ʥȥεǤƤޤäϤޤʸؼԤǤ Saussure (1857--1913) θ (6) Ѥ The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia (3rd ed.) ¹Ǽ餹뤬̤ (xxxvii)
1. to describe all known languages and record their history (this involves tracing the history of language families and, as far as possible, reconstructing the parent languages of each family);
2. to determine the forces operating permanently and universally in all languages, and to formulate general laws which account for all particular linguistic phenomena historically attested;
3. to delimit and define linguistic itself.
פˡ֤̻֤ޤΤ¦̤ˤĤơֵҡסס֥פ3鹶衤ȤȤ
3Ĥʤɤ˱ԤɤɤޤǤؤƤʤΤȤ䤤Ǥ롥ؤμΩȤˤ̤뤬1εꤹ褦ʤȤŦƤʤȤǽײ1ĤȤƵƤΤäˡ塼뤬ŪʻäƸįƤȤ褯ʬ롥
Saussure, F. de. Course in General Linguistics. Trans. W. Baskin. London: Fontana/Collins, 1983. (First edition published 1916).
Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia ν (xxv) ˡ20ʹߡ100ǯ֤βƤˤؤȯŸοƤ3ĤʳʬƤ롥ζʬ
Phase 1: The emergence of modern linguistics (1911--33)
1911 Saussure's third (final) lecture series in Geneva
Boas's 'Introduction' to Handbook of American Indian Languages
1912 Daniel Jones becomes Head of Department of Phonetics, University of London
1913 Death of Saussure (1857--1913)
1914 Bloomfield's Introduction to the Study of Language
1916 Saussure's Cours de linguistique géenerale
1921 Sapir's Language
1924 Linguistic Society of America founded
1925 First volume of the journal, Language
1928 First International Congress of Linguists (The Hague)
1932 First International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Amsterdam)
1933 Bloomfield's Language
Phrase 2: A time of transition (c. 19025--60)
1923 Malinowski's 'The problem of meaning in primitive languages'
1926 Linguistic Circle of Prague founded
1938 Death of Trubezkoy (1890--1938)
1939 Trubetzkoy's Grndzüge der Phonologie
Death of Sapir (1884--1939)
1941 Death of Whorf (1897--1941)
1942 Death of Boas (1858--1942)
1944 J.R. Firth becomes Professor of General Linguistics, University of London
1949 Death of Bloomfield (1887--1949)
1951 Harris's Methods in Structural Linguistics
1953 Weinreich's Languages in Contact
1956 Jacobson and Halle's Fundamentals of Language
1957 Chomsky's Syntactic Structures
Phrase 3: The expansion and diversification of linguistics (since 1960)
1961 Halliday's 'Categories of the theory of grammar'
1963 Greenberg's Universals of Language
1964 Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of syntax
1966 Labov's The Social Stratification of English in New York City
1973 Halliday's Explorations in the Functions of Language
1981 Chomsky's Lectures on Government and Binding
1985 Halliday's Introduction to functional Grammar
1986 Chomsky's Knowledge of Language
1995 Chomsky's The Minimalist Program
1ϡ塼αƶϤΤȤˡƤʤʤˤĴ·ʤ鶦Ū¤ŪؤΩ塥2ϡƤδ֤ǰۤʤ˸ؤȯŸƤä塥3ϡؤδ¿Ͳ뤲Ǥ
Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
(sign_language) äȤ1֤Ǥ뤳ȤˤĤơ#1662. äϸǤ (1) ([2013-11-14-1])#1663. äϸǤ (2) ([2013-11-15-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
Woll (96) ˤСäθˤ17ˤΤܤ뤬ܳŪʼø椬ϤޤäΤϡĤǶȤ⤤1950--60ǯΤȤǤ롥Tervoort (1953) Stokoe (1960) θ椬ŪȤƤ롥θ1970ǯʹߤϡήɸؤø椫ɷΰؤδؿƤʲʬؤΥѥȤ礭ä褦Woll (104) ۩
. . . sign languages are the creation of humans with 'language-ready' brains. Thus it is inappropriate to view sign languages as comparable to the communication of pre-linguistic humans. Perhaps the most important contribution of sign linguistics to language evolution theory is the recognition that human communication is essentially multi-channel.
μøؤ70ǯۤɤˤĤȤˤʤ뤬ηи̤Ƽä3Ĥħ⤭ĦˤʤäƤ Woll (92) ϽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Sign languages are complex natural human languages.
Sign languages are not related to the spoken languages of the surrounding hearing communities.
Sign languages can be compared and contrasted in terms of typology and modality with spoken language.
øϲ줫ʪǤϤʤäȤ1֤ǤꡤӤǤ¦̤ȤǤʤ¦̤ġȤȤ
ʤߤ˼øϤĤΤEthnologue 2009ǯǡˤǤ170μø줬Ƥ뤽̤Υǡ١ˤȿΥȥǧǤȤ (Woll 93) ¿ͳǡƱͤˡݤʾˡΤ˿夲ΤϺʤ褦
Woll, Bencie. "The History of Sign Language Linguistics." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 91--104.
Tervoort, Bernard T. Structurele analyse van visueel taalgebruik binnen een groep dove kinderen. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij, 1953.
Stokoe, William C. "Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American deaf." Studies in Linguistics Occasional Papers 8 (1060): 1--78. University of Buffalo.
#4623. 㡼Ȥϲ ([2021-12-23-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǯؤȤؤοʬȤƥ㡼椬ˤʤäƤƤ롥㡼γػˤ֤ȡ19ޤǤϼ˸쵯ȤδϢǥ㡼ؤδؿϳͷߤä20Ⱦ˹¤λ夬Ϥޤȡܤ뤳Ȥʤʤä
¤λˤϡؤ϶ŪʴؿĤäᡤ쵯ȷӤĤζ㡼θⲼФˤʤäΤǤ롥ޤؤμΧȤ˼ĥ줿ˡؤȤΥܥ졼Ȥ른㡼ϡϤ꿶ʤʤä
塤㡼뤲롥طʤˤϡؤӴϢسˤؿΰܹԤäKendon (81) λΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
In the first years following the Second World War, certain changes eventually produced a climate in which gesture again became relevant for theoretical issues related to language and thought. First, information theory and cybernetics, developed as solutions to problems in communication engineering, were applied in the study of communication within and between living systems, with the result that much thought and investigation came to be devoted to social communication. Not unrelated was the emergence of semiotics which, especially in North America, greatly broadened attention to sign processes, enhancing an interest in visible modes of signification, including gesture. Further, the question of language origins once again began to be taken seriously. When experiments with chimpanzees suggested that they might use gesture symbolically, as in a sign language, the idea of gesture as a first form of language was discussed once again . . . .
At the same time, in psychology, complex mental processes once again became legitimate objects of investigation. Psychologists took an interest in language and the field of psycholinguistics was established. Noam Chomsky's work was especially important. He showed the inadequacy of a behaviourist approach to language and argued that linguistics should focus on 'competence', the mental apparatus making the acquisition and use of any language possible, rather than on descriptions of specific languages. Although neither Chomsky himself nor his followers showed interest in gesture, their mentalistic orientation was influential. When, later, psycholinguists looked at gesture, they did so for what it might reveal about the mental operations of utterance production.
ΰʸ顤㡼ؤδؿ᤹Τ˹θؤȴϢʬĬήɽ魯ɤ¤٤С"information theory", "cybernetics", "semiotics", "origin_of_language", "sign_language", "Chomsky" դȤ櫓塼ϻϤ¤ؤäƥॹ˿ؤ褵Ȥΰյ礭ˤȿӤĤƤ褤Ȥ줿Ǥ롥
Ϣʬγػˤɤ϶̩ϢȤƤΤȼ´碌ơ#252. ʸˡȸ쵯 ([2010-01-04-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.
ޤˤ⤷ǡФƤޤäȤǤܤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤʬޤ͡ˤȤäơϸͭ̾ (onomastics) ǤüŪˤп̾̾Ǥť¤ˤϤޤळȤɬʤΤɬƤΤǤǯ˰١ɬơޤ֤ΤǤؤޤäƤޤۤɡˤȤäƼϤΤǤ
ͭ̾ꡤפˡ̾פۤɡؤˤƼŪǿƤʤ顤¤ܼŪϤޤդ̾˻Ϥޤ̾˽ǽ뤫Ǥ (cf. #1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ǿ줿 "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP)ˡ
⤽ͭ̾ȤΤϡΰʤΤǤʤΤȤȤ餷ˤʤΤǺޤǤ͡ꤵǤϤޤ䤬֥ѥꡤޥ륻桤֥르˥פȾʥեȯǸȤƤ⡤ե줬褯äȤȤˤʤޤ⤽̾ϥեʤΤɤʤΤȤ꤬뤫Ǥ (cf. #2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1])ˡ
ѸˤΥϥɥ֥åˡCoates ˤͭ̾ؤ˴ؤϤޤƬΡָͭ̾ϰ̡פꤹ1ꡤǽѤޤ (312)
The status of proper names
Names is a technical term for a subset of the nominal expressions of a language which are used for referring ('identifying or selecting in context') and, in some cases, for addressing a partner in communication. Nominal expressions are in general headed by nouns. According to one of the most ancient distinctions in linguistics, nouns may be common or proper, which has something to do with whether they denote a class or an individual (e.g. queen vs Victoria), where individual means a single-member set of any sort, not just a person. Much discussion has taken place about how this distinction should be refined to be both accurate and useful, for instance by addressing the obvious difficulty that a typical proper noun denoting persons may denote many separate individuals who bear it, and that common nouns may refer to individuals by being constructed into phrases (the queen). I will leave the concept [±proper], applied to nouns, for intuitive or educated recognition before returning to discussion of the inclusive concept of proper names directly. Proper nouns have no inherent semantic content, even when they are homonymous with lexical words (Daisy, Wells), and many, perhaps all, cultures recognise nouns whose sole function is to be proper (Sarah, Ipswich). Typically they have a unique intended referent in a context of utterance. Proper names are the class of such proper nouns included in the class of all expressions which have the properties of being devoid of sense and being used with the intention of achieving unique reference in context. Onomastics is the study of proper names, and concentrates on proper nouns; I shall confine the main subject-matter of this chapter to the institutionalised proper nouns associated with English and, in accordance with ordinary usage, I shall call them proper names or just names. Readers should note that strictly speaking these are a subset of proper names, and from time to time other members of the larger set will be discussed. There is some evidence from aphasiology and cognitive neuropsychology that institutionalised proper nouns --- especially personal names --- form a psychologically real class . . . .
Ǥ⤷ȴϡ֤⤷ޤҾΤɤǤߤƤ
Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.
Ƕ褯褦ˤʤä ecolinguistics ȤѸ졥ήԸʤΤȤʤȥɤǻäʤäꤹ뤬Ϥ褯ʬäƤʤȸؤγݤ碌ȤȤʬ뤬̣ƤΤ
Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (318) ˤȡ"ecolinguistics", "language ecology", "linguistic ecology" Ϥ褽ƱǤꡤΤ褦ʥǤ "ecology" ϴˤ "context" "language environment" ؤΤȤޤˡִĶפǤϡִĶפȤϲʤΤȤȡߥޥμҲŪŪкѳŪŪطʤΤȤȤƤľˡήԸǤեʤΤǡΤȤϥȤƤ롥ɤΤȤ褯ʬʤ
ȤδϢǤ "ecology" äȸ̩˹ͤƤԤ⾯ʤʤPhillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas ¤ϤΤ褦ʹͤΤ褦ǡʪŪʪŪӼҲŪĶפΤȤªƤ褦 (319) ȤδϢǡּҲŪפȤΤʬ褦ʵΤʪŪפȤΤϤɤȤɤ Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas ϡܵǸäƤ롥
Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas μĥΤ#601. ¿ʪ¿ ([2010-12-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤȤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥פˡˤ¿ʪ¿ʬۤشطˤȤ¤˴ŤۤΤ褦ξǡʪ¿ݻ뤿μϿʹ֤θΤʤѤƤꡤԤºŤ뤳ȤˤäԤݤ롤ȤΩȤäƤ롥¿ξüˤʪ¿ξüˤľ뤹롤Ȥ
εˤĤƤɤͤФ褤ΤʬʤޤޤʤΤǡޤ Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (323--24) εΤޤްѤƤ
Most of the world's megabiodiversity is in areas under the management or guardianship of Indigenous peoples. Most of the world's linguistic diversity resides in the small languages of Indigenous peoples. Much of the detailed knowledge of how to maintain biodiversity, including TEK [= traditional ecological knowledge], is encoded in the language of Indigenous peoples. If we continue as now, most of the world's Indigenous languages will be gone by 2100. ICSU [= International Council for Science] states (2002) that "actions are urgently needed to enhance the intergenerational transmission of local and Indigenous knowledge...Traditional knowledge conservation, therefore, must pass through the pathways of conserving language (as language is an essential tool for culturally-appropriate encoding of knowledge)." Since TEK is necessarily encoded into the local languages of the peoples whose knowledge it is, this means that if these local languages disappear (without the knowledge being transferred to other, bigger languages, which it isn't) the knowledge is lost. By killing the languages we kill the prerequisites for maintaining biodiversity. Ecolinguistic diversity is essential because it enhances creativity and adaptability and thus stability.
ʪŪʪŪʥȼҲŪŪϥƤΤȤӤϤɤͤޤ
Phillipson, Robert and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas. "English, Language Dominance, and Ecolinguistic Diversity Maintenance." Chapter 16 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 313--32.
(phoneme) ϡؤǤɬ夲δŪñ̤ǤȤʤ顤¤͡ˤꡤؾäȤޤߤγǰѸ1ĤǤ롥ػ˾褬䤨ڡΩ뤳ȤΤǤʤǤ롥ؤǤϡˤƤΤ褦ޤߤε롥㤨С (word) ȤŪñ̤顤ؤǤϤޤФͿƤʤ (cf. ָʤפεå)
ǤȤΤäԤʤʤˤʤ櫓ˤ⤤ʤΤǡޤѸ켭ŵεҤäƤߤ褦ĤäƤߤΤΤ䤳ȿǤƤɤҤȥ졼ȤǤʤΤʤǤʬ䤹äΤ Crystal Ѹ켭ŵäΤǡóݤȤĹȰѤȤŪʬ䤹Ȥе䡥줯餤鿴Ԥˤϡʼ¤Ȥˤ˼äĤˤѸ졦ǰ
phoneme (n.) The minimal unit in the sound SYSTEM of a LANGUAGE, according to traditional PHONOLOGICAL theories. The original motivation for the concept stemmed from the concern to establish patterns of organization within the indefinitely large range of sounds heard in languages. The PHONETIC specifications of the sounds (or PHONES) heard in speech, it was realized, contain far more detail than is needed to identify the way languages make CONTRASTS in MEANINGS. The notion of the phoneme allowed linguists to group together sets of phonetically similar phones as VARIANTS, or 'members', of the same underlying unit. The phones were said to be REALIZATIONS of the phonemes, and the variants were referred to as allophones of the phonemes . . . . Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes; some languages have as few as fifteen phonemes; othes as many as eighty. An analysis in these terms will display a language's phonemic inventory/structure/system. No two languages have the same phonemic system.
Sounds are considered to be members of the same phoneme if they are phonetically similar, and do not occur in the same ENVIRONMENT (i.e. they are in COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION) --- or, if they do, the substitution of one sound for the other does not cause a change in meaning (i.e. they are in FREE VARIATION). A sound is considered 'phonemic', on the other hand, if its substitution in a word does cause a change in meaning. In a phonemic transcription, only the phonemes are given symbols (compared with phonetic TRANSCRIPTIONS, where different degrees of allophonic detail are introduced, depending on one's purpose). Phonemic symbols are written between oblique brackets, compared with square brackets used for phonetic transcriptions; e.g. the phoneme /d/ has the allophones [d] (i.e. an ALVEOLAR VOICED variant), [d̥] (i.e. an alveolar devoiced variant), [d̪] (i.e. a DENTAL variant) in various complementary positions in English words. Putting this another way, it is not possible to find a pair of words in English which contrast in meaning solely on account of the difference between these features (though such contrasts may exist in other languages). The emphasis on transcription found in early phonemic studies is summarized in the subtitle of one book on the subject: 'a technique for reducing languages to writing'. The extent to which the relationship between the phonemes and the GRAPHEMES of a language is regular is called the 'phoneme-grapheme correspondence'.
On this general basis, several approaches to phonemic analysis, or phonemics, have developed. The PRAGUE SCHOOL defined the phoneme as a BUNDLE of abstract DISTINCTIVE FEATURES, or OPPOSITIONS between sounds (such as VOICING, NASALITY), and approach which was developed later by Jakobson and Halle . . . , and GENERATIVE phonology. The approach of the British phonetician Daniel Jones (1881--1967) viewed the phoneme as a 'family' of related sounds, and not as oppositions. American linguists in the 1940s also emphasized the phonetic reality of phonemes, in their concern to devise PROCEDURES of analysis, paying particular attention to the DISTRIBUTION of sounds in an UTTERANCE. Apart from the question of definition, if the view is taken that all aspects of the sound system of a language can be analysed in terms of phonemes --- that is, the SUPRASEGMENTAL as well as the SEGMENTAL features --- then phonemics becomes equivalent to phonology (= phonemic phonology). This view was particularly common in later developments of the American STRUCTURALIST tradition of linguistic analysis, where linguists adopting this 'phonemic principle' were called phonemicists. Many phonologists, however (particularly in the British tradition), prefer not to analyse suprasegmental features in terms of phonemes, and have developed approaches which do without the phoneme altogether ('non-phonemic phonology', as in PROSODIC and DISTINCTIVE FEATURE theories).
Ǹ˽ɤθάҤƤ뤬䡤¤
(phone) Ȳ (phoneme) Ȥΰ㤤ˤĤơޤǤ˼Τ褦ʵƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
#669. ȯɽȱѸˡ ([2011-02-25-1])
#3717. ؤȲϤɤ㤦ΤǤ ([2019-07-01-1])
#4232. ؤȲϡ֤ι¤ȥ ([2020-11-27-1])
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1])#2746. ʾȸ (2) ([2016-11-02-1])#2755. ʾȸ (3) ([2016-11-11-1]) ³5ǯ˼夲ꡥΩĤΡظ٤ꡤեůؼ Jean-Joseph Goux ΡָȲʾץפ˴ؤ (68--73) ɤ
ʾϷкѤˤơָΥƥפμȤʤ롥Ω뤿ˤϲ餫ΡסƱפɬפǤꡤʾΤΡְʪפ̤Ƥȹͤ롥Goux ϡְʪϽФΥᥫ˥ϡʾкѤΤߤʤ餺ʹ֤Фħ뤹٤ƤθƥˤߤΤȤߤʤʹ¦ǽϤ˰ĤƸСʹ֤ˤϡ־ħǽϡפȤðۤǽϤ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ϡָ¤¸ߤ뤢Ȥ뺹ۡѲΤʤѤΤΡ١ƱΤΡ٤Фǽϡ (71) ΤȤǤ롥кŪˤϤϲʾȤƸ뤬Ūˤ˺濴ȤơŪˤϷȤơŪˤϰȤƸȤްŪʥƥǤȤ롥
ޤǤСƱȤˤƤϤޤͽۤ뤳ȤʤGoux ϡ⤦1Ĥοʹ֤ΡָΥƥפμȤߤʤƤ롥ŪˤС濴Υƥ𤷤ƤȹͤƤ롥Goux ˤȤäơ쵭Ȥϸ¤ԡƸ뤿ΥƥްŪǤʤΤǤ롥
Τˡʾ⡤ҲˤƼŪˤƱ˲ްⴶʪǤ롥ܼȤơۤ¿Ĥ֤äƤ뤫ǡۤ¿ɤƤä鶦ѶȤƤΩʤʤ뤳Ȥ⡤ʬ롥ʾȸϡˤƤƤ롥
εϡ̷⤹2Ĥ뤳ȤפФƤ롥üԽĴ֤Ǥ mutual intelligibility ܻؤȡġüԤ identity marker ȤƵǽǤ롥
Ω ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ
ɸ2ĤʬϤ褯ְ㤨뤬ޤäۤʤʬǤ뤳ȤŦƤѸǤоȸ contrastive linguistics ȸƤФ졤Ӹؤ comparative linguistics ȸƤФ롥2İʾθӡоȤؤβʬǤˤϰ㤤ʤ䤳̾ΤǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ʬ䤹Ż뤷ơäȶ̤ʤСоȸؤϷŪ̵طθɤ㤨ܸȱѸˤ٤ơ츽ݤΰƱ餫ˤʬǤ롥Ūˤ϶ŪʴΩض顤쥿ݥʤɤȶᤷطˤ롥
ӸؤϷŪ˴طɤ㤨бѸȥɥĸˤ٤ơŪط餫ˤ褦ȤʬǤ롥§Ȥ̻ŪʻäƤꡤѲ褤
Τ褦ˡ2Ĥʬϡ̣Ω줬180ٰۤʤʬȤäƤ褤ѸˤܼŪ̻ŪʬʤΤǡܥ֥٤ӸشΥäƤȤ롥
嵭ǤϤޤ绨ĤʤΤǡMcArthur Ѹ켭ŵ餷äꤷѤƤޤоȸؤ顥
CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS, ALSO contrastive analysis [Mid-20c]. A branch of linguistics that describes similarities and difference among two or more languages at such levels as phonology, grammar, and semantics, especially in order to improve language teaching and translation. The study began in Central Europe before the Second World War and developed afterwards in North America. In the US in the later 1950s, Robert Lado proposed contrastive analysis as a means of identifying areas of difficulty for language learners that could then be managed with suitable exercises. Critics have pointed out that such areas of difficulty are already widely known and discussed by experienced professionals, and that, while headway has been made in analysing English, few other languages have been sufficiently studied to allow balanced comparison. Teachers, however, generally agree that mother tongue and target language merit comparison, many courses incorporate the results of contrastive study, and linguists involved in the area consider that the study is still in its infancy and continued research is likely to bear fruit.
ӸؤˤĤơФǤ "comparative philology" ȤʤäƤꡤѸۤʤ褦ˤפϾ嵭̤ "comparative linguistics" Τ̤ۤǤ롥
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. The branch of philology that deals with the relations between languages descended from a common original, now generally known as comparative linguistics.
ȤȤǡְ㤤ʤ褦
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Merriam-Webster ΥȤ "A Word on 'Descriptive' and 'Prescriptive' Defining" ꤹ뵭ɤ˴ؤ뵭Ҽ (descriptivism) ȵϼ (prescriptivism) Ūʬ䤹ƤܸˤѸˤ衤Τ褦ŪΤפȥꥫʸջȤΤȻפ碌롤줿Ȼפʸ˾äΩȡ̤Ǥ롥
Descriptivism reflects how words are actually used.
Prescriptivism dictates how words ought to be used.
ʤɤ˸ؤѸؤʬƳݤˡĤΤϡޤˤεҼȵϼζ̤뤫Ȥ¸롥ǯ֤ʸˡؤǤơǤ⸽ʸʸʸˡؤǤʤΤߤʤ餺̤ο͡ˤˤȤäơϼλߤȤȤϼǤꡤƤǤ⤤롥äȤСαѸǤʻαѸǤ⡤ջȤˤϡؤƱͤˡΤΤȿǤ롥ʸˡʤȯʤ˽вȡɤƤ⤽줬꤫ȤǸƤޤΤΤ褦˵ϼŪʸˤɤäפ꿻äƤޤäƤ뤿ˡ줬ȤʤäơҼλդߤȤؤ§ȤƺΤäƤΩʤ뤳ȤΤ⤷ʤؤϵϼǤϤʤҼΩΩäƤ롥ޤϡä뤳ȤפǤ롥
ǯαѸˤΤ褦ˡ˼ҲŪȯۤѶŪ˼ؤʬˤƤϡդФ뵬ϼȯãյΤΤͻоݤˤȤΩäƤƤ롥еϼΤΤҤƤȤߤޤҼȵϼȤϼ¤Ϣ³ΤǤꡤ٤ˤʤȤƶФ褦ˤʤäƤ
ҼȵϼϡʲεǤͤƤʲγơ뤤εåͳǡƹͻƤ餤
#747. Ҥȵϡ ([2011-05-14-1])
#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1])
#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1])
#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1])
#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])
#3047. ؼԤȵϼԤäɬס ([2017-08-30-1])
#3323. ֤ȤФεϰռϡưǤס ([2018-06-02-1])
ؤʸؤˤϡʪηޤפ碌 (tree) ͡ʤȤƤ롥ζ繽¤ӸؤηܤηʤɤǤ롥3Ĥ˵ܤη (stemma) ϡ¸ܴ֤塤ãѤʤɤ˴ؤܺ٤ʬϤ˴ŤơδطвΤǤcf. #730. ʸ textual transmission ([2011-04-27-1]) ˡȤΥƥȤθͤߤ뤳ȤŪ stemma 夲Ƥܷ (stemmatology) ϡĤƤαѸʸظβַäȤäƤ褤
ܷؤϸߤǤϤۤǤϤʤʳصѤ˻٤줿ŪʼȤߤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤäƤ1998ǯʸʳػ Nature ˡʲʪؤѤ뵻ѤѤChaucer The Canterbury Tales μܤ˴ؤ븦椬Ǻܤ줿ѸεǰŪʤȤäƤ褤 The Canterbury Tales 80ۤɤμܤǸ¸Ƥ롥Τ15˽줿58ܤˤĤơ"The Wife of Bath's Prologue" Υƥȡ850ԡˤΥǡȤ˷Ԥʤܤηط餫ˤ褦ȤߤȤβǡʣμܤΥԡǤǽʤɤȽǤ14ܤ졤ǽŪˤ44ܤ˴ؤޤκߤ줿ԥ塼ˤϤФ줿ޤ˴ŤΤ褦ʷƳФ줿Ȥ
From this analysis and other evidence, we deduce that the ancestor of the whole tradition, Chaucer's own copy, was not a finished or fair copy, but a working draft containing (for example) Chaucer's own notes of passages to be deleted or added, and alternative drafts of sections. In time, this may lead editors to produce a radically different text of The Canterbury Tales. (Barbrook et. al 839)
ޤ Chaucer ⼫ʬκʡʤɾˤʳػ˷ǺܤȤ̴ˤפʤäǤ롥
Barbrook, Adrian C., Chirstopher J. Howe, Norman Blake, and Peter Robinson. "The Phylogeny of The Canterbury Tales." Nature 394 (1998): 839.
θ礭2ĤʬȤС챿 (linguistic performance) Ż뤹ɤȸǽ (linguistic competence) Ż뤹ɤ2ĤȤʤ챿ѤȸǽϤΩϡѥ (parole) ȥ (langue) ΩȤäƤ褤E-Language I-Language ΩȤäƤ褤ɤ˱ѸȤۤʤ뤬褽褦ʤΤǤ롥
챿ѤŻ뤹ɤϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation theory) 乽ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ɽǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Ǥ롥ǽϤ˽Ť¦ɽʸˡ (generative_grammar) Ǥ롥ξɤθѤ͡¦̤180ٰۤʤꡤԤΩƤȤäƤ褤Fischer et al. (32) ɽѤΩ⤫Ӿ夬餻Ƥߤ褦
| EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE/LANGUAGE OUTPUT | EMPHASIS ON COMPETENCE/LANGUAGE SYSTEM | |
|---|---|---|
| (a) | product-oriented | process-oriented |
| (b) | emphasis on function (in CxG also form) | emphasis on form |
| (c) | locus of change: language use | locus of change: language acquisition |
| (d) | equality of levels | centrality (autonomy) of syntax |
| (e) | gradual change | radical change |
| (f) | heuristic tendencies | fixed principles |
| (g) | fuzzy categories/schemas | discrete categories/rules |
| (h) | contiguity with cognition | innateness of grammar |
2֤ε ([2019-08-24-1], [2019-08-25-1]) ˰³Wittgenstein θѤˤĤơWittgenstein 쥲 (Sprachspiel, language-game) ȤȤ館ȤˤäơηŪ椬ԲǽǤ뤳ȤƤȹͤ롥쥲ȸ츦ԲǽϤɤΤ褦˷ӤĤΤ (206--08) ιͻѤ褦
ȥ奿ϤʤΤ褦˹ͤΤεФ餫ǤϤʤĤͳʤȻפΡˤ仡뤳ȤϤǤ롥
ȥ奿ϸѤˤʤ館ƹͤΡ쥲פȤɽ¿Ѥ롥㤨Сָ쥲ˤ֤פȤĤϤä̾ؤƤΤס̾ؤȤϤǤϸ쥲ˤưǤϤޤäʤסȤ쥲ȸΤ٤Ƥ˶̤벿ĤΤΡʤ쥲ܼʤɤȤΤϡˤСʤΤǤ롥ˡ͡ʸ쥲ϸߤ˻̤äƤϤ뤬˶̤Τ¸ߤʤ²ŪƤʤΤǤ롥ֻϤ²ŪȤˤʳɤħŤѤΤʤסϻˡ⤷ʳŪõ椬Ǥ츦оݤܼ¸ߤõ椹ΤȤʤСˤܼʤɤ⤽ʤΤǤ뤫顤ˤĤƲʳŪõȤȤϤꤨʤȤˤʤ
ޤΤ褦ʤȤͤ롥ʳؤDzƤ뤫ȤȤõ椹롥ȤȤФ줬ؼΤʸ̣ΤȤ褦䤤ϸδ֤δط䤦Ƥ롥äơϥȥ奿ˤвʳŪ䤤ǤϤʤϡٰ͡बѤƤ븫Ǥ롥ȤС⡤ˤĤƤβʳŪõؤŪ٤ФǤ
뤤ϤޤΤ褦ȯۤ⤢Τ⤷ʤˤϵ§ʤˡ§ȤФи롥勞˴ؤˡ§ε§̣ε§ơºݡؼԤůؼԡʤΰˤϤˡ§䵬§Фȯ褦ϤƤΤǤ롥ʤ顤ˤΤ褦ʵ§ȤƤ⡤ϲʳŪõоݤȤʤ褦ʼΤΤʤΤȥ奿ˤСѤ˴ؤꡤ֤٤ƤϤभФˤˤΤǤ뤫顤٤ΤϲʤסʰϻˤΤǤ롥ФơαԤˡ§丶ҤοˤĤƤˡ§ʤɤϡ֤भФˡפƤϤʤäơפᤵ뤳ȤäƤ
ʳؤˡ§ȸ츽ݤ˸뵬§---Τ褦ʤΤȤƤäǤ뤬---δ֤ˤϤ˸㤬褦˻פ롥ȤΤϡԤε§ϤȤƤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥ȤСʪؤˡ§˽äƱưƤʪΤϤΤ褦ֱư٤פ餽Τ褦˱ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤñˤʪΤαưˤϤΤ褦ʵ§ФˤʤФơڤפȤ褦ɽ̾ѤʤȤˤϡñˤΤ褦ʵ§ȤǤϤʤïֻڤ٤ȤפȽҤ٤ʤС֤ϤסѤɽס֤Τ褦ʸϤ٤ǤϤʤסȻŦ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥ƱΤ褦뤳ȤǤ롥ʤʳؤˡ§ξ硤ˡ§ˤ褦ʻ---ȿڻȸ---Ф줿ʤСˡ§⤽ˡ§ǤϤʤäȡΤФơ츽ݤ˸뵬§ξ---ǤϤʤ¿μҲݤ˸뵬§ξ---ˤϡȿڻȸΤФ줿Ȥˤϡλ˴Ϳ͡㤨Сֻڤ٤Ȥפȸäͤϡֵ§ˤäפȤȽ졤פ褦ΤǤʸ츽ݤǤʤҲݤƱͤΤȤäˤϡֹŪǤʤסŪפȤȽ뤫⤷ʤˡƱʼξʤĤβҤ䤵ƤȤˤϾԤʤ¤㤦Ȥ§ĥ줿Ȥ褦ΤȤͤ⤤äʤСε§ʤäȤΤǤϤʤषοͤŪǤʤäȤ櫓Ǥ롥
ȥ奿θۤˤСˤܼʤäƲʳؤоݤȤϤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϳصŪоݤˤϤʤޤǥθˤΤ¸ߤӸݤˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
͵ظů١Ҧ˼2003ǯ
#1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1])#1327. ҥȤθ˶̤7Ĥ ([2012-12-14-1]) ʤɤǿʹ֤θħƤ¿ʣ뤬ƣ߷ (10--16) ⤷ʤƤ8ħ伫ȤΥȤäʤ鼨
(1) ΤȤƲѤ
դǤʸΤȤʤ뤷θ (body language) ȿ (gesture language) ⤢С (sing language) ʤɤ⤢Τϻ¤Ǥ롥ϤŪʵ (semiotics) ǰоݤȤ٤Ǥ롥ʹ֤νˤߤŪħȤƤϡΤȤƤ뤳Ȥ롥#1063. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (1) ([2012-03-25-1])#1064. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (2) ([2012-03-26-1])#2535. (sign) μ --- ʤˤʬ ([2016-04-05-1]) ȡ
(2) ŪʵǤ
ƽפʸħǤ롥#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1])#2224. 塼ˤ ([2015-05-30-1])#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ۤ arbitrariness γƵȡ
(3) Ϲ¤η (system) Ǥ
ˤƤϡǤǥ¤Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤηޤˤä¤٤Ƥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ ([2015-06-20-1])#2246. Meillet "tout se tient" --- Ҳˤ ([2015-06-21-1]) ȡ
(4) ϼҲ٤Ǥ
ϡ춦ƱΤǰμҲȤƺ줿ηϤǤ롥ĿͤѤΤǤϤʤҲŪۤ줿ηϤǤ롥
(5) Ϸ (form) Ǥäơ¼ (substance) ǤϤʤ
塼ϡ쵭ͤǷȼ¼̤٤ȤĥˤƤϡޤݲˤȤäƤ̵طǤ롥ˤȤäʤΤϡΥ롼Ƥ륳ޤεǽ뤤ϲͤǤ롥ξ硤ޤεǽͤꡤޤκ¼롥Ϣơ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) ȡ
(6) žܸ (displaced speech)
˴ͿΰʳΤȡʺΤȤ䡤̤ξǵäƤ뤳ȤʤɡˤȤ뤳ȤǤΤȤǤ롥ưʪĤʤɤϡλξ˸¤ƤꡤŪŪΥ줿ΤؤȤǤʤʹ֤θϡŪŪΥ줿ΤˤǤФ꤫¤ˤʤȡʤ̡ˤɽ魯ȤǤ롥
(7) ¤ (creativity)
ǤͳŪȤ߹碌ơ̵¤˿ʸ߽ФȤǤ롥
(8) ʬ (double articulation)
#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1])#1062. ʬˤ뤫 ([2012-03-24-1]) ȡ
ưʪΥߥ˥ˤϡ(1) ʳħߤʤȤդ
ƣ ͺ߷ رѸ١ҡ2001ǯ
(linguistics) ȥե (philology) ϡȤ˸椹ʬǤʤ顤֤ª뤳Ȥ¿ԤϡʸءפƤаޤ뤬餤뤳Ȥ顤ФФΤޤޡ֥եפȲʸǾΤ롥
츦Ū˥եȸƤФƤ19--20ʹߤ˰̲ؤȯŸƤȡԤ̤ؤȸƤ֤褦ˤʤäξԤδ֤ˤϰʲΤ褦㤬롥
| ե | ||
|---|---|---|
| о | ʸʸؤôΤȤƤθʤäơ̱²ʸȤ | 켫Ρʤäơʸʸؤ⤿ʤоݤȤʤ |
| ظ | ƥȻظŪǡ濴Ū | ƥȻظŪ濴Ū |
| Ū | ܻؤȤСֱѸפ餫ˤ褦Ȥ | ̲ηϤιܻۤؤ |
| Ū | Ū |
ȤͷӡʸͷˤϡؤθоݤȤƤϾ˥ޥʡϰ̤Ƥʬ̾ޤäƤʤ⤽֤ȤͷӡפŪ̾ΤޤäƤΤɤѸǤ word play, verbal play, speech play, play of language ʤɤ͡ʸ¸ߤ롥
ޤä椵Ƥʤä櫓ǤϤʤؤʸȤδϢǰƤаޤϤ뤷ǯǤϥߥ˥Ūͻ졤ʬȤƤȯŸǽƤǽȤδϢǤܤƤƤ褦
ԡˤΡظλŵ٤Τʤˡ챺ͤˤ֤Ȥͷӡפꤹ1Ϥꡤ̣ɤΥȥ (396) ˤȡȤͷӤδŪħȤưæȵ2Ȥ
ȤͷӤȤϡ˥ߥ˥εϤȴƤȰæŪɤʱĤߤǤ롥ȤͷӤäʸ̮æ뤤ϥåŲƱˤ餵ޤȤξãȤ¿쾯ʤڤƤ롥
ƱˡȤͷӤϡñ礤˲ŪʱĤߤǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤͷӤͤȤȤͷ֡ɤȤǤΤϡ줬˰εפȤ뤫Ǥ롥ơδפᴷ (convention) Ǥ뤬椨ˡȤͷӤϸġθʸ˸ͭη֤ࡥ
ȤͷӤΡȷɤǤ뤳ȤĶơߥ˥̤ȤʤΤϡˤƤǤ롥
ȤͷӤϡãȤ̤θ쥳ߥ˥ȤϰۤʤäƤ뤬Ǥϲɤ٤ɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤΤȤʤ롥ŪʴϤȤ굡ǽŪʴɬפ
ѸΤȤͷӤ˴ؤƤϡCrystal αѸ˭٤˵ĤIJ⤷ƤꡤͭѤǤ롥
챺 ֤͡Ȥͷӡסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ396--415ǡ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ε#3523. ʸʸˡˤ빽ʸȤϡ ([2018-12-19-1]) ǡʸʸˡħ1ĵʸʸˡϡäʸˡΤ˰ۤʤΤȤƤȤ館ʤȤѤΩġι¤ι¤ǤϳΤʣϰۤʤΤΡȵǽڥñ̤Ǥǰ㤤ϤʤȹͤΤǤ롥
ʸʸˡθѤȤơۤˤħŪʤȤ롥1Ĥϡ̣ȸΤΤʶʬߤʤȤȤ̣ŪʾϡꡤѰȤäŪʾȤȤɽƤȤΩȤ롥
ʸʸˡκҤȤĤħϡ츫ȰճʤȤˡʸˡˡŪ (generative) ΩȤäƤ뤳ȤŪפȤϡʸˡŪ˵Ƥ̵¤ɽ褦ȤǡƤʤ̵¤ɽӽ褦ȤƤ뤳ȤؤʸˡΤ褦ˡѷŪ (transformational) ǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥졦̣Ūʷ顤餫ѷФɽؤη߽ФȤꤷƤʤ
餫ˡʸʸˡʸˡǤϤʤǧʸˡΩΤ褦˸뤬#3511. 20γƸɤ˥ץåȤ ([2018-12-07-1]) οޤǤߤ褦ˡˤ⽽ʬʤƤǤŪʸˡȤ⤤ܤƤʸˡХŪʰּˤ뤳Ȥ̥ŪʤΤ⤷ʤ
Goldberg, Adele E. Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
塼˻Ϥޤ20θؤϡθǯ͡ŸƤŸλϥ衼åѤȥꥫȤǤʤۤʤΤΡηϡŻγɤˡŻγɤΩˤȤ館Ȥ狼䤹ʤ餽֤˰֤ŤŪʳɤ⸽Ƥơ2021ˤ¿̤ʸؤֺ餯Ȥˤʤäʲⶶ (pp. 4--5) ˤäƼ
ޤ20Υ衼åѤγƸɤˤĤơηϽŻʺ¦ˤˡŻʱ¦ˤξˤȤ뼴ξ˰֤ŤޤǤ褦
ηϽŻ롡ˡŻ 塼롡 ڥϡեץ顼ɡɥ ɡ͡ɡŪǽ
Ż롡ˡŻ ʸˡ¤Ż뵡ǽʸʸˡǧʸˡýŻ뵡ǽ
Τ褦ˡ20Υ衼åѤθؤ⡤Υꥫ濴Ȥؤ⡤ءǧβʳؤҲءʸؤʤʬߤ˱ƶ礤ʤ顤¤Ż뤹뤫ǽˡŻ뤹뤫ˤäơѡʸˡѤ礭ۤʤꡤ⡤1Τߤʤ餺¿˿뿶ҤΤ褦ѲȯŸƤΤȻפ롥
ⶶ 顦 ůͺֽϡؤȤϲ ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ1--8ǡ
ɸ2Ĥθؤʬϡ椵뤳Ȥ¿ξʬޤǻŻ븦Ԥ⤤뤬ǥեȤοȤ֤Ϥ줫ǤȤ¿20μήؤǤꡤΤñˡָءפȤС̣Ǥؤ21Ǥ⡤ҲؤּҲפά櫓ˤϤʤȤ³Ƥꡤޤޤؤϥ㡼Ǥ롥
礭ĬήȤȤǤС20Ⱦ21ˤƼҲŪȯۤ˶ޤäƤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥θػŪطʤȤƤϡ#1081. ҲؤȯŸطʤȼҲؤʬ ([2012-04-12-1]) #2884. HiSoPra* ˻ä (2) ([2017-03-20-1]) Ȥ줿
ơؤȼҲؤȤǤϡŪ˲ɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤй (34) ϡξԤΰ㤤ʲΤ褦Ū˼Ƥ롥
| ؿν | դκ߽ | ʬϤо | ʬϤδ | ʬϤˡ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| դ | ƬΤʤˤ | դǽ | ¤ȵ§ | ŪŪ | |
| Ҳ | դθ | ҲΤʤˤ | դλ | ǼŪŪ |
ɸ˴Ϣϡܥ֥Ǥ¿εǼ夲ƤܵΥȡˡ˴Ϣ Joseph ʸɤߡƹͤƤߤ٤3սѤ褦
[W]hile it might be said that there is always an historical explanation for some particular state of affairs in a language, it is equally true that relying solely on historical explanation means ultimately that an historical explanation is no explanation . . .; if everything is to be explained in that way, then there is no differentiation possible among various synchronic states even though some conceivable synchronic states never actually occur. Moreover, universal grammar, to the extent that it can be given meaningful content, is in a sense achronic, for it is valid at particular points in time for any given synchronic stage but also valid through time in the passage from one synchronic state to another. Thus in addition to the diachronic perspective, a synchronic perspective is needed as well, for that enables one to say that a given configuration of facts exists because it gives a reason for the existence of a pattern --- a generalization over a range of data --- in a given system at a given point in time. (124--25)
[A] synchronic account should aim for economy and typically, for example, avoids positing the same rule or constraint at two different points in a grammar or derivation (though the validity of the usual interpretations of "economical" in this context is far from a foregone conclusion . . ., while a diachronic account, being interested in determining what actually happened over some time interval, should aim for the truth, even if it is messy and even if it might entail positing the operation of, for instance, the same sound change at two different adjacent time periods, perhaps 50 or 100 years apart. (126)
[T]he constraints imposed by universal grammar at any synchronic stage will necessarily then be the same constraints that govern the passage from one state to another, i.e. diachrony. Diachronic principles or generalizations do not exist, then, outside of the synchronic processes of grammar formation at synchronic stage after synchronic stage. (127)
ΰѤˤƤ⼨Ƥ뤳Ȥϡ̻ŪȶŪȤȿиˤʤ礹餢ΤΡ䤦ȤˤäơǤǼΤǽȤʤȤʤϰۤʤ뤬ƱܻؤƤ2ͤȤǤ⤤̤ΥãΤ˼ȤΤ褷ʤΰۤʤڤΤ褷ɤ餫Ф뤳ȤʤΤȻפ
#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1])
#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1])
#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])
#1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1])
#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])
#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])
#2159. ֤̻֤ӤĤ diffusion ([2015-03-26-1])
#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])
#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1])
#2555. 塼ˤζ֤̻֡ ([2016-04-25-1])
#2563. ̻ءؤȤѸäơ ([2016-05-03-1])
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Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
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