγǰ (Ц˦, ɦӦɦ) ӤĤ뤳ȤˤꡤŰ (palaetiology) ȤդƳƤԹϤʤ褦˻פ롥ǤŰؤȤϲλݤ˴ؤưˡ§˴Ťߤ¬γǤסʡصǼʳؤˡ١軰p. 397
θŰؤо (object 뤤ϡֿʲҡפȤˤϲǤ褤櫓ǡСʪ졤ܡ̱¯ʤɲǤ⤢Ǥ롥γؤʸͻȤ褦ɽŪʤΤǤϤʤޤΤδܸΤ֤֤̻֤ѶŪߤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥֤̻֤Ȥ¤ϡˤȤɤޤ餺٤ƤŪİ٤ξؤǤ롥ñʤϤξػˡʤԺߡʤȤ鷺Ȥ⡤ˤʤΤǤ롥̻ȴԤäƤ褦˻פ롥
ŰؤϡפˤǤ롥ѸˤĥͤС
طͤ٤ƤϥĥȤȤˡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2006ǯ
ε ([2017-12-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ֤ΡְŪطפȤˤϤʤƤΤ
ϼ¤Ԥˤä͡Ǥꡤ٤ƤθؼԤƱդƤȤΤϤʤNoonan (50) ϡְŪطפȤơ礭3٤̤ȤƤ롥
(1) the generational transmission approach¿θؼԤƤ롤䤹Ǥꡤ椨Ū˻Ŧ뤳ȤǤ⾯ʤͤǤ⤢롥ΩˤäƤϡ֤ΰŪطȤϡŪ塹ѤƤˤƱǤ롥ƤΤȤۤƱηϤҶλҶȤ뤬塹֤뤳ȤˤäơƱθ줬ѾƤȤͤΥ䤬ʤ¤ꡤȤȤ¿쾯ʤѲȤƤ⡤ŪˤƱθ줬ѤƤȤߤʤΤQŪǤ롥ѸüԤϡ̤äƤʤűѸüԤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤷ӸؤϤڤƤǤϤ뤬ޥĸüԡưĸüԤؤ̤뤳ȤǤʤȾʤȤϤǤˡäơѸȰĸˤϡϢʤݻƤŪطȤ롥
(2) the essentialist approachüԤϢ³ŪǤϤʤηѾ˾ƤΩǤ롥ľŪ˰طΤ֤ǤϡʸˡŪʷǤŪħѤϤǤȤΩġդˤСΤ褦ʸħܤ줫̼ܤؤȰѤƤСá̼פδطˤ롤ĤޤŪطˤȤߤʤȤǤ롤Ȥ롥(1) (2) ΩϡФƱʬϷ̤ȤӸؤˡĴ¤Ȥ⤢뤬εäΩ(1) ǤüԤˤηѾ(2) ǤϤθηѾǤȤ㤤դɬפ롥
(3) the hybrid approach(1), (2) ʳ͡ʹͤ͡ˡǼ줿ΩǡǤصŪ "the hybrid approach" Ȥ1ĤΥ٥βˤޤȤƤ롥ȾӸء쥪ʤɤ˴ޤޤ롥ζϡʤȤ⤤ĤξˤƤϡʣθ줬礷ΤǧƤ뤳ȤǤʾ嵭 (1), (2) ΩϸΰŪȤǰǧ᤺Ȥ "mixed language" ¸ߤǧˤ衤ְطפγ֤ˤȤˡӸؤˡӽ櫓ǤϤʤˡ٤ƤλŬѤȤϹͤƤʤޤϸνΤǤȤθäƤ롥ΩǤ͡ʥ˥奢ΰ㤤ꡤޤäǤϤʤ
Τ褦˸ؤθŪѤְŪطפظˤϡ¤¿ޤǥΩƤΤǤ롥Ϣơ#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ȡˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ȡ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 48--65.
˸ؤˤơĸĸ֤ȯȯãط "genetic relationship" ȸƤФ롥ʪؤ° "genetics" ȤѸžѤ뤳ȤϹԤʤ졤ΤΤȤƼƤ˹ͤФȡ줬̣뤫ϡޤäǤϤʤѸ츯طʤˤ͡Ƥꡤ⤽ԤˤäۤʤäƤ롥ˤĤơNoonan (48--49) ŪܤƤΤǡȤƤߤεǤϡˤŪطȤϲȤ⡤ǤϤʤȤȤ餫ˤ
ޤ⤹٤ϡΰŪطȤϡüԽĤʪŪʰŪطȤ̵ȤȤǤ롥μήɸؤǤϡͼʤɤΰŪʪŪʬȸʬȤ̵طǤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ĿͤϡɤοͼΤȤޤ줿ȤƤ⡤ʤ⽬뤳ȤǤ롥ĿͤνϡΰŪħˤꤵ櫓ǤϤʤޤ餷ҲθĶˤꤵ롥äơΰŪطεˡüԤʪŪʰ꤬;ϤϤʤ
ޤ (linguistic typology) ϡ֤ˤõꡤ餫δطФȤʬǤϤ뤬ϤޤǶŪʴطɵǤꡤŪطˤĤƲҤ٤褦ȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ2ΤΰŪطС줬¤ŪƤȤǽϳΤˤ뤬Ǥʤ¿롥դˡ¤ŪƤ2Ĥθ줬ۤʤ°ȤȤϤǤ⤢롥⤽μ (borrowing) ϡʤ֤ˤäƤǽǤꡤѤ̤ƶŪɤƤˤʤȤϡź¿Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥
ǤϡˤŪطȤϡüԽĤʪŪʰŪطΤȤǤϤʤŦ褦ʶŪ˴ŤطΤȤǤʤȤСäΤȤؤΤ䤤ϡ˸ؤˤƤۤȤŪ줿ȤʤΤǤϤʤˤ⤫餺ŪˤѸ줬Ȥ³ƤΤȤСۤΤȤƤȤˤʤ롥ѸϰŪˤϥޥɤ°ȤܸˤϰŪطΤָ줬ʤʤɤȸȤˤϤʤؾޤޤƤΤˤĤơεǹͤ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. 2013. 48--65.
Kretzschmar ϡʣϤȤƤȤ館Ѳ븦ԤǤ롥ǶʸǡʣϤγǰѤơꥫѸνѼ郎ˤƤȤƤ롥ʸƬ (251) ǡȯäʣϤȤƤȤ館븫üŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . language in use, speech as opposed to linguistic systems as usually described by linguists, satisfies the conditions for complex systems as defined in sciences such as physics, evolutionary biology, and economics . . . .
ʣϤȤߤʤ٤2Ĥħʤ "non-linear distribution" "scaling" ƤȤ (253) "non-linear distribution" ϡŪˤСж (A-curve) ʬۤؤƤ롥ȤƤ˻פ⤫֤Τϡ#1103. GSL ˤ Zipf's law θڡ ([2012-05-04-1]) #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 zipfs_law ΥդǤ롥ιٸ¿ٸˤꡤĹդ롥Kretzschmar ϡ˴ؤ¾θݤǤ⤳Τ褦ʥդȼĥ롥
ָʣϡפ˴ؤ⤦1ĤħǤ "scaling" ϡA-curve Τ褦ʬۤΰۤʤ٥ˤƷ֤ؤƤ롥ꥫˤñ¸ˤĴǡƷ֤ˤĤٽ̤ι⤤¤٤٤ץåȤƤ A-curve Ȥʤ뤬New York ˸¤äƱͤΥդƤ뤷üԤ˸¤äդǤϤƱͤζȤ (255)
դǤꥹ롦եȤȤˤʤСʤ#3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1]) ۵롥Ϣơ#3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1])#3112. ȸѲ (2) ([2017-11-03-1])#3122. ηϤϡ֥ձפˤ ([2017-11-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Kretzschmar (263--64) ʸκǸǡѼΤʣϤιͤͭѤǤȷŤʣϸؤ롥
Complexity science is the model that can cope successfully with the problems of language variation and change that we are interested in solving for the history of American English. Complexity science addresses the emergence of a new American variety, along with its component regional varieties, more adequately than traditional approaches. Complex systems replace the notion of monolithic "language contact" or Fischer's "cultural shift" with interaction between speakers. Complex systems can deal with the extension of existing varieties into new areas, and still account for the evident acquisition of new variants from important cultural groups in different areas. Finally, complex systems can cope with contemporary American cultural change and attendant language change, again without recourse to monolithic thinking. We are just at the beginning of research to understand the operation of the complex system of speech, but it is already clear that it gives us a good way to describe how the process of emergence and change really works.
Τ褦 "monolithic" ʸܿ˴ŤǤϤʤ˴ޤ߹褦ʣϤ줫θѲ٤ƤΤǤϤʤȤ櫓Τ˻ɷŪǤ롥
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. "Complex Systems in the History of American English." Chapter 4 of Developments in English: Expanding Electronic Evidence. Ed. Irma Taavitsainen, Merja Kytö, Claudia Claridge, and Jeremy Smith. Cambridge, 2015. 251--64.
˸ؤϸѲʬʤѲΤȤ (causation) õ椹ȤĤߤˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ܥ֥ǤѲ (language_change) Ρָסװסֶưϡפ͡Ƥ֤ʤפФϤ⤽¸ߤΤȤǰˤĤޤȤäƤ롥Ϳ줿餷ΤϡѲΡ֤ʤ (Why?) ФǤϤʤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡ (How?) ФˤʤΤǤϤʤȡѲ How Why ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1]) ȡ#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1]) ̡䤤Ǥ뤫Τ褦˰äƤ2Ĥ䤤ϤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ
ϢȤƤ Harari (265--66) ϡ˳ؤΩ줫餳ƤꡤWhy Ф How ν⤤Ƥ롥
What is the difference between describing 'how' and explaining 'why'? To describe 'how' means to reconstruct the series of specific events that led from one point to another. To explain 'why' means to find causal connections that account for the occurrence of this particular series of events to the exclusion of all others.
Some scholars do indeed provide deterministic explanations of events such as the rise of Christianity. They attempt to reduce human history to the workings of biological, ecological or economic forces. They argue that there was something about the geography, genetics or economy of the Roman Mediterranean that made the rise of a monotheist religion inevitable. Yet most historians tend to be sceptical of such deterministic theories. This is one of the distinguishing marks of history as an academic discipline --- the better you know a particular historical period, the harder it becomes to explain why things happened one way and not another. Those who have only a superficial knowledge of a certain period tend to focus only on the possibility that was eventually realised. They offer a just-so story to explain with hindsight why that outcome was inevitable. Those more deeply informed about the period are much more cognisant of the roads not taken.
Ǥϡˤ Why ǤϤʤ How ƧߤȤɤޤʤ˳ؤȤϲΤˤΤHarari (48) ϲΤ뼡Τ褦ʸդǸڤ롥
So why study history? Unlike physics or economics, history is not a means for making accurate predictions. We study history not to know the future but to widen our horizons, to understand that our present situation is neither natural nor inevitable, and that we consequently have many more possibilities before us than we imagine. For example, studying how Europeans came to dominate Africans enables us to realise that there is nothing natural or inevitable about the racial hierarchy, and that the world might well be arranged differently.
̤ͽ¬˳ؤŪǤϤʤƱ褦ˡѲ˸ؤ⡤̤ͽ¬ŪȤƤʤ
ͽ¬ǽˤĤƤϡ#843. Ѳͽκ ([2011-08-18-1])#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ ([2011-08-19-1])#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2012-02-10-1])#2154. Ѳͽ¬Բǽ ([2015-03-21-1])#2273. Ѳͽ¬ǽˤĤƺơ͡ ([2015-07-18-1]) ϤȤ (prediction_of_language_change) εȤ줿
Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.
θʬहݤ2ĤδǤַפȡֱƶפϡɤδطλŤǤ⤢롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤơ餳Ƥ (see #369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#371. ƶɬ̤Ǥʤ ([2010-05-03-1])#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δطޡ ([2014-08-09-1]))
ȱƶϡ줾̻֤ȶ֤δطˤ̤Ȥ롥Ȥϻּ˱äˤνļؤƶȤϼŪܴطˤ벣ؤˤַפȡֱƶפȤΩϡʪʬؤǤȤΡַפȡʳפΩ롥
ʬʬ (cladistics) Ǥϡּ˱äʬˤפȤַפλ顤ɤδطŤʤ롥ȤƤδطߤ˶ᤱСħ⤽ƤΤϼħƤ¨طᤤȤСɬ⤽ʤʤȤƤϰۤʤ뤬Ķʤɤ˱ƻ褦ʷ֤ȯã뤳ȡʼ̿ʲˤ롥Τ褦ʷȤ̵طŪƱ (homoplasy) ȤŪʶᤵǤϤʤŪƱ˴ŤƽĤʬλϡʳ (grade) ˤʬȸƤФ롥
å (70) ͤˤơĹʬहˡ夲褦ַפλˤСʲΤ褦ʬव롥
ҥ²ѥ²²²
ҥȲʡ
ҥ²ѥ²²²
ɸθؤˡˤĤơ (58) ȤФʬϤˤפʣŪǤäƤ褤ȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲϡФ֤ʸˡǧθؤȤ2ĤθǰƬ֤ĤĽҤ٤Ƥ븫Ǥ롥
鷺⤬ʤǤϤ뤬ȤФʬϤˤפβ뤫ˤĤơҤ٤롥θϡֲŪפȤ䤤˲ŪͿ뤳ȤӤǤȤΤǤ롥ΥѥˤĤӸƤ뤳ȤʬŪ̵ʤΤǡʤĤޤʤĤʤˡƤ븽ݤˤĤư̲줿硤ŪʲȳŪʲȤǽȻפ뤬ξԤ¾ŪǤɬפʤڤʤΤξԤ¸ǤȤȤǤ롥㤨Сʸˡ§ŬѤϹ¤¸ǤפȤΰ̲ФʸˡˤĤƤŪǤ롤Ȥ뤳Ȥ˰¸ϤʤƱˡǧεоݤ¤Ūİ롤Ȥ̲OKʤΤǤ롥פǧŪʳ٤줬뤳ȤФޤ칽¤Ϥޤޤ̤ưŤƤȤ¤˼Ф褤ΤǤϤޤ
ǸƤŪŪʲפ¾ϸˤĤƤΰ⤤ϸѲθˤĤƸˤƤϤޤꤽ㤨СŪʸȳŪʸϸߤ¾ŪʤΤǤϤʤޤƱȤϡѻ2Ĥ١֤̻֤ˤĤƸˤƤϤޤΤǤϤʤ֤̻֤ߤ¾ŪȤߤɬפɬʤ
Ū˾嵭ƱΩǸΡפȤΤƤ롥Ȥʣоݤ1ĤǴϤʤष줳Ȱۤʤ٤ͻ뤳Ȥˤäơ椬ƤȤ餤ʪʤΤǤϤʤˡ͡ʳ٤ǽŪ1Ĥθ˽ȤǽʤǤϤʤ줹˾ߤΤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥ΰ̣ǤϡؤȤϡȤФɤΤ褦˸뤫͡ʳ٤νˤۤʤʤȹͤƤ롥
ס֥θءȤФιȤơסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ51--58ǡ1992ǯ11Ͽ
˸ؤȥѥѤȤ褤ȸ롥㤨бѸˤǹͤСŪʥƥȤͭ¤Ǥ뤫顤٤ƤŻŪ˳ǼСʸ̤ŪĴ뤳ȤǤ롥αѸ˵Ҹ⡤ŻŪǤʤäΥƥȷĴоݤȤƤǤϡƱ֥ѥäȤ⤢롥ߤǤϡޤޤ¿θԤŻҥѥȤδϢġѤƸ椷Ƥ뤷Ĭήϴְ㤤ʤȯŸƤ
դ٤Ȥ⤢롥Ѹ쥳ѥؤ路ɥ (197) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
1990ǯʹߡ˸ؼԤˤȤäƥѥ˽פʥġȤʤޤȤʸʤФʤʤä⡤ʤΨ褯ܤõˤʤޤȤϤ˸ؤǤϡΥѥȤäʾˡʸΩ֤ꡤɬפޤʤŤǤϡΡָʸפɬ⸶ܤǤϤʤʣ̤Ǥ뤫⤷줺ˤϤʣ̤⡤ʣμ̻Ȥ˼DzԤƻĤΤΰĤˤʤǽޤˡ顤μŪʥѥؤϡɴǯθθȤۤˤޤŤαѸ쥳ѥʤСѸˤμȤȤδϢǹԤΤ褤Ǥ礦
Ѥ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤȤ櫓ŤθоݤȤˤϡդפ롥θΤ褦ΤޤޤǤȡˤ֤Ĥ뤫㤨СѸˤǤСѸǤֻꤷƤʤñ褦ȤƤ⡤ɸŪֻʤΤǡͤ͡ʰ֤ǸƤߤɬפ롥ޤʸˡŪʥդʤƤˤ⡤ѸȸűѸ졦ѸȤǤʸˡƤۤʤäƤ뤷μ㤷ƤΤǡˤäƻ˸ŤʸˡμɬܤȤʤ롥פˡ˸Ť˽ϤƤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥
ˡѤǸڤƤ̤ꡤָʸפοԲķǤˤ⤫餺ѥɽŪѤ뤳Ȥ˴ƤȡƤοߤ˰ռʤʤ꤬Сʸɾ (textual criticism) ʸŪʥץ±ˤʤäƤޤ롥ѥΤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ椹ԤΤȤռŪ˼ФƤФ褤ȤȤǤϤΤñǤϤʤ
⤦1ġŻҥѥʤ餺Ȥˤʤ뤬ѥɽ (representativeness) ꤬ˤ롥ŤξˤϡߤƥȤ϶ĤäƤȤפΤʤ𤬤ꡤɽϤȤ˿
ŤθѥĴȤȤϡŪˤŪˤ⡤츫ۤɤ䤹ʤȤȤƤϢơʲε⻲ȡ
#568. ѥȱѸ쥳ѥ ([2010-11-16-1])
#363. Ѹ쥳ѥȯŸ3 ([2010-04-25-1])
#368. ѥϸβǽ ([2010-04-30-1])
#1165. ѹǥѥ椬ˤʤäطʡ ([2012-07-05-1])
#307. ѥѤ ([2010-02-28-1])
#367. ѥѤ (2) ([2010-04-29-1])
#1280. ѥɽ ([2012-10-28-1])
#2584. ˱Ѹ쥳ѥɽ ([2016-05-24-1])
ϡɥȡˡ 翹 ʸҡ ޤߡ ɹˡرѸ쥳ѥѤ츦١罤ۡ2016ǯ
ε#2757. Ferguson ˤҲŪʡȯŸפٹ礤 ([2016-11-13-1]) ˰³Ferguson ʸ˰͵ʤ顤ʶƱΡˤˡˤĤƹͤ롥Ferguson (25) ϡؼԤŪ˹ȤȤñ̤ƹθʤȤ٤äƤҲؤΩ줫ϡȤȤƹͤ뤳Ȥɬפȼĥ롥
From many points of view . . . it is desirable to use the nation as the basis for general sociolinguistic descriptions: communication networks, educational systems, and language "planning" are generally on a national basis and national boundaries play at least as important a role in the delimitation of linguistic areas as any other single social barrier.
Ferguson ϡȤȤƸλѾҤȤԲķǤꡤ٤ƤιȤˤĤưӤǵҤ뤳ȤˤꡤӤǤ褦ˤʤ뤷Ǥ褦ˤʤȼĥ롥Τ褦ʹ̤εҤ"national sociolinguistic profile" (26) Ǥ롥ΰӤˤĤƤϡͽŪʤΤȤʤ顤ιܤƤ (26)
. . . how many major languages are spoken; what is the pattern of language dominance; are there national uses of a LWC [= language of wider communication]; for each major language spoken in the country, what is the extent of written uses of the language (W0. --- W2.) and what is the extent of standardization (St0. --- St2.) and its nature (multimodal? range of variation from the norm?).
ޤǤˡ褽 Ferguson Ƥ̤ˡֹȤμҲŪسԡפεҤʤƤEthnologue Τ褦ʥǡ١褦ˤʤä
Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.
Ferguson ϡ "language 'development'" ¬ˡƤƤ롥'development' Ȱ䤬뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡϿʲŪʸѤ˴ŤƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲŪȯŸٹ礤¬ȤߤǤ롥Ferguson (23) Ū˵ƤΤϡֽդλѤٹ礤 ("the degree of use of written language") ȡɸಽ١ ("the nature and extent of standardization") 2Ǥ롥
1ܤλɸǤֽդλѤٹ礤פˤĤƤϡ绨Ĥ W0, W1, W2, W3 4ʳǧȤ (23--24) ʳߤʬ̤ꡤ̤صŪʻɸȤäƤ褤
W0. --- not used for normal written purposes
W1. --- used for normal written purposes
W2. --- original research in physical sciences regularly published
W3. --- languages in which translations and resumés of scientific work in other languages are regularly published
2ܤλɸǤɸಽ١פϡäȹäƤ롥λɸˤ2Ĥ¦̤ꡤ1ΤΤ "the degree of difference between the standard form or forms of a language and all other varieties of it" (24) Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤѼ֤κٹ礤˴ؤ¦̤ǤʴϢơ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) Ȥ줿ˡ
2¦̤ "the nature of the standardization and the degree to which a standard form is accepted as such throughout the community" (24) Ǥ롥Ferguson (24--25) 3ʳꤷ
St0. --- "a language in which there is no important amount of standardization" (ex. Kurdish) (24)
St1. --- a language which "requires considerable sub-classification to be of any use. Whatever scheme of classification is developed, it will have to take account in the first instance of whether the standardization is unimodal or bi- or multimodal, and in the case of more than one norm, the nature of the norms must be treated" (ex. bimodal Armenian, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Norwegian; multimodal Hindi-Urdu) (25)
St2. --- "a language which has a single, widely-accepted norm which is felt to be appropriate with only minor modifications or variations for all purposes for which the language is used" (24)
¬ΤλɸȤƹӺǤϤ뤬ʬ䤹ǤͥƤ롥
Τ褦¬ͤ˴ŤơʶƱΡˤҲŪ褦Ȥߤϡۤˤ⤢롥#1519. ҲŪؤƻ ([2013-06-24-1]) #1547. μҲŪ°7 ([2013-07-22-1]) ȡ
Ferguson, Charles A. "The Language Factor in National Development." Anthropological Linguistics 4 (1962): 23--27.
ϡѸ (history of the English language) Ȥʬ19衤ؤ䤽μդγΰȯŸȤȤˤɤΤ褦ȯŸƤƺɤΤ褦ȯŸ³ƤꡤɤΤ褦ظäƹԤΤȤˤĤƹͤȤΤϡMomma and Matto ˤԤޤ줿αѸ˼ƳǤ롥
1920Ƭˤϸؤδؿ鲻֤Ūȯã̩õ뤳ȤäӸؤȸƤФŪΰ褬ͥ줿̤ؤϤ˿䤷ʤǤ롥ѸˤΤ褦ʸ̸ˤɬŪˤ˾ꡤǵҤ٤ϡѸβ֤ʤɤФƤѲפǤ뤳Ȥ뤵ƤߤȤαѸΡ̻ˡ (internal history) Ǥ롥Matto and Momma (7) ˤȡ
. . . the study of language in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was almost exclusively philological. Sound shifts, developments in vocabulary, and syntactic changes were of primary interest, while historical events were at best secondary.
20ʤǤȡӸؤȤϰۤʤ빽¤Ūʸθ졤ŪηϤؤδؿѤ餺³ΤΡǸηŪǤҲ䤽ˤȤä쳰δĶˤäƤ˾դΤȤäռƤơѸ˵ҤˤȼҲĶδطռȿǤϤ"emphasis on the social function of language" (Matto and Momma 8) ȤǤ롥ǡѸˤˡֳ̻ˡ (external history) ȤܳŪդääƤΤǤ롥
Ѹˤˤ̻ˤȳ̻ˤߴطŻ뤹뵭Ҥ٤λȤʤäƤη˾ǡ20Ⱦ顤ѸˤȤʬȯŸ3ʳȤ⤤뿷ʻ夬ϤޤäƤ롥ϡɸѸȤפ1Ѽǯ嵭ȤαѸ˵ҤæơɸŪѼޤ "Englishes" ˤ礷褦ȻߤʳǤ롥ǤϤʤ¿¿ͤʱѸѼˤܻؤʱѸˤؤĩǤ롥Matto and Momma (8) ϡθɸѸؤ³ռűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ3ʬȤȯۤϡѸ˵ҤˤȤäƤϡޤľŪȴƤ롥
[The tripartite history of Old, Middle, and Modern English] is linear, tracing a straight-line trajectory for a well-defined, unitary language, thus denying a full history to the offshoots, the non-standard dialects, the conservative backwaters, or the avant-garde neologisms of a given historical period. But even if we grant that the "standard" language has until recently had enough momentum to pull along most variants in its wake, such a single straight-line trajectory is insufficient to capture the current global spread and multidimensional changes in the world's Englishes. It may be time to consider the "Old--Middle--Modern" triptych as complete, and to seek new models for representing English in the world today as well as for the processes that led to it.
Τ褦ʿŪʱѸ˵ҤưפãǤϤϤʤȤȤϡԼԤ褯Ƥ褦ϸߤ̤αѸˤΤ٤ѤǤꡤ٤ʳMatto and Momma (8--9) ۩
We cannot offer here a unified image that captures all aspects of the history of English; the result would of necessity be a schematic chimera of chronological lines, branching trees, holistic circles, interactive networks, and evolutionary processes. Such a chimera cannot be easily imagined . . . .
嵭ΡʬȤƤαѸˤȯŸʳפˤĤưϤʤơȯŸʳˤƶ̤Ƥ뤬ƤʤȤ1Ĥ롥ϡѸ˵ҤҲŪ¦̤ĸȤݤ˵ҤǤʾ塤㤨ХꥹȤ˹ˤȤäƱѸȤϲʸ߱ѸŪѤƤˤȤäƱѸȤϲˤȤäƸȤϲȤȤ̵ǤϤʤȤ¤Ǥ롥Ѹ˵ҤȤϡˡΤ褦䤤ФƵҼԤĤ뵡ȹͤƤ롥
Matto, Michael and Haruko Momma. "History, English, Language: Studying HEL Today." Chapter 1 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 3--10.
#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) εǡѸˤ nimen ȸťΥɸѸ taken ζˤĤĴ Rynell θ˿줿̤˸ťΥɸѸ줬Ѹ椤ˤƱѸ˿ƩƤäݤˤϡδϰδθ롥ΤȤʤ顤οƩˤϤ٤λ֤ΤǡΤۤƩٹ礤ϸȤʤޤťΥɸαƶ the Danelaw ȸƤФ륤ˤƺǤǤꡤؤϡξ⤬֤ޤʤŤƤäȹͤΤǤ롥
Τ褦˸ťΥɸθŪƶζˤĤƤϡϰδ֤̩ܤߴطꡤʬۤΤǤȤ롥ºݤˡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ˼ʬۿޤϡΤʬۤűѸȸťΥɸѸ줬礹륱Ǥϡ̤˾嵭ʬۤǧ뤳Ȥ¿褦Rynell (359) ۩"The Scn words so far dealt with have this in common that they prevail in the East Midlands, the North, and the North West Midlands, or in one or two of these districts, while their native synonyms hold the field in the South West Midlands and the South."
ϰ츫ۤñǤϤʤȤˤαդɬפ롥Rynell (359--60) Ͼʸ³ơΤ褦âդäƤ롥
This is obviously not tantamount to saying that the native words are wanting in the former parts of the country and, inversely, that the Scn words are all absent from the latter. Instead, the native words are by no means infrequent in the East Midlands, the North, and the North West Midlands, or at least in parts of these districts, and not a few Scn loan-words turn up in the South West Midlands and the South, particularly near the East Midland border in Essex, once the southernmost country of the Danelaw. Moreover, some Scn words seem to have been more generally accepted down there at a surprisingly early stage, in some cases even at the expense of their native equivalents.
äդ٤ϡ¸ѸƥȤʬۤФäƤǤ롥СѸ쥳ѥϰ˴ؤɽ (representativeness) 礤ƤȤRynell (358) ˤС
A survey of the entire material above collected, which suffers from the weakness that the texts from the North and the North (and Central) West Midlands are all comparatively late and those from the South West Midlands nearly all early, while the East Midland and Southern texts, particularly the former, represent various periods, shows that in a number of cases the Scn words do prevail in the East Midlands, the North, and the North (and sometimes Central) West Midlands and the South, exclusive of Chaucer's London . . . .
ťΥɸθŪƶϡѸᤤǡ٤ˤǴѻ롤ȤȤϳȤƽҤ٤뤳ȤϤǤΤΡ줬Ѹ쥳ѥλʬۤȸ˰פƤ¤ƨƤϤʤʤĤޤꡤ嵭γŪʬۤϡޤ¸ƥȤλ֡ŪʬۤʿԤƤ뤿ˡȤˤ˶ĴƤ뤫⤷ʤΤ䤹Τޤޤ䤹ʤꡤˤΤ줿ޤޤˤ빽¤Ū꤬ˤ롥
ϡťΥɸθŪƶˤȤɤޤ餺Ѹ̡ŤѲ̤ѻݤˤͿǤ (see #941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1]))
ϢơѸ쥳ѥ A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (LAEME) ɽˤĤơ#1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1) ([2012-10-10-1])#1263. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (2) ([2012-10-11-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rynell, Alarik. The Rivalry of Scandinavian and Native Synonyms in Middle English Especially taken and nimen. Lund: Håkan Ohlssons, 1948.
#2585. ѲưΤϷǽפ˰³ˤĤƤ Samuels ιͤꤿSamuels (38) ϡѲθ˴ؤơεǽŪΩѲƳƤΤ뤤ĴηŪʵŪˤװѲưƤΤ䤤ʤ顤Τ褦ʸƤ롥
. . . provided the potentiality for contrast exists, it is likely to be realised sooner or later, though the accident may be only one of many that could have given the same result; and the greater the potentiality for contrast, the sooner it is likely to be realised, i.e. the more inevitable and less accidental the phonemicisation actually is.
ǤϡǽŪװѲŪȤơŪװѲμºŪʰȤƲƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ԤѲװ뤤Ϥäȼ夯СѲǤꡤԤѲ¸뤭äǤ롥Ԥ϶ȯŪ (accident) ˤʤȸڤƤ뤬ȤäơSamuels Ԥ٤ܼŪ˽פǤʤȤϹͤƤʤεdzǧ褦ˡSamuels ϷŪװΤۤǽŪװܼŪǤȤפǤȤ뤤ϤεդǤȤΤ褦ʥץꥪϴӤƤ뤫Ѳˤξ¦̤ꤵ٤ǤꡤȰξʤѲʤȤȤϸޤǤʤ¦̤פ䤦Τϥʥ
褦ʵȤơŪװȳŪװϤ줬פȤӤ褬롥#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) Ǽ夲 Aitchison ڤơѲϳݤڤȤʤСϷಽ뤤϶ȼäڤۤʤ٥ǤȤѲθ줬ܼŪǽפװ䤦ΤϥʥǤ롥ѲθǤϡ multiple causation of language change Ȥ٤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡۤˤʲεȤ줿
#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1])
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ɸˤĤƤϡ#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) ǵѲѰ۷ȤȡϷŪʵŪˤ˶ưƤΤ뤤ϵǽŪ˶ưƤΤκŪˤĤơSamuels (28--29) Τ褦˹ͻƤ롥ĹεβսѤ롥
Does it [=the process of selection] involve merely fitting a ready-made stretch of the inherited spoken chain, recalled from memory, to a given situation? If so, the mechanical factors in change would appear more important. Or is there fresh selection of each functional element in the utterance? In that case, the functional factor would outweigh the mechanical. These are questions for which the psycholinguist has not yet provided an answer, and perhaps no answer is possible. From a subjective viewpoint, it might be surmised that, since many tactless or otherwise inapposite utterances turn out, in retrospect, to have been uses of previously learnt stretches of the spoken chain that simply did not fit the situation, our overall use of the 'form-directed' spoken chain is greater than we might think, and in any event greater than the conventionalities of cliché and phatic communion to which it is often restricted. Information theory has shown that all common collocations, being predictable, are more easily understood than rare collocations; and since the same presumably applies to the speaker's selection of them from the memory-store, their use is but another demonstration of the principle of least effort. On the other hand, a brain that is alerted to the danger of inapposite utterance will presumably 'check' the functional value of the units it selects. It depends, therefore, on the degree of alertness, whether an utterance is to be called as 'form-directed' or 'function-directed'; naturally there are borderline cases, but it is probably wrong to assume that utterance normally results from a conflict, within the brain, between the need for intelligibility and the tendency to rely on stretches of actual or embryo cliché. In the genesis of a single utterance, one or other factor will have the upper hand (which one depends on the speakers and the situation); but there is no way of gauging from individual utterances the relative importance of each factor for the processes of change. But although the two factors cannot be separated at the level of idiolect, it is reasonable to suppose that the total utterances of a community will fall mainly into one or the other of the two types --- 'form-directed' and 'function-directed'. Both types belong to the same language, and neither (except in extreme cases of cliché or innovation) is overtly distinguishable; they are interdependent and interact, and neither would exist or be understood without the other. It follows that, for the study of change, both types must in the first instance be accorded equal consideration . . . .
Samuels ϡȵǽˤưξ˻ĤĸѲͻϤ뤳Ȥפ⤯ġθѲǤϡ̤Ȥơ줬ͥǤ뤫ʬΤ⤷ʤǽ餫餤줫нŤΥХäƤϤʤȤȤȤ Samuels ʤεˤ functionalist ȤȽƤSamuels ȤϤΰѤκǸ夫餫ʤ褦ˡȵǽξΤǥХȤƤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
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