#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ӡ#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤѲˤĤƤʸκǸˡѲȤ٤ "SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE" (187--88) Ƥ롥
1. Linguistic change is not to be identified with random drift proceeding from inherent variation in speech. Linguistic change begins when the generalization of a particular alternation in a given subgroup of the speech community assumes direction and takes on the character of orderly differentiation.
2. The association between structure and homogeneity is an illusion. Linguistic structure includes the orderly differentiation of speakers and styles through rules which govern variation in the speech community; native command of the language includes the control of such heterogeneous structures.
3. Not all variability and heterogeneity in language structure involves change; but all change involves variability and heterogeneity.
4. The generalization of linguistic change throughout linguistic structure is neither uniform nor instantaneous; it involves the covariation of associated changes over substantial periods of time, and is reflected in the diffusion of isoglosses over areas of geographical space.
5. The grammars in which linguistic change occurs are grammars of the speech community. Because the variable structures contained in language are determined by social functions, idiolects do not provide the basis for self-contained or internally consistent grammars.
6. Linguistic change is transmitted within the community as a whole; it is not confined to discrete steps within the family. Whatever discontinuities are found in linguistic change are the products of specific discontinuities within the community, rather than inevitable products of the generational gap between parent and child.
7. Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior.
ʸԤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian)¤ (structural linguistics)ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ³ػˤ̤ϢʤȼѤƤĿ (idiolect) ȶѼ (homogeneity) 뤹Ȥ櫓ֹ¤ѼפФơиŪΩ줫ȽäΤϡԶѼ (heterogeneity) ι¤ (structure) ǤȤ顤ɤȤƤ "orderly heterogeneity" "orderly differentiation" Ω롥Ω϶ǯ "variationist" ȤƤФ褦ˤʤäƤϾ7̤ȤäƤ
change variation ްդȤ3ܤˤĤƤϡ#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1]) ȡ
6ܤλҶײؤȽˤĤƤϡ#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ѳ "multiple causation" 𤤾夲7ܤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ǤѤmultiple causation ˤĤƤϡǶεȤơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ȡ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) Ǥ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ε#2000. ˸ʬȲ ([2014-10-18-1]) ǡ˸͡ʸҲ𤷤˸츦¾¿Ʊͤˡ˸⤫ĤƤθ졤Ȥ櫓äդǽʸ¤Τ˵Ҥ뤳ȤܻؤƤ롥äȤ⡤˸ϡäդǤդǤ졤뤬äǤ졤修Ǥ졤Ǥ졤줾1Ĥͭ (discourse) ȤơΩоݤȤ뤳ȤʤƤΤǤꡤɬäդˤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤϤ˸Ǥ⡤äդפʲ1ĤǤ뤳ȤˤϤʤ
Ǥϡ¾դ̤ƤθΤ褦Τ뤳ȤΤǤʤ˸ޤ˸츦ǤϡɤΤ褦ˤäդ˴ؤФ뤳ȤǤդޤƤäդǤФˤϡޤξԤδط˴ؤɬפǤ롥褯ΤƤ1Ĥˡ#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) Ǽ夲 Koch and Oesterreicher ˤֱȤС (Sprache der Distanz) ȡֶᤤȤС (Sprache der Nähe) ˴ؤ롥ʹֱ顤ӥ塼ʤɳƼäաʸˤäաʲˤδطΤʤǤ줾ɤդ˰֤ΤǥǤ롥ˤꡤäդ˶ᤤդȿǤ줿äӽФȤǤ롥
Jucker and Taavitsainen (23) ˡJucker Ƥ⤦1ĤΥǥ뤬Ƥ롥"Data in historical pragmatics: The 'communicative view'" ꤵ줿ޤγפƸ롥
monologic books, poems
Genuinely written data
dialogic letters, pamphlets
retrospective reports, protocols (e.g. legal); in diaries
in narratives or poetry
Written representations fictional in academic texts
of spoken language
drama
in conversation manuals
prospective
in language textbooks
ε#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ˰³Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog θѲ˴ؤŪʸꡥϡάҤѲ5Ĥ¦̤ΤʤǤȤ櫓Ԥ⤹ The Embedding Problem ˴ؤ (p. 186) Ѥ롥
The Embedding Problem. There can be little disagreement among linguists that language changes being investigated must be viewed as embedded in the linguistic system as a whole. The problem of providing sound empirical foundations for the theory of change revolves about several questions on the nature and extent of this embedding.
(a) Embedding in the linguistic structure. If the theory of linguistic evolution is to avoid notorious dialectic mysteries, the linguistic structure in which the changing features are located must be enlarged beyond the idiolect. The model of language envisaged here has (1) discrete, coexistent layers, defined by strict co-occurrence, which are functionally differentiated and jointly available to a speech community, and (2) intrinsic variables, defined by covariation with linguistic and extralinguistic elements. The linguistic change itself is rarely a movement of one entire system into another. Instead we find that a limited set of variables in one system shift their modal values gradually from one pole to another. The variants of the variables may be continuous or discrete; in either case, the variable itself has a continuous range of values, since it includes the frequency of occurrence of individual variants in extended speech. The concept of a variable as a structural element makes it unnecessary to view fluctuations in use as external to the system for control of such variation is a part of the linguistic competence of members of the speech community.
(b) Embedding in the social structure. The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure. In the explanation of linguistic change, it may be argued that social factors bear upon the system as a whole; but social significance is not equally distributed over all elements of the system, nor are all aspects of the systems equally marked by regional variation. In the development of language change, we find linguistic structures embedded unevenly in the social structure; and in the earliest and latest stages of a change, there may be very little correlation with social factors. Thus it is not so much the task of the linguist to demonstrate the social motivation of a change as to determine the degree of social correlation which exists, and show how it bears upon the abstract linguistic system.
ƤˤԤμĥ "orderly heterogeneity" οɽƤ褦˻פβС(a) θ칽¤ؤߤȤϡѲӤȼѹȤμͤuse varieties user varieties ʤʣŪʸ칽¤ΤʤˤɤΤ褦˼ޤ뤫ȤǤ롥ޤ(b) μҲ¤ؤߤȤϡѲΤΤˤƼҲˤܼŪѹȤʤäƤ椯뤤ܼŪѹǤϤʤʤäƤ椯ȤǤ롥ϡҲ¤칽¤˱ƶͿȤˡġɤǡŪïθ칽¤ΤɤʬˤɤΤ褦ʱƶͿƤΤ餫ˤ뤳ȤˤĤʤꡤSapir-Whorf hypothesis (cf. sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ܼŪ䤤Ϣʤ롥츦δϡŪʡ˸ؤȼҲؤζϤɤȤ䤤ˤؤʤʤ̼ҲؼԤϡҲؤŪʸؤޤ뿿θؤȤΩȤäƤˡ
1ϡҲؤΤƸΤȤ館ΤΤ˴ؤŦϢơ#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? ([2013-01-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤ "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change" ϡҲؤδޤѲŪʸȤơθθ礭ʱƶͿƤ⤪˴줿1ͤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥϡ#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1]) ǿƤϡиŪ˼Ȥ٤ѲˤĤƤ5ĤάҤ롥
(1) The Constraints Problem. ѲƱꤹȤꡤʤ "to determine the set of possible changes and possible conditions for change" (183) θ¿ŪƱꤷ褦ȤƤꡤβˤ˴ؿƤ롥
(2) The Transition Problem. "Between any two observed stages of a change in progress, one would normally attempt to discover the intervening stage which defines the path by which Structure A evolved into Structure B" (184) transition ȸƤФ뤳βϡA B ξ¤碌üԤΩȤƿʹԤ¾üԡʤȤ櫓ǯüԡˤȵڤ롥βˤϡ3̤ޤޤȤ롥"Change takes place (1) as a speaker learns an alternate form, (2) during the time that the two forms exist in contact within his competence, and (3) when one of the forms becomes obsolete" (184).
(3) The Embedding Problem. 칽¤ؤߤȼҲ¤ؤߤ̤롥̻ŪʸѲ (change) ϡŪʸѰ (variation) бѰۤϸŪӼҲŪޤ줿ѹ (variable) ¸ߤˤΤ롥ѹϡ칽¤ˤȤäƤҲ¤ˤȤäƤܼŪǤǤ롥Ҳ¤ؤߤˤĤƤϡΰѤȡ"The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure" (185) ǤϸѲˤҲŪװɵ椹Τߤʤ餺ҲȸߴطʤɤμҲŪǤɤٸȿǤ뤫ʤɡˤɵ椹뤳ȤפʲȤʤ롥
(4) The Evaluation Problem. Ѳ˼Ūɾ뤫ꡥ"[T]he subjective correlates of the several layers and variables in a heterogeneous structure" (186) . ޤѲѰۤФ빥˴ؤռ̵ռʤɤ⤢롥"[T]he level of social awareness is a major property of linguistic change which must be determined directly. Subjective correlates of change are more categorical in nature than the changing patterns of behavior: their investigation deepens our understanding of the ways in which discrete categorization is imposed upon the continuous process of change" (186) .
(5) The Actuation Problem. "Why do changes in a structural feature take place in a particular language at a given time, but not in other languages with the same feature, or in the same language at other times?" (102) . ѲεŪꡥ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡactuation θˤ diffusion ³ᡤ The Transition Problem ؤϢʤ롥
ԤƤκˤϡ"orderly heterogeneity" θѡѸǤ variationist 롥嵭θѲ5Ĥ¦̤ϡ̻ŪʸѲȶŪʸѰۤǷӤĤ褦ȤԤλ̿դƤǤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
Treffers-Daller μѤ˴ؤʸ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸɤߡ#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) դ٤ܤ¿뤳ȤΤäʲˡĤƤߤ롥
(1) ѤˤϸѲβ1ĤȤƹͻ٤¦̤뤬θǤϼȤƸŪ¦̤ܤƤܿǤˤ⤫餺쳰Ū¦̤ιͻҲŪʻʤäΤǤϤʤŪˤϡѤηȻɾθ椬٤Ƥ롥Treffers-Dalle (17--18) ΰʲλŦ狼䤹
. . . researchers have mainly focused on what Weinreich, Herzog and Labov (1968) have called the embedding problem and the constraints problem. . . . Other questions have received less systematic attention. The actuation problem and the transition problem (how and when do borrowed features enter the borrowing language and how do they spread through the system and among different groups of borrowing language speakers) have only recently been studied. The evaluation problem (the subjective evaluation of borrowing by different speaker groups) has not been investigated in much detail, even though many researchers report that borrowing is evaluated negatively.
(2) ѸΤߤʤ餺ܿΥơΤ˴ؤ뤬ǯϥͥåȤϤȤǥȯŸˤꡤѤεʪŪʾ¸ߤȤʤʤäƤĤޤꡤܿμѤäƤȤȤǤꡤѲϼѡʸˤμ̤ˤƶڤܤ
Due to modern advances in telecommunication and information technology and to more extensive traveling, members within such groupings, although not being physically adjacent, come into close contact with one another, and their language and communicative behaviors in general take on features from a joint pool . . . . (Meeuwis and Östman 38)
(3) Ūʸ桥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ "scale of adoptability" (or "borrowability scale") βˤĤơ2ѼԤäեѥѤƸڤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤOttawa-Hull ΥեˤѸѤ䡤եȥ2쥳ѥˤѤηڥȥ奢2¸女ѥˤʬϤʤɤϤƤ롥
(4) ˤѤȤʥ뤬ڤ곫ĤĤ롥ޤοϾʤ2ѼԤˤɸ (discourse marker) õǽμѤλ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥
(5) 嵭 (3) (4) Ȥط뤬2ѼԤμѤ˺ݤ뿴ŪʥץŪʬǤ롥#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡcode-switching ȤδϢȤʤ롥
(6) ȥ͡ꥺʤɱΧŪǤμ̡
ƺǿμѸϡηϤȤδϢˤƸȤϡüԸĿͤ뤤ϼҲȤδϢˤƸؿܤƤƤ褦ޤ̤ȤƤμѸ (loanword) ܤȤϡȤƤμ (borrowing) ܤȤؿѲ⤢褦
ĿͤȤƤϡ跿θηϤȤδϢˤƤμѤθˤƤ⡤ޤʤȤϤȹͤƤ롥㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ʤɤϡ¿;ϤĤƤȻפäƤ롥
Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. "Borrowing." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 17--35.
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) εǡage-grading ȤҲؾγǰѸҲ𤷤Ѳμ¾Ūˤơage-grading βǽϾǰƬˤƤʤФʤʤȤΤϡѻԤߵäƤŪʡʤäñȯΡ˸ѲȤǤȻפǤݤºݤˤ巫֤Ƥ age-grading ˤʤäȤȤ뤫դˡ巫֤ age-grading ȿƤ븽ݤºݤˤϤλͭΰ¤θѲǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Ǥϡѻθ츽ݤθѲʤΤ age-grading ʤΤʬˤϡɤФ褤Τ߿ʹθѲѻˡȤơ2λΤƤ롥apparent time real time Ǥ롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ꡤ줾Ѥ褦
apparent-time studies Studies of linguistic change which attempt to investigate language changes as they happen, not in real time (see real-time studies), but by comparing the speech of older speakers with that of younger speakers in a given community, and assuming that differences between them are due to changes currently taking place within the dialect of that community, with older speakers using older forms and younger speakers using newer forms. As pointed out by William Labov, who introduced both the term and the technique, it is important to be able to distinguish in this comparison of age-groups between ongoing language changes and differences that are due to age-grading (Trudgill 9--10)
real-time studies Studies of linguistic change which attempt to investigate language changes as they happen, not in apparent time by comparing the speech of older speakers with that of younger speakers in a given community, but in actual time, by investigating the speech of a particular community and then returning a number of years later to investigate how speech in this community has changed. In secular linguistics, two different techniques have been used in real-time studies. In the first, the same informants are used in the follow-up study as in the first study. In the second, different informants, who were too young to be included in the first study or who were not then born, are investigated in the follow-up study. One of the first linguists to use this technique was Anders Steinsholt, who carried out dialect research in the southern Norwegian community of Hedrum, near Larvik, in the late 1930s, and then returned to carry out similar research in the late 1960s. (Trudgill 109)
apparent-time studies ϡ̻ΰ̤ˤ庹θѤоȤ뤳Ȥǡ߿ʹθѲŪͤߤ褦ȤˡǤ롥ߤȤ1ΤߤΩäĴǤˡȤƴؤǤϤ뤬餫ˤʤä庹̤ƿθѲʤΤ age-grading ʤΤ̤ˡǡ̾ real-time studies ˤäơ˸ˤɬפ롥
real-time studies ϡ̻ʣˤĴɬפꡤʬºݾμ֤Ϥ뤬θѲ age-grading ʬΤɬפʥǡꤹ뤳ȤǤȤ롥
ŪºŪʴϡѲĴݤˤξˡȤ߹碌ΤʲȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ɤΤȤŪĴ³Ĵ̤ǡ١Ѥ߽ŤͤƹԤȤοʤΤƱͳǡŪ˶Ūѥ³ƤȤ⡤˸ؼԤˤȤäƽפʲǤ롥
apparent time real time ˤĤƤϡ#919. Asia ȯ ([2011-11-02-1]) Ǥ줿ΤǡȤ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ߤγ´ʸߤƤǡFischer ˤѸ츦ΥݥˤĤƤʸɤѸˤޤˤѸäθϡ3ĤδʤƤȤ(1) morpho-etymological (or morphological), (2) lexico-semantic (or semantic), (3) socio-historical (or sociolinguistic) Ǥ롥
(1) ϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) 褦ˡmodel loan ȤŪˤʤطˤ뤫ȤǤ롥Ūʴطܤ˸Τ importationʤΡʤʤ̣Τߤμѡˤ importation Ǥ롥(2) ϡѤξˤꡤ¦ΰ̣ηϤȸηϤԤ줿ݤǤ롥(3) ϡμѤɤΤ褦ʼҲŪʾΤȤ˹Ԥ줿ξԤشط餫ˤ褦ȤǤ롥3ʬϸߤ˸Ȥ⤢뤷¤θȤ߹碌ɵ椵ʤФʤʤΤʬȻפ
Fischer ϡΤʤ (3) μҲŪʴϺǤⶽ̣뤬ܤ˸븦̤ϴԤǤʤŪǤ롥δŻ뤷 Thomason and Kaufman Ȥ⤯ɾʤ⡤Ѹ츦ˤϹʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Of the three types of typologies discussed here, the third, although the most attractive because of its sociolinguistic orientation, is possibly the least useful for a study of lexical borrowing: lexis is an unreliable indicator of the precise nature of a contact situation, and the socio-historical evidence necessary to reconstruct the latter is often not available. Morphological and semantic typologies on the other hand, though seemingly more traditional, can yield a great deal of new information if an attempt is made to study a whole semantic domain and if such studies are truly comparative, comparing different text types, different source languages or different periods. (110)
Fischer (1) (2) δѸ츦ˤƴ˾ΤƤǤȻ롥츫ȡѸˤ˸ꤷ硤2ĤδȤ櫓 (1) δϡ˸椬ʤƤΤǤϤʤȻפ뤬ƳȤǤʤ㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ɽ substitution μѸˤĤƤϡѤۤɤʤˤϡimportation Ф substitution ϰ̣ΤǸˤȡ٤ȤŪʤȤͳȤƵ롥
ˤƤ⡤ѤȤˡˤ importation ǡ̤ξˤ substitution ǼΤϤʤظˤɤΤ褦ƯƤΤ¦üԡʽġˤο䡤ŪŪʸȤäҲŪװˤĤƤϸڤ뤳Ȥ뤬嵭 (1) (2) θŪʴΥץϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤Fischer (100) ռ"why certain types of borrowing seem to be more frequent than others, depending on period, source language, text type, speech community or language policy, to name only the most obvious factors." ŪͤƤ롥伫Ȥ⡤Ʊͤռ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ʤɤǼƤ
ѸˤˤƥѸͤƤߤСűѸǤ importation ¤ substitution ¿äʤषԤΤۤ¿äȤˤѸʹߤ importation ήǤ롥Fischer (101) ǿƤ褦ˡStandard High German Swiss High German ˤޥϼѸǤϡԤ substitution ꡤԤ importation ηꥫѸǤ substitution fall ФƥꥹѸǤ importation autumn Ȥ̣⤢롥ܸؤθμѤ⡤ˤϴˤ substitution ήäˤ importation ŪȤʤäˤäơˤäơimportation substitution Ψư뤬ˤϼҲŪװȤ̤˲餫θŪװƯƤǽΤ
Fischer (105) ϡΤ褦ʿ¿פĤȤǤȤѸˤˤȤ3ĤƤ롥
How many of all Scandinavian borrowings have replaced native terms, how many have led to semantic differentiation?
How does French compare with Scandinavian in this respect?
How many borrowings from language x are importations, how many are substitutions, and what semantic domains do they belong to?
HTOED (Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary) Ǥ줿ߡ̣μѤǤ substitution ˴ؤ븦䤹ʤäƤѸѸ츦̤Ϥ줫뤽
Fischer, Andreas. "Lexical Borrowing and the History of English: A Typology of Typologies." Language Contact in the History of English. 2nd rev. ed. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky and Arthur Mettingers. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003. 97--115.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ܥ֥ǡưθ§ (uniformitarian_principle) ˤĤƲ٤夲Ƥ#1588. The Uniformitarian Principle (3) ([2013-09-01-1]) εǤϡComrie Lass δ֤衤process/force ư state ưȤ˿줿Labov ϤˤĤƿŤ٤Ƥ롥
Labov ϡưθ§ϡˤε (Historical Paradox) 椨˻ʤѤʤ§ʤΤǤꡤǽʤɤǤϤʤȤ⤹롥ǤϡˤεȤϲLabov (21) ˤСʲ̤Ǥ롥
The task of historical linguistics is to explain the differences between the past and the present; but to the extent that the past was different from the present, there is no way of knowing how different it was.
ߺդƤСߤȲθ (state) ΰ㤤餫ˤ뤳Ȥ˸ؤλ̿ʤΤ㤦ϤȤȤʬäƤƤ⡤߽Ф (process/force) ΤäƤȤС㤤狼ʤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ʤȤäƤϲ뤳ȤʤɤޤǤǤʤʤäƤޤǤϤʤȻפ碌褦ʵ
ǡ˸椬뤳ȤˤʤΤưǤ롥դ٤ϡưˤεФˡ (solution) ȤƤǤϤʤ (consequence) ȤƤƤˤʤȤȤǤ롥
. . . [the uniformitarian principle] is in fact a necessary consequence of the fundamental paradox of historical linguistics, not a solution to that paradox. If the uniformitarian principle is applied as if it were such a solution, rather than a working assumption, it can actually conceal the extent of the errors that are the result of real differences between past and present.
Solutions to the Historical Paradox must be analogous to solutions to the Observer's Paradox. Particular problems must be approached from several different directions, by different methods with complementary sources of error. The solution to the problem can then be located somewhere between the answers given by the different methods. In this way, we can know the limits of the errors introduced by the Historical Paradox, even if we cannot eliminate them entirely. (Labov 24--25)
ҤΤȤꡤLass ϸ֤Τ٤ѤѤǤȤ state ưComrie ϸѲϳؤΤ٤ѤѤǤȤ process/force ưƤ롥ưˤƤ⡤ˤεˤ¤줶ʤ˸Ω뤿ˡϤǤϤ뤬¤ˤۤʤȾβˤʤ˾ʤ鸦Ƥ뤳ȼΤʤ֡ưΡ˸§פȤƾΤ䤹ȤΤϴȤȤưΡָ§פϡΤȤϡֲפʤΤǤ롥
Labov, William. Principles of Linguistic Change: Internal Factors. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994.
ε#1587. ˤϸΥȥԡ緹դƤ뤫 ([2013-08-31-1]) ǡComrie ˤŪȥԡ÷βҲ𤷤Comrie ιͤطʤˤϡưθ§ (The Uniformitarian Principle) 1ĤβλͿƤưˤĤƤϡ#556. The Uniformitarian Principle ([2010-11-04-1]) ȡ#1186. The Uniformitarian Principle (2) ([2012-07-26-1]) ȡˡ
ˤưθ§ˤĤơĤƤߤȡξ (state) ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤȡβ (process) ϳ (force) ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤ롥㤨С[2010-11-04-1]εǵѤ˽СRomaine force ưLass state ưǰƬˤƤʤäȤ⡤Lass "linguistic state of affairs (structure, inventory, process, etc.)" ŪˤȤ館ƤϤˡ
2Ĥư礭ۤʤäƤ롥state ư֤ˤĤƤΰ⤤Ǥꡤprocess/force ưư֤ˤĤƤΰ⤤ԤϡߤȲθѲθưϤϰۤʤȤʤȼĥƤ뤬η̤ȤƤθ֤ˤĤƤϲҤ٤ƤʤüˤСߤθȲθ줬ۤʤ륿ݥȤ餢ꤦȤΤprocess/force ưǤ롥process/force ưμĥԤǤ Comrie (255--56) ϡstate ưμĥԤǤ Lass Ƚʸ̮ΤʤǡҤ٤Ƥ롥
In geology, certain processes can be observed as ongoing during recorded history, such as the formation of mountains and their subsequent erosion by wind and rain. The uniformitarian hypothesis, which did so much to raise geology to its present scientific level, assumes that these same processes also characterised the Earth's prehistory. In other words, in order to explain earlier geological formations, we are not permitted to appeal to processes other than those that have characterised the more recent period. But it is important to realise that what is constrained by the uniformitarian hypothesis is the set of processes that have formed the earth, not the set of states that are separated by these processes. Thus, one could imagine starting from a state that is radically different from the present state of the Earth, say a perfectly smooth spherical or near-spherical object, and then initiate operation of the processes of mountain formation and erosion to produce something like the present-day Earth. In other words, the typological consistency implied by the uniformitarian hypothesis in geology is a typological consistency of processes, not a typological consistency of states. . . . / We may now apply this historically more appropriate concept of uniformitarianism, from the viewpoint of the philosophy of science, to the kind of linguistic reconstruction that we proposed . . . . It now becomes clear that our reconstruction is indeed compatible with this conception of the uniformitarian hypothesis. We propose no processes that are not attested in the historical period. . . . No new types of processes are proposed. However, the operation of these processes can take us from an earlier stage that is typologically different from attested languages to a later stage that is compatible with our knowledge of attested language states.
ǤϡϳؼȤǤ⤤٤ѲѤŸƤ롥state ưʤΤprocess/force ưʤΤ뤤ξԤ碌ưʤΤޤcontroversial ʵǤ롥
Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.
#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ첻 ([2013-03-01-1]) ǡ첻 (gvs) Ŭ (OT) ˤäƤ˵ҤǤ뤫⤷ǤλΰݤϡOT 첻ܤɤΤ褦ˤƵäΤȤҤ뤳ȤդʤäȤͿƤʤȤΤä#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡOT Τ褦ʷŪʥץϡǤϤʤҤ褯ΤؤλʤΤǤϤʤ
OT ǤϸѲ "reranking of constraints" ȤȤ館뤬 reranking ѲθʤΤ̤ʤΤȤߤ OT why Ǥꡤ̤Ȥߤ how ҤǤ롥ƱոMcMahon (93) ϸԤȤߤƤ롥
It would seem . . . that reranking is descriptive at best, fortuitous at worst, and post hoc either way, so long as the constraint set is in principle unrestricted, and the reranking itself depends on external factors, whether phonetic, functional, or sociolinguistic.
OT ʤ˸¤餺ŪˤμԤϡ餬ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸǤϤʤҤǤȤǧɬפǤȤλŦ (McMahon 94--95) ˤƱդƶޤäͿƤʤȤȤĥĤϤʤŤ˰Сषդ
. . . explanation of change, in its truest sense, may be beyond OT, and indeed any other formal linguistic theory. The cause of the model is not served if its practitioners continue, nonetheless, to claim that they are providing explanations. Lass notes that we tend
to talk about 'explanations' when we mean 'models' or 'metaphors', and to claim that we have shown 'why X happened' when what we have really done is linked X up in a 'network' with Y, Z, etc., and thus created a more or less plausible and imaginatively pleasing picture of 'how' (ceteris paribus) X could happen'. This is all really relatively harmless . . .; at least it is if we can bring ourselves to see clearly what we actually do, and avoid terminological subterfuge and defensive pretence. (1980 [On Explaining Language Change]: 157--8)
ѲθˤϡȲҤȤξɬפǤ롥͡ˡȤ߹碌ʤ¤ѲϸǤʤʾ塤ѶŪˡƿŤѤƤ椯ȤοΤ褦˻פ
McMahon, April. "Optimality Theory and the Great Vowel Shift." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 82--96.
Ѳ븶ϿƤƤ뤬٤ƤθѲ줤ǤΤϤʤޤ1ĤθѲΤˡĤΰۤʤƱͭǤȤ⤢롥Ѳˤϡ礭ʬƷŪʤΤȵǽŪʤΤ롥Newmeyer (32--33) 줾ħΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥
Formal explanations are those which appeal to mentally represented formal grammars and constraints on those grammars; functional explanations are those that appeal to properties of language users. Many, if not most, accounts of language change appeal to both types of explanation. The principal objection to formal explanation is to claim that it does little more than rearrange the data in more compact form --- such criticism embodies the idea that in order to explain the properties of some system, it is necessary to go outside of that system. The principal criticism of functional explanation is to claim that it is vacuous. Since for any functional factor there exists another factor whose operation would lead to the opposite consequence, the claim that some particular functional factor 'explains' some particular instance of language change has the danger of being empty.
ŪϡѲΥޡȤʵҤդȤ뤬ʤѲΤȤˤƤʤǽŪϡʤȤ䤤ˤ褦Ȥ뤬ȿװˤޤΤǤꡤϤΤˤʤʤ
ŪȵǽŪȤ֤줬褷ͻ¤ǤʤȤСǤʤ⤷ʤ㤨СֺŬפȤ褦ξ˵ĤȤǤξĤʤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˲Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲȵǽŪʲؤȤϢȤ礫ʤξͻ¤ǤΡХΤȤ줿ܻؤȤʤʤ
Newmeyer, Frederick J. "Formal and Functional Motivation for Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 18--36.
εǡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) 夲ȿФȤ⤤ܸǵäƤΤǾҲ𤷤褦
Ūܸζ̸ȯǤϡ2Ĥͭ [g] [ŋ] ̤Ƥ§ȤԤϸƬǡԤϸ첻θˤѤ졤ۤʬۤʤ㤨С䡤ݡʤɤθǤ [g] 졤䡤ƻīʤɤθǤ [ŋ] ʹ줿ԡפʤɤʣ2ǤλϤޤꡤ֤פʤɤƬľ塤ֽޡפʤɤοθޡ֤餬פʤɤε졤֥衼ȡפʤɤμѸˤƤϡǤäƤ [g] ɸŪǤ롥ֽޡפȡֽƸפФʤɤˤ [g] [ŋ] ΩΤǡ̩ʬۼŪΩ줫 /g/ /ŋ/ ϰۤʤ벻ǤȤȤˤʤ롥
嵭ζ̤ϡߤǤڤʤɤʬǤϰҿΤȤݤƤ뤬̤ζ̸ȯȤƤ [ŋ] ѤĤĤ롥1983ǯĴǤϡüԤǯˤ [ŋ] Ψ礭ۤʤäƤ뤳ȤΤ줿ˤȡ1930ǯޤ줿üԤ [ŋ] ξüǤȤطʤˤϡ餬³ˤؽФơ[ŋ] ιԤʤƤʤܤ뵡ȤŦƤ롥
1986ǯ Hibiya ˤƱͤĴǤ⡤ [ŋ] ̻ŪʾüΤ줿80üԤ80--90% [ŋ] ݤäƤ20üԤͭΨϥ˶ᤤ (Hibiya 163) Ĵˡϡˤ͡ǯüԤȯĴ٤뤳Ȥˤ̻ŪѲŪª褦Ȥ "apparent-time" δѻǤꡤüԤĹȼҶդդѲ (age-grading) ǤȤǽӽǤʤ
ǡ"real-time" δѻɬפˤʤäƤ롥Hibiya ϡ1920ˤƤΤĤʸŪڵ並̤ˡ[ŋ] ξüʶʤ̻ŪѲǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤˤȡʤȤ19ޤǤϡ[ŋ] ηŪѤƤȤȤơHibiya (169) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Kato . . . claims that speakers who were born around 1930 were the originators of the change from word-internal [-ŋ-] to [-g-]; the present investigation, however, indicates that the change began earlier. Those who were born in the 1910's and 1920's have [-g-] more frequently than the speakers from the real-time data base who were born two to three decades earlier. Therefore, the age distribution . . . represents a remarkably smooth and linear sound change in the Tokyo dialect, which is going to completion in the youngest generation of today.
[ŋ] [g] ִ뤳Ȥˤäơξʬۤ졤¾ /ŋ/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ϼ줿ȤäƤ褤ϡ#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) #1023. ܸμȿ ([2012-02-14-1]) Ǽܸ춦̸βηϡηϤˤƶηŪѲǤꡤæDz (de-phonemicisation) βǤȤ
Hibiya, Junko. "Denasalization of the Velar Nasal in Tokyo Japanese." Towards a Social Science of Language: Papers in Honour of William Labov. Ed. G. R. Guy, C. Feagin, D. Schiffrin, and J. Baugh. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1996. 161--70.
Ѹǡfinger singer ˤ ng ʬȯϰۤʤ롥Ԥ [fɪŋgə]Ԥ [sɪŋə] Ǥ롥ԤΤ褦ˡ-ing ǽ촴ղäˤ [ŋ] ΤߤȤʤդƻѲ̤ long ӵ longer [lɔŋgə] Ǥ롥äơ֤Ĺפȡ˾͡פȤǤϡƱ longer Ǥ [lɔŋgə] [lɔŋə] ȯۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ťϸ -ng Ͼ [ŋg] ä岻Ǥˤ뤬14Ⱦ顤ǤɸѸ17顤[ŋŋ] ͳ [ŋ] ؤȲѲ뤲West Midlands Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool ʤɤǤϤβѲϵ餺[ŋg] ݤ줿
Τ褦¿Ǹ -ng [ŋg] [ŋ] Ѳ뤳Ȥˤäơsing [sɪŋ] sin [sɪn] ʤɤǾ (minimal pair) 뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ/ŋ/ Dz (phonemicisation)
ʤưȤƤ -ing ϡ [ɪŋg] [ɪŋ] Ѳۤˡ [ɪn] ؤȯŸѰ۷⤢äѸǤϤФ -in' ɽǡɸŪȤƤ[2013-01-26-1]ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴפȡˤŪˤϹԤʤƤ19ˤݼŪ RP ǤѤƤꡤषҤȯȤߤʤƤθ塤Ū˰ҿƤäΤϡֻȯ (spelling pronunciation) αƶȹͤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ʤˤѼ郎¸ߤΤȤˤĤơ֤ѲĴ뽾ηǥؤΥơȤơȳȻĴȾǥ뤬ƤƤȤϡ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) Ϥᡤwave_theory γƵǼ夲Ƥ
ȾˤСŪʸ (linguistic item) γơϡӤꤲޤ줿ФΤ褦ˡŪȾ˳ȻƤ椯ܤˤä濴ΰ֤ϰۤʤ뤷Ȥζۤʤ뤷³֤ۤʤ뤿ᡤ̤ȤαƶεڤϰϤХХȤʤꡤȤʣ (isogloss) 뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥
ܤγȻιȤ뤳ȤǤΤϡޤǤǤ롥ιߤޤϳŪŪǤ뤫⤷ʤܤγȻϤüԡʽġˤѶŪ˺Ѥй³ǤʤлߤޤȤҲŪװ˰¸ʡ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ȡˡޤȻܤϡɬŪʤΤǤɬפϤʤŤ餽ˤäܤȤȻ濴ϤȤƵǽϤȤȤ⤢ꤦΤǤ롥ꤲޤ줿СסֵŪιפȤΤߤǤϡԽʬȤȤˤʤ롥
ǡHudson (41) ϡذƤȤơŪʼҳȻȤ٤Τ
Because of these reservations it seems best to abandon the analogy of the stones dropping in a pool. A more helpful analogy would perhaps be one involving different species of plants sown in a field, each spreading outwards by dispersing its seeds over a particular area. In the analogy, each item would be represented by a different species, with its own rate of seed dispersal, and an isogloss would be represented by the limit of spread of a given species. Different species would be able to coexist on the same spot (a relaxation of the normal laws of botany), but it might be necessary to designate certain species as being in competition with one another, corresponding to items which provide alternative ways of saying the same thing (like the two pronunciations of farm). The advantages of this analogy are that there is no need for the distribution of species in a field to be in constant change with respect to every item, and that every item may be represented in the analogy, and not just those which are innovative.
In terms of this analogy, a linguistic innovation is a new species which has arisen (either by mutation or by being brought in from outside), and which may or may not prosper. If it does, it may spread and replace some or all of its competitors, but if it does not it may either die out or remain confined to a very small area of the field (i.e. to a very small speech community). Whether or not a species thrives depends on how strongly its representatives grow (i.e. on the power and influence of its speech community): the bigger the plants, the more seeds they produce, and the better the chances of the species conquering new territory.
ΥǥϡHudson (48--49) ̤Ƥ롤 "variety-based view of language" Ȥ "item-based view of language" Ȥ礹롥⡤ġθܤ˼ҲŪǧȤ Hudson θѤǻȿǤƤ롥
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
#1427. פʱ˴ؤǯɽ ([2013-03-24-1]) 餫ʤ褦ˡ16͡ȯŪ˽Ǥ줿äʤ⤦1Ĥȯ20ˡϽפλǤꡤ͡ʥꥹȶɤ¸ߡŵ줫ĹǤθκʤɽǤ߹礤ۤʤǤνи¥ʤ顤ǤȼŪռäƤꡤŪˤƤȼΤäƤǤϡλȤؿƤŪȤϡŪˤɤΤ褦ʤΤäΤGörlach (5) ˤСʲ4Ǥ롥
1. Should a translator use the Latin or Greek/Hebrew sources?
2. Should translational equivalents be fixed, or varying renderings be permitted according to context? (cf. penitentia = penance, penitence, amendment)
3. To what extent should foreign words be permitted or English equivalents be used, whether existing lexemes or new coinages (cf. Cheke's practice)?
4. How popular should the translator's language be? There was a notable contrast between the Protestant tradition (demanding that the Bible should be accessible to all) and the Catholic (claiming that even translated Bibles needed authentic interpretation by the priest). Note also that dependence on earlier versions increased the conservative, or even archaic character of biblical diction from the sixteenth century on
줾䤤ؤϡȤˤäưۤʤäƤꡤ줬ۤʤνǤĹޤäƱǤϤʤˤ衤20--21ˤƤ2ܤǤȯˤƤ⡤ƤϤޤΤǤϤʤ
ơѸˤθǤϡۤʤαӤȤˡФѤƤǤΥƥȤΰƱطʤ˾Τ褦ͿƤȤϵαƤ٤Ǥ롥ʣǤΤñӤͭǤϤʤǽ뤫Görlach (6) ˤСŪʴ顤֤ñӤΩʤȤƼ4Ƥ롥
1. the translators used different sources;
2. older translations were used for comparison;
3. the source was misunderstood or interpreted differently;
4. concepts and contexts were absent from the translator's language and culture.
͡ʱ¸ߤѸ˸˵ŤʻƤ줿Ȥϴְ㤤ʤѸ˸ˡȤߤȡʣƤƤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1])#1393. between Ū۷֤˭٤([2013-02-18-1])#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1]) ³ơ LAEME Ѥ̻ŪѲʬۤĴ̤𤹤롥
Helsinki Corpus ˤ̻ŪĴ ([2013-02-19-1]) ξƱͤˡ¿ΰ۷֤ޤȤäơʳˤ첻ΰ㤤̵뤷2ʹߤλҲʤȡ⤷и첻ˤμȤ߹碌ܤlexel "between" ꤷƼФȤˡ241ĤΥȡȾȡ̤ʶʬ[2012-10-10-1]ε#1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1)פǺѤΤƱˡǡȡʲǽǯ̡̤ν̤Ǥ롥
| PERIOD | nn | n | ne | x | xe | xn | xte | hn | he | tn | tx | txn | txe | ths | s | e | yn | zn | Sum |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C12b | 18 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 28 |
| C13a | 23 | 4 | 19 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 9 | 14 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 85 |
| C13b | 20 | 3 | 23 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 64 |
| C14a | 5 | 13 | 28 | 9 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 64 |
| Sum | 66 | 21 | 72 | 24 | 7 | 9 | 4 | 10 | 14 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 241 |
| DIALECT | nn | n | ne | x | xe | xn | xte | hn | he | tn | tx | txn | txe | ths | s | e | yn | zn | Sum |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 |
| NEM | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 |
| NWM | 7 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 37 |
| SEM | 14 | 20 | 9 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 52 |
| SWM | 31 | 1 | 26 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 84 |
| SW | 0 | 0 | 16 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 24 |
| SE | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 15 |
| Sum | 66 | 21 | 72 | 24 | 7 | 9 | 4 | 10 | 14 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 241 |
ѸˤĤƤϡme_dialect γƵǰäƤɤʬŪʷ֤ʬۤˤ뤳Ȥ¿㤨С#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Τ褦ϿޤƤȤƤ롥#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ˤȤꡤȤ˴ؤƤ͡Ū꤬롥Ѹؤ20ȾĹˤäƤꡤǯǤ LALME LAEME оˤ긦Ķ⤷ΤϳΤޤ¿꤬ĤƤ롥
ϡŪ Moore, Meech and Whitehall θѸθ˴ŤפŪ֤ȤʬۤMoore, Meech and Whitehall ϡ1400--1450ǯ˽줿266Ρʸʸ43ʸغʤ礿оݥƥȤȤ11μפŪħˤä MED ԻδפȤʤäǤꡤMED "Plan and Bibliography" ˤȿǤƤ롥 (96--106) 8ĤŪħˤĤɽ (98) ͿƤʤΤǡޤȤľΤ˼
| Feature | Isogloss | N | NEM | SEM | WM | SW | SE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OE /ā/ | A | /ɑː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ |
| OE /a/ + nasal | D | /a/ | /a/ | /a/ | /ɔ/ | /a/ | /a/ |
| OE /ȳ/, /y/, /ēo/, /eo/ | F | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ | /yː, y/, /øː, ø/ | /yː, y/, /øː, ø/ | /iː, ɪ/, /eː, ɛ/ |
| /f/ -- /v/ | I | /f/ | /f/ | /f/ | /f, v/ | /v/ | /v/ |
| /ʃ/ -- /s/ | C | /s/ | /s/ | /ʃ/ | /ʃ/ | /ʃ/ | /ʃ/ |
| 3rd pl. pronoun | E | them | them | hem | hem | hem | hem |
| 3rd sg. pres. verb | G | -es | -es | -eth | -es, -eth | -eth | -eth |
| 3rd pl. pres. verb | B, H | -es | -es, -e(n) | -e(n) | -e(n), -eth | -eth | -eth |
Bloomfield ϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ѲβAusnahmslose Lautgesetze "sound laws without exception"ˤˤ͡ȽӤƤɭθؼԤϤߤ Neogrammarian ǤȤơƱɤζӤ⤯ɾƤ롥ȽκǤΤȤơѲ˼Ĥ줿 residue ¸ߤɤΤ褦ŤΤȤ꤬뤬Bloomfield Ϥष˸ꤲΤϡۤʤƱǤȤơȽȿ롥Language ǤϴϢڤߤƤ뤬Τ2Ѥ褦
The occurrence of sound-change, as defined by the neo-grammarians, is not a fact of direct observation, but an assumption. The neo-grammarians believe that this assumption is correct, because it alone has enabled linguists to find order in the factual data, and because it alone has led to a plausible formulation of other factors of linguistic change. (364)
The neo-grammarians claim that the assumption of phonetic change leaves residues which show striking correlations and allow us to understand the factors of linguistic change other than sound-change. The opponents of the neo-grammarian hypothesis imply that a different assumption concerning sound-change will leave a more intelligible residue, but they have never tested this by re-classifying the data. (392--93)
ǯʸˡɤȽԤϡƱɤ (borrowing) (analogy) ˤäǤʤꤲॴȢȤưѤƤ뤳ȤФлŦ뤬Bloomfield ˸碌СषǯʸˡɤϼѤŪϰ̤Ϳ뤳Ȥ˹ΤȤȤˤʤ롥
Bloomfield ϡε˴ؤƤ⡤ǯʸˡʸŸ롥벻ѲAˤƤϰ췲θˤʤѤ٤BˤƤϤñˤѤƤʤ褦ʥˤơǯʸˡɤϤ residue ñɤΤ褦Τ
[A]n irregular distribution shows that the new forms, in a part or in all of the area, are due not to sound-change, but to borrowing. The sound-change took place in some one center, and after this, forms which had undergone the change spread from this center by linguistic borrowing. In other cases, a community may have made a sound-change, but the changed forms may in part be superseded by unchanged forms which spread from a center which has not made the change. (362)
ơΰѤˤ³ơǯʸˡɤȽԤؤμ긷ȿ깭롥
Students of dialect geography make this inference and base on it their reconstruction of linguistic and cultural movements, but many of these students at the same profess to reject the assumption of regular phonetic change. If they stopped to examine the implications of this, they would soon see that their work is based on the supposition that sound-change is regular, for, if we admit the possibility of irregular sound-change, then the use of [hy:s] beside [mu:s] in a Dutch dialect, or of [ˈraðr] rather beside [ˈgɛðr] gather in standard English, would justify no deductions about linguistic borrowing. (362)
Bloomfield εɤߤʤ顤ǯʸˡɤβ⤬Ƚ䤹ΤϡषȤƼ餳ʤΤ⤷ʤȻפƤ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ʬ (isogloss) ϡθοȤǤȤäƤǤϤʤϡɤŻ뤹뤫ˤäơʬͻҤѤꤦȤȤǤ롥ޤտŪ֤Ȥˤäơ˾ʬФȤȤǤ⤢롥
ǤϡŻ뤹٤ŪȤʤ餶ʤΤ餫εҴŪʴˤäơפȽפǤʤ̤뤳ȤǤΤˡˤĤơBloomfield (341--42) ϼΤ褦ʰոҤ٤Ƥ롥
An isogloss which cuts boldly across a whole area, dividing it into two nearly equal parts, or even an isogloss which nearly marks off some block of the total area, is more significant than a petty line enclosing a localism of a few villages. . . . The great isogloss shows a feature which has spread over a large domain; this spreading is a large event, simply as a fact in the history of language, and, may reflect, moreover, some non-linguistic cultural movement of comparable strength. As a criterion of description, too, the large division is, of course, more significant than small ones; in fact, the popular classification of dialects is evidently based upon the prevalence of certain peculiarities over large parts of an area. / Furthermore, a set of isoglosses running close together in much the same direction --- a so-called bundle of isoglosses --- evidences a larger historical process and offers a more suitable basis of classification than does a single isogloss that represents, perhaps, some unimportant feature. It appears, moreover, that these two characteristics, topographic importance and bundling, often go hand in hand.
С(1) ϰ礭ʬ١(2) «ʤƤ١ȤȤˤʤ
δ༫Τ٤ޤࡥɤΤ餤СֹϰפȤߤʤΤɤΤ餤礭װʬ٤Τ˶ƤɸϤʤɤΤ餤«ǤФ褤ΤƱͤ㤨Сɤ̤礭2ʬβͤϤۤȤɤοͤǧؤǤ̾蘆˺٤ʬषƤ椯ξ硤ɤκ٤ޤǤʬȤߤʤƤ褤ҴŪ˼ɸϤʤѸˤƤ⡤2ʬǤ褤Τ뤤Ϥ줾̤ʬ4Ȥ٤ʤΤŪϤʤդϡʬѤƹͻ褦ȤƤܤŪʬۤ䤽¾طʤȤǡŬڤʶʬռŪ֤ȤΤष˾ޤȸΤ⤷ʤ
Ǥ⡤Bloomfield 2ĤδϡʣΤŪʽ¬ΤΩĴǤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤
Bloomfield Language 10 "DIALECT GEOGRAPHY" ϡ㤬˭٤ǡ¤ˤ褯Ƥ롥
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ѥˤȤäɽ (representativeness) ̿Ǥ뤳Ȥϡѥ ([2010-11-16-1]) 餫Ǥ뤷ε#1279. BNC ζߤȼߡ ([2012-10-28-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Leech Ȥ櫓ĥƤǤ롥McEnery et al. (13) ϡɽˤĤơLeech ͤˤʤ "a corpus is thought to be representative of the language variety it is supposed to represent if the findings based on its contents can be generalized to the said language variety" ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ɽŪ˹ͤƤߤ褦㤨 BNC åȤȤ褦ʡ奤ꥹѸȤŪѼϿ륳ѥ (general corpus) ɽϤɤΤ褦ˤΤäդȽդγͤȡ줾50%Ĥ˳꿶뤳Ȥϡ奤ꥹѸɽ«ƤLeech ɽǤ "impressionistic" Ȥʤ餶ʤνִ֤˹ԤʤƤ븽奤ꥹѸΰŪʬäդˤƤǤϤʤ⤷ȤСäեѥγ㤨80%ۤɤꤹۤɽݤǤΤǤϤʤΤȤʤ븽奤ꥹѸľܤĤळȤǤʤʾ塤ɽεϹԤͤޤäƤޤ
ѥä˰̥ѥˤɽȤˡ balance sampling Ȥ2Ĥγǰʬƹͤ뤳Ȥ롥McEnery et al. (13) Ǥϡ"the representativeness of most corpora is to a great extent determined by two factors: the range of genres included in a corpus (i.e. balance . . .) and how the text chunks for each genre are selected (i.e. sampling . . .)" Ƥ롥
balance ȤϡBNC ѸǤȤ domain genre Ȥʬ˴ؤΤǤ롥㤨С奤ꥹѸΥѥɸ֤ʤ⡤ꥹοʹαѸѥϡrepresentativeness 롥奤ꥹѸˤϽդǤʤäդ⤢뤷ԤˤĤƤϿʹѸǤʤʸرѸ⤢ŻҥѸ⤢뤷㤤ʪѸ⤢СѸ⤢롥Τ domain genre θ줿Ȼפ̤ƤĤ text domain ΤʹѸ˸¤äƤ⡤֥ɤ⤢й⤢롥1ĤοʹǤ⡤Ҳ̡ݡ̡ʤɤ̤ɬפϤʤΤҲ̤Ǥйȹݵζ̤ϤɤŪˤϤɤޤǤʬ롥äդǤƱͤ˺ʬ䤷ʤƤСĿ (idiolect) ˸Ŀˤ register ̤θ졤ʤɤΥȥؤȽ夷ƤޤºݤΥѥϡQŪʥ٥Ŷ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬־QŪפ "impressionistic" ϤۤƱ
sampling Ȥɽ뤿μˡǤ롥ΤθŪħƸ褦ˡ̤ˤƹθäʤ顤ѥ˳ domain ۤ뤿ȼǤ롥ˤϡsampling unit ȤƲꤹ뤫ŵŪˤϡܡʹʤɤʤȤƤñ̡ˡΤ褦ñ̤ꥹȲȤϰ (sampling frame) ɤޤǤꤹ뤫ǯؤθ䡤٥ȥ顼ܤؤθʤɡˡɸܼϴʥˤ뤫٤ηϲäǤΥˤ뤫ɤۤ뤫ʤɤΡŪŪ꤬ޤޤ롥
ɽ˴ؤ⤦1ĤγǰȤơclosure 뤤 saturation ȸƤФΤ⤢롥McEnery et al. (16) ˤС"Closure/saturation for a particular linguistic feature (e.g. size of lexicon) of a variety of language (e.g. computer manuals) means that the feature appears to be finite or is subject to very limited variation beyond a certain point." Ƥ롥ʿСʾ女ѥεϤ礭Ƥ⡤ùγѤʤȤϤãСΥѥ saturated Ǥȹͤ롥ɽλɸȤƤϡbalance saturation ΤۤƤȤŦ⤢뤬saturation ϼȤƸäǰƬˤꡤ¾θܤؤαѤϻߤƤʤΤǤ롥
ɽϡ女ѥ̿ǤȤϤäƤ⡤ԤȤ餤Ϥ롥ݤ뤿ʤˡʤ٤ƤΥѥԻԤΩϤƬˤѥϼԻƤ롥Ṳ̄ˤơҤԻȻѤ³Ƥ椭Υϥ٤ʳˤΤ⤷ʤ
McEnery, Tony, Richard Xiao, and Yukio Tono. Corpus-Based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge, 2006.
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