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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2014-05-08 Thu

#1837. ޻ȥꥷʸλκ [alphabet][greek][latin][grammatology][map][dialect]

#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1]) εǡꥷե٥å (Greek alphabet) ΰ򼨤ޥ󡦥ե٥å (Roman alphabet) ٤ȡʸˤƼ㴳ΰ㤤뤬ΰ㤤ظˤɤΤ褦ʻ𤬤äΤ
ޤҤ٤ƤȡɽʸηϤ̤θذܿŬѤȤˤϡޤä¿βѤä롥Ȥ櫓ηϤäȤ褯ȿǤ륢ե٥åȤΤ褦ʲʸǤСʤǤ롥ޤäƱηϤäƤˤϤʤȤäƤ褯¸ʸåȤܿȤˤϡɬĤʸβ­롥ǡʸ򿷤˳ƤꡤʸϤФʤɤμʤ֤롥ʸˤݼŪ¦̤⤢ꡤʸ礭Ѳ褦ʻ֤ˤϻʤȤ¿ե٥åȻˤߤƤ⡤褽20?40ʸϰϤ˼ޤäƤ褦Ǥ롥ꥷʸȥꥢʸ޻ȥե٥åȤŤƤ椯Ǥ¿βѤܼŪѤ뤬ʸŤˤƤ̤˴ѻ뤳ȤǤ롥
˶˰ܤˤ륮ꥷե٥åȤϰǤϤʤ¿ŪѼ郎¸ߤϡ奮ꥷäդ¿¿ͤʬƤΤȸƱ롥褯褦ˡ奮ꥷϽԻԤΩȼ­ħȤΥޤȤоŪȤ߽ФȤϤʤääդʸηϤ⡤Ω̵طǤϤʤäդˤĤƤϡ#1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1]) ǿ줿ΤǷ֤ʤե٥åȤѼˤĤƤϡ٤ʬह4ब̤줿ɥĤγؼ Kirchhoff ˤʬǡϿޤ4οɤʬƤʬۤ򼨤Ȥˤʤߡ줾쿧̾ǸƾΤ봷롥Green, Red, Dark blue, Light blue 4Ѽ

(1) Green alphabet ϡCrete ٤硹ǹԤ줿Ѽǡե˥ե٥å (Phoenician alphabet) ؤɲʸ¾Ѽˤ릵ˤ礤ƤΤħǤ롥
(2) Red alphabet ϡEuboea Laconia ǹԤ줿Ѽǡ [ph], [kh] ɲʸäޤϦä [ks] βɽ路Euboea ԻԤ̾ä Chalcis 뤤ѼȸƤФ롥
(3) Dark blue alphabet ϡIonia, Corinth, Rhodes ǹԤ줿Ѽǡ [ph], [kh], [ps] ɲʸä [ps] ϡRed alphabet Φ [kh] Ȳۤʤ뤳ȤաIonia 뤤ѼȸƤФ롥
(4) Light blue alphabet ϡAttica ǹԤ줿ѼǤ롥 [ph], [kh] ɲäIonia ΰȤäƤ褤ɸŪѼȤʤä

2Ĥ̤СEuboea Chalcis 濴Ȥ Ionia Miletus 濴Ȥʬե˥ξͤä塤 Chalcis Miletus ȤʤꡤξԻԤϾŪ̱ŪƸäChalcis ϥȥ饭䥤ꥢ˿̱ơȥꥢͳǥƥե٥åȤMiletus Ϲ˿̱ŵꥷե٥åȤΩ˥ʸʤɤΥϥե٥åȤȯŸ¥
ޥ󡦥ե٥åȤȥꥷե٥åȤμ㴳ΰ㤤ϡȤȤʤѼΰ㤤˵ȤȤ狼ʸǤ <C> <><D> <>, <L> <><X> <><S> <> λΰ㤤ޤҤΤ褦 <> β [ks] [kh] ΰ㤤 <> β [h] [eː] ΰ㤤ϡʾλˤ롥
ͤޤǤ˸奮ꥷϿޤǤƤ

Map of Greece

ʾ塤 (57--60) Comrie et al. (183--87) 򻲾ȤƼɮ  *

סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-03-23-1] [2015-01-31-1]

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2014-04-13 Sun

#1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ [me_dialect][spelling][map][isogloss][dialect][bre]

ܥ֥ǤϡѸ˴ؤơθ졤ǡǤʬۤܤȤơϿޤȤȤˡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ʤɤ񤤤Ƥʤۤˤ⡤me_dialect ε򻲾ȡˡޤŪѸʬޤ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Ǽ
Ѹ˸¤ʤ֤̤벻б (isogloss) ʣϤ褯ΤƤ롥ѸǤ LALME LAEME Ȥܺ٤ʸϿޤǤƤΤǡζŪϿޤƤߤаǤ롥ǡ绨ĤˤǤ礿Ѱۤ䲻бʵڤӤȿǤƤȹֻͤбˤ򤷤ƤΤ褦Ūǡ#1341. Ѹʬ8ĤŪʷ֡ ([2012-12-28-1]) ΩĤLerer (92) μƤʰޤΩLerer ϡ⤤6 ("stone", "man", "heart", "father", "them", "hill") ǡѸ5ʰŪ˿޼ʲϡLerer ΤΤ򻲾ȤƺäޤǤ롥

ME Dialects with Six Words

äįƤȡͶäƤΤ Ƥhill -- hell -- hull ˸첻ѰۤˤĤƤϡϢơ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ʤ顤Ѹʬϡ奤󥰥ɱѸʬȤ̵ǤϤʤ8Ĥθˤ븽ζʬϡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Lerer, Seth. Inventing English. New York: Columbia UP, 2007.

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2014-03-31 Mon

#1799. New Zealand ˤѸ [history][new_zealand_english][map][maori]

ε#1798. Australia ˤѸˡ ([2014-03-30-1]) ³Fennell (247) ڤ Svartvik and Leech (105--10) ˰͵򤷡ϥ˥塼ɤαѸˤάҤ롥

Map of New Zealand

ȥꥢȰۤʤꡤ˥塼ɤϼήϤǤϤʤˤ⤺äȻ֤äCaptain Cook (1728--79) ϡ1769ǯȥꥢã˥˥塼ɤˬƤϤϡʤȤ600ǯʾΤ轻Υޥ (Maori) ˤ꽻ޤƤꡤAotearoa ȸƤФƤ1790ǯˤϥ衼åѿͤ侦ͤ褷1814ǯˤ붵դ轻̱ؤ۶򳫻ϤꥹͤˤܳŪʴͿ19ȾФǤ롥1840ǯꥹܤϥޥ²Ĺȥ磻󥮾 (Treaty of Waitangi) ӡ˥塼ɤʻ礷ΰ̱͸2,100ͤä1850ǯޤǤˤο25,000ͤä1900ǯޤǤˤ25ͤΰ̱˥塼ɤϤäƤʸߤο͸400ͤۤɡˡäˤϥåȥɰ̱¿Ben Nevis, Invercargill, Dunedin ʤɤ̾ˤκפǻĤƤ롥1861ǯζۤȯˤꥪȥꥢͤ󤹤ʤɰ̱κ⤢äˤϥȥꥢѼ˻̤äƤϤΤȼѼ郎ΩƤ
˥塼ɱѸμ礿ħϡޥ줫˭٤ʼѸˤ롥˥塼ɱѸ1000Τ6줬ޥ쵯Ȥ⤤롥㤨Сڤ̾Ȥ kauri, totara, rimuĻ̾Ȥ kiwi, tui, moa, ̾Ȥ tarakihi, moki ʤɤ롥Τ褦ʼѸ˭٤ϡޥ줬1987ǯѸ¤ǸѸϰ̤Ϳ졤Ū˿ޤƤ뤳ȤȤ̵ǤϤʤʡ#278. ˥塼ɤˤޥγ ([2010-01-30-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ˥塼ɱѸμȤơThe Dictionary of New Zealand English The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary 򻲾Ȥ줿
˥塼ɿͤϡȥꥢͤ٤ơꥹͤФƶΰռꥫͤФȿȤ롥RP (Received Pronunciation) ΰҿ⺬ŪʷѲƤƤꡤ㤤ǤϥꥫѸαƶ
˥塼ɤθˤĤƤϡEthnologue New Zealand 򻲾ȡ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 144--49.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-11-20-1] [2025-09-04-1]

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2014-03-30 Sun

#1798. Australia ˤѸ [history][australian_english][rp][map]

#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1])#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1])#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ³ȥꥢαѸˤ򳵴Ѥ롥ʲFennell (246--47) ڤ Svartvik and Leech (98--105) ˰͵򤹤롥

Map of Australia

衼åѿͤȤƺǽ˥ȥꥢΦˤɤ夤Τ16Υݥȥͤȥͤꤿǡ顤Φ Nova Hollandia ȸƤФ줿Australia ϡƥ terra australis incongita (unknown southern land) ˡθˤ˽פʷȤʤäΤϡ1770ǯ Captain Cook (1728--79) Endeavour ǥȥꥢγߤҹԤȤäCook ϤϤΥꥹͭNew South Wales ̾Ť1788ǯ11ɤʤǽΥꥹ the First Fleet Arthur Phillip ĹλشΤ Botany Bay ŤΦΤŷɹȤߤʤ줿 Port Jackson ʸߤ SydneyˤǤ롥126 Australia Day ȤΤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
κǽͤۤɤο͡ȤȤˡSydney ήϤȤƤߤϤ᤿19ȾФˤ13ͤμͤȥꥢ졤1850ǯˤϥȥꥢ͸40ͤã1900ǯˤ400ͤؤȵʸߤο͸2͡ˡεϡ1851ǯ˻ϤޤäɥåäƤ롥̱¿ꥹпȼԤǤꡤȤ櫓ɥȥɤΰ̱¿äᡤȥꥢѸˤϤαѸħǻĤäƤꡤĹϾǤ롥θŪѰϡꥫ䥫ʥ椷Ƥʡ#591. ꥫѸ줬ͤǤͳ ([2010-12-09-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
1940ǯޤǤϡȥꥢΥǥǤ RP (Received Pronunciation) ѤƤʹߡʿΤζȤƤƬޤäơȥꥢѸ줬Ω (autonomy) ƤAustralian National Dictionary, Macquarie Dictionary, Australian Oxford Dictionary νǤ⡤ռ뤳Ȥˤʤäΰǡǯ֤ϡʿΤδطȿǤơȥꥢѸ˥ꥫѸαƶä˸ä̤ǡ˸褦ˤʤäƤ2ˤϡ첤ʤɤѸ񤫤ΰ̱ä̱ȥꥢѸ̱²ŪѼ߽ФȤ˹׸Ƥ롥
ȥꥢѸħϡȤƸä˸롥̱Ԥ̱Ȥ̤ܿơȥꥢͭưʪʸιܤˤĤ¿θääƤȥꥢ˵ͭùܤä1ĶȤ뤬Ĥ󤷤Ƥߤ褦dinkum (genuine, right), ocker (the archetypal uncultivated Australian man), sheila (girl), beaut (beautiful), arvo (afternoon), tinnie (a can of beer), barbie (barbecue), bush (uncultivated expanse of land remote from settlement), esky (portable icebox), footpath (pavement), g'day (good day), lay-by (buying an article on time payment), outback (remote, sparsely inhabited Australian hinterland), walkabout (a period of wandering as a nomad), weekender (a holiday cottage).
ȯħΰüˤĤƤϡ#402. Southern Hemisphere Shift ([2010-06-03-1]) 򻲾ȡȥꥢˤˤĤƤϡEthnologue Australia 򻲾ȡ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 144--49.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-03-31-1]

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2014-03-27 Thu

#1795. Ĥ wh ȯ [map][pronunciation][dialect][digraph]

#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1]) <wh> ֻбȯˤĤƿ줿ɸѸǤϡ<wh> <w> Ʊͤ /w/ бĤƤä̤Ϥʤʸˤ19ȾޤǤɸѼǤ̤ĤƤˤкǤߤ伫Ȥ⥹åȥαˤŪ /hw/ ȯʹƤΤФƤ롥<wh> = /hw/ δطƤʬۤˤĤƤθڤ򽸤ƤߤޤϡCrystal (466) 顥

One example is the distinction between a voiced and a voiceless w --- as in Wales vs whales --- which was maintained in educated speech until the second half of the nineteenth century. That the change was taking place during that period is evident from the way people began to notice it and condemn it. For Cardinal Newman's younger brother, Francis, writing in his seventies in 1878, comments: 'W for Hw is an especial disgrace of Southern England.' Today, it is not a feature of Received Pronunciation . . ., though it is kept in several regional accents . . . .


OED wh, n. ˤȡΤ褦ʵҤ롥

In Old English the pronunciation symbolized by hw was probably in the earliest periods a voiced bilabial consonant preceded by a breath. This was developed in two different directions: (1) it was reduced to a simple voiced consonant /w/; (2) by the influence of the accompanying breath, the voiced /w/ became unvoiced. The first of these pronunciations /w/ probably became current first in southern Middle English under the influence of French speakers, whence it spread northwards (but Middle English orthography gives no reliable evidence on this point). It is now universal in English dialect speech except in the four northernmost counties and north Yorkshire, and is the prevailing pronunciation among educated speakers. The second pronunciation, denoted in this Dictionary by the conventional symbol /hw/, . . . is general in Scotland, Ireland, and America, and is used by a large proportion of educated speakers in England, either from social or educational tradition, or from a preference for what is considered a careful or correct pronunciation.


ˡLPD "wh Spelling-to-Sound" ˤС

Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is w, as in white waɪt. An alternative pronunciation, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors, is hw, thus hwaɪt. This h pronunciation is usually in Scottish and Irish English, and decreasingly so in AmE, but not otherwise. (Among those who pronounce simple w, the pronunciation with hw tends to be considered 'better', and so is used by some people in formal styles only.) Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w.


ơTrudgill (39) ˤ⡥

[The Northumberland area, which also includes some adjacent areas of Cumbria and Durham] is the only area of England . . . to retain the Anglo-Saxon and mediaeval distinction between words like witch and which as 'witch' and 'hwitch'. Elsewhere in the country, the 'hw' sound has been lost and replaced by 'w' so that whales is identical with Wales, what with watt, and so on. This distinction also survives in Scotland, Ireland and parts of North America and New Zealand, but as far as the natural vernacular speech of England is concerned, Northumberland is uniquely conservative in retaining 'hw'. This means that in Northumberland, trade names like Weetabix don't work very well since weet suggests 'weet' /wiːt/ whereas wheat is locally pronounced 'hweet' /hwiːt/.


󥰥ɤ˸¤СʬۤϤ褽ʲϰ˸ꤵȤȤǤ롥



Ϣơ#452. 󥰥ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ⻲ȡ󥰥̤ˤĤƤϡ#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ڤӡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

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2014-03-21 Fri

#1789. ɥͥθѸĶ̱² [language_planning][map][history]

24ο͸פ񥤥ɥͥϡͭ¿ȤǤ⤢롥#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) ǼȤꡤǤ700Ķ줬ѤƤꡤ¿ؿ2̤0.816Ȥ⤤ͤ򼨤ιθѸϥޥ饤 (Malay) äˤɸಽ줿ɥͥ (Bahasa Indonesia) θƱǺǤ¿üԤʤǤϤʤ2300͡ˡüԿĸɤϼȤƥǹä른 (Javanese) ǡ8400ͤˤäѤƤ롥ޥ饤줬ɥͥˤƸѸĶ̱²ȤƵǽƤطʤˤϡʬŪˤϹˤ륤ȥʸͿƤ뤬ȤƼȯƤȤŪиפʰ֤Ƥ롥

Map of Indonesia

ȤƤΥޥ饤ϡܥͥαӡޥȥߡΥ㥫륿ϰʤɤΥﳤ̤ϰäƤ롥ޤٹ񥷥󥬥ݡޥ졼Ǥޥ饤ͤˤäƤꡤٰӤĶ̱²ȤƵǽƤ롥ʬۤϡޥ饤줬פΤ˳ߤγƹȯãƤˤ褯ʪäƤ롥ܤʬϿޤˤĤƤϡEthnologue IndonesiaMaps 򻲾Ȥ줿
(86--89) ˤȡޥ饤줬ɥͥθѸȤƺѤ뤳Ȥˤʤäʥϡ̱²Ʈ1928ǯŪˤ롥Ψ륤ɥ̱ͥޤϡˤΤФΩǤФ˥ޥ饤ɽȤƺѤ뤳ȤꤷȤȤƤΩϤޤ1945ǯΤȤǤꡤ1928ǯηϡŪȤ¿ʬ˾ħŪʤӤӤäΩ塤ϩ˱äƸײ褬塹ȿʤळȤˤʤäҤȤʸؼԤ¿ϤʧäƵʸˡ伭Իɸಽ˿Ϥ̤Ȥơɥͥϡ䡤ʸءޥǥθȤѤͣθȤʤä
üԿǤϤʤޥ饤줬ɥͥθѸĶ̱²ȤƼƤΤˤϡ嵭Τ褦Ωθײ褬礭ͿƤ뤳Ȥϵ褦ʤθײ褳ȥǤϤ뤬Ǥ˥ݤƤޥ饤Ķ̱²Ūʤ褫ȤǤϡαĹˤäŪװʤε#1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1]) θդǤŪкŪԻԤװˤĶ̱²ȤƵǽƤΤ򡤿ͰŪƱؤ⤦첡ƤȤȤ
ɥͥϡײȤơ¿֤ˤˤȤäƵŤʻ󶡤Ƥ롥

륤᥸󡦥 Ķ̱²١ҡʸ˥ӡ1996ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-06-1]

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2014-01-29 Wed

#1738. ֥ꥫä륨ꥶ٥īαѸפο [language_myth][colonial_lag][sociolinguistics][map]

#1266. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (1) ([2012-10-14-1])#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2) ([2012-10-15-1])#1268. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (3) ([2012-10-16-1]) ǡꥫѸ줬ŤѸ褯¸ƤȤ "colonial lag" οäˤĤƵꥫǤȤ櫓͸դƤ뤳μοä1ĤˡɸΤΤ롥οäĤƤ Montgomery ܤɾƤꡤ˺äǤ뤫򼡤Τ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ (66--67)

The idea that in isolated places somewhere in the country people still use 'Elizabethan' or 'Shakespearean' speech is widely held, and it is probably one of the hardier cultural beliefs or myths in the collective American psyche. Yet it lacks a definitive version and is often expressed in vague geographical and chronological terms. Since its beginning in the late nineteenth century the idea has most often been associated with the southern mountains --- the Appalachians of North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia, and the Ozarks of Arkansas and Missouri. At one extreme it reflects nothing less than a relatively young nation's desire for an account of its origins, while at the other extreme the incidental fact that English colonization of North America began during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I four centuries ago. Two things in particular account for its continued vitality: its romanticism and its political usefulness. Its linguistic validity is another matter. Linguists haven't substantiated it, nor have they tried, since the claim of Elizabethan English is based on such little evidence. But this is a secondary, if not irrelevant, consideration for those who have articulated it in print --- popular writers and the occasional academic --- for over a century. It has indisputably achieved the status of a myth in the sense of a powerful cultural belief.


äʤΤǡȤʤäƤϤŪˤɤؤΤۣAppalachia the Ozarks դ꤬餷

Map of Appalachia and the Ozarks

ǤϡαѸѼβäƥꥶ٥īαѸȤΤФаѤΤϡưζѲѷ (ex. clum (climbed), drug (dragged), fotch (fetched), holp (help)) -st ǽñ̾ʣȤƤ -es (ex. postes, beastes, nestes, ghostes) ʤɤ¾αƤѼˤ⸫ħǤꡤѥͭΤΤǤϤʤ (Montgomery 68) εˤϡŪˤۤɤκϤʤΤǤ롥
˽Ҥ٤ƤȤꡤäޤ줿طʤˤϡŤ褭󥰥ɤؤΥޥŪͭȤäԤΥޥ򤷤䤹ȤƤ⡤ԤŪͭȤϲΤȤMontgomery (75) ˤȡ餹͡ФŽĤ줿Ϥ̵ܤļ˼ԡפȤΥåƥʧ뤿ˡäѸϡָŤ褭ѸפǤȤäϽФ줿ΤȤ

Advancing the idea, improbable as it is, that mountain people speak like Shakespeare counters the prevailing ideology of the classroom and society at large that unfairly handicaps rural mountain people as uneducated and unpolished and that considers their language to be a corruption of proper English.


ֻäѼ郎οäˤäơָŤ褭ѤʡѼȤޤѤäȤȤˤʤ롥ҲŪʲͤθʵžǤ롥βͤβͤصžΤ顤켫ΤϰȤǤϤʤȸΤ⤷ʤŪʰտޤˤ餫صžȤȤϡƱտޤˤؤεž⤢ȤȤ򼨺ƤꡤդˤޤĤäȤΤݤȶǤϤʤ

Montgomery, Michael. "In the Appalachians They Speak like Shakespeare." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 66--76.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-13-1] [2015-07-10-1]

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2014-01-28 Tue

#1737. ꥫ̾ͳ [onomastics][toponymy][etymology][map]

#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ȡ#1736. ꥹ̾ͳ ([2014-01-27-1]) ³ơϥꥫν (state) ̾ͳˬͤ롥ޤϡäϿޤ顥

Map of USA States

츻̤50ߤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥Ⱦꥫ轻̱θͳ褹롥

NumberOrigin
28American Indian
11English
6Spanish
3French
1Dutch (Rhode Island)
1from America's own history (Washington)


ǤϡCrystal (145) 򻲾Ȥ50̾ͳ򥢥ե٥åȽ˼

AlabamaChoctaw "I open the thicket" (i.e. clears the land)
AlaskaInuit "great land"
ArizonaPapago "place of the small spring"
ArkansasSioux "land of the south wind people"
CaliforniaSpanish "earthly paradise"
ColoradoSpanish "red" (colour of the earth)
ConnecticutMohican "at the long tidal river"
Delawarenamed after English governor Lord de la Warr
FloridaSpanish "land of flowers"
Georgianamed after George II
HawaiiHawaiian "homeland"
IdahoShoshone "light on the mountain"
IllinoisAlgonquian via French "warriors"
IndianaEnglish "land of the Indians"
IowaDakota "the sleepy one"
KansasSioux "land of the south wind people"
KentuckyIroquois "meadow land"
Louisiananamed after Louis XIV of France
Mainenamed after a French province
Marylandnamed after Henrietta maria, queen of Charles I
MassachusettsAlgonquian "place of the big hill"
MichiganChippewa "big water"
MinnesotaDakota Sioux "sky-coloured water"
MississippiChippewa "big river"
MissouriAlgonquian via French "muddy waters" (?)
MontanaSpanish "mountains"
NebraskaOmaha "river in the flatness"
NevadaSpanish "snowy"
New Hampshirenamed after an English county
New Jerseynamed after Jersey (Channel Islands)
New Mexiconamed after Mexico (Aztec "war god, Mextli")
New Yorknamed after the Duke of York
North Carolinanamed after Charles II
North DakotaSioux "friend"
OhioIroquois "beautiful water"
OklahomaChoctaw "red people"
OregonAlgonquian "beautiful water" or "beaver place" (?)
Pennsylvanianamed after William Penn and Latin "woodland"
Rhode IslandDutch "red clay"
South Carolinanamed after Charles II
South DakotaSioux "friend"
TennesseeCherokee settlement name, unknown origin
TexasSpanish "allies"
UtahNavaho "upper land" or "land of the Ute" (?)
VermontFrench "green mountain"
Virginianamed after Elizabeth I, the "virgin queen"
Washingtonnamed after George Washington
West Virginianamed after Elizabeth I, the "virgin queen"
WisconsinAlgonquian "grassy place" or "beaver place" (?)
WyomingAlgonquian "place of the big flats"


ʸ嵭2014/02/24(Mon)ꥫ̾γؽˤɤ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-27 Mon

#1736. ꥹ̾ͳ [onomastics][toponymy][etymology][map][celtic]

ε#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ³ơϥꥹν (county, shire) ̾εˤĤơޤϡäϿޤǤOrdnance Survey - Outline maps ꤷ1972--1996ǯε콣̾äϿޤǤ롥ޤ򥯥åƳ (65KB) 뤤ʤ (260KB)PDF (243KB) 򻲾Ȥʤɤ

Map of UK Counties

ʲν̾ͳϡCrystal (143) ˤȤŤWestern Isles, Highland, Central, Borders ʤɡΤΤϾάƤ롥ʤ饱Ƚͳ褹뽣̾¿

Avon"river"
Bedford"Beda's ford"
Berkshire"county of the wood of Barroc" ("hilly place")
Buckingham"riverside land of Bucca's people"
Cambridge"bridge over the river Granta"
Cheshire"county of Chester" (Roman "fort")
Cleveland"hilly land"
Clwyd"hurdle" (? on river)
Cornwall"(territory of) Britons of the Cornovii" ("promontory people")
Cumbria"territory of the Welsh"
Derby"village where there are deer"
Devon"(territory of) the Dumnonii" ("the deep ones", probably miners)
Dorset"(territory of the) settlers around Dorn" ("Dorchester")
Dumfries and Galloway"woodland stronghold"; "(territory of) the stranger-Gaels"
Durham"island with a hill"
Dyfed"(territory of) the Demetae"
Essex"(territory of) the East Saxons"
Fife"territory of Vip" (?)
Glamorgan"(Prince) Morgan's shore"
Gloucester"(Roman) fort at Glevum" ("bright place")
Grampianunknown origin
Gwent"favoured place"
Gwynedd"(territory of) Cunedda" (5th-century leader)
Hampshire"county of Southampton" ("southern home farm")
Hereford and Worcester"army ford"; "(Roman) fort of the Wigora"
Hertford"hart ford"
Humberside"side of the good river"
Kent"land on the border" (?)
Lancashire"(Roman) fort on the Lune" ("health-giving river")
Leicester"(Roman) fort of the Ligore people"
Lincoln"(Roman) colony at Lindo" ("lake place")
London"(territory of) Londinos" ("the bold one") (?)
Lothian"(territory of) Leudonus"
Man"land of Mananan" (an Irish god)
Manchester"(Roman) fort at Mamucium"
Merseyside"(side of the) boundary river"
Norfolk"northern people"
Northampton"northern home farm"
Northumberland"land of those dwelling north of the Humber"
Nottingham"homestead of Snot's people"
Orkney"whale island" (?) (After J. Field, 1980)
Oxford"ford used by oxen"
Powys"provincial place"
Scillyunknown origin
Shetland"hilt land"
Shropshire"county of Shrewsbury" ("fortified place of the scrubland region")
Somerset"(territory of the) settlers around Somerton" ("summer dwelling")
Stafford"ford beside a landing-place"
Strathclyde"valley of the Clyde" (the "cleansing one")
Suffolk"southern people"
Surrey"southern district"
Sussex"(territory of) the South Saxons"
Tayside"silent river" or "powerful river"
Tyne and Wear"water, river"; "river"
Warwick"dwellings by a weir"
Wight"place of the division" (of the sea) (?)
Wiltshire"county around Wilton" ("farm on the river Wylie")
Yorkshire"place of Eburos"


ʸ嵭2014/02/24(Mon)ꥹ̾γؽˤɤ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-26 Sun

#1735. ʥ̾ͳ [onomastics][toponymy][etymology][map][canada]

#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ӡ#1734. Canada ιϡ ([2014-01-25-1]) ǥʥ夲ϥʥν (province) Ƚལ (territory) ̾ˤĤơ
ʥ2̤ѤؤΦȤȤƤ103ལʤ롥Nunavut 1999ǯΩ줿Фνལǡ̱¿轻̱²Ǥ롥

Map of Canada

Northwest Territories ʸ̤ʤΤǽ츻ŵˤĴ٤12ʽ˽̾Ǥε򥢥ե٥åȽ˷Ǥ롥

Alberta ϡQueen Victoria 4ܤ̼ Princess Louise Caroline Alberta ˤʤࡥ
Brunswick ϡGeorge II, Duke of Brunswick ˤʤࡥ
Columbia ϡϥɥѲҤλ Columbia District Ѥ줿֥֥ϡפΰա
Labrador ϡݥȥ lavrador (yeoman farmer) ͳ褹Ȥ졤John Cabot ̿̾Ȥꤵ뤬̤ܡ
Manitoba ϡ轻̱θ Algonquian manito bau (spirit straight) ꡥ manito ϡ1698ǯ˱Ѹ manitou ȤäƤꡤ֡ʥ르󥭥²Ρ⡨Ķϡפɽ魯
Newfoundland ϡֿȯϡפȤ John Cabot ˤ̿̾줿Ρ
Nova Scotia ϡƥ "New Scotland" ΰա
Nunavut ϡ轻̱θ Inuit "our land" ̣롥
Ontario ϡ轻̱θ Iroquoian Oniatariio (the fine lake) Υե󥹸ꡥ
Prince Edward ϡGeorge III 4ܤ© Prince Edward Augustus, the Duke of Kent ˤʤࡥ
Quebec ϡ轻̱θ Algonquian kabek (the place shut in) ꡥ
Saskatchewan ϡ轻̱θ Cree kisiskatchewani (swift-flowing river) ꡥRocky ̮ȯƤ줿̾
Yukon ϡ轻̱θ Athapascan yukon-na (big river) ꡥ١󥰳Ƥ줿̾

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-28-1] [2014-01-27-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-24 Fri

#1733. Canada ˤѸ [canadian_english][history][map][timeline][canada]

#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1])#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ˰³礿Ѹ˥꡼Ȥƥʥ夲롥

Map of Canada

ʥϤؤϡ1ǯۤˡޤ̥åȤ褷ϼġϫĤ1000ǯ󥰤衼åѿͤȤƽƥʥ夷衼åѿͤˤܳŪʥʥõγϤϡ֥ȯ15ԤʤФʤʤä
1497ǯJohn Cabot (1425--99) ϡ󥰥ɲ Henry VII εĤơ٤Bristol ؤȽйҤCabot ĤΤϥǤϤʤʥ쳤ߤäCabot ιҳ¿õߤ򤽤ꡤθΥʥõȳȯ˹׸뤳ȤȤʤäºݤΤȤCabot 夷Υʥ쳤ߤϡꥹե󥹡ڥ󡤥ݥȥεդˤϤǤíεȤΤƤ褦
1534ǯե󥹲 Jacques Cartier (1491--1557) 򥢥ϩȯΤФCartier Newfoundland ĶơSaint Lawrence Ѥߡǥ² (Iroquois) ʹǡ¼פ̣ kanata αƤ롥줬 Canada εȤ롥ʥõ̤ơե󥹤ϥӡСǰפ˾򸫤ʥؤδͿ򿼤ƤȤˤʤäNew France ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤäʥ1663ǯ˥եΤȤʤꡤ̱Ͽ͸1ͤۤɤˤʤäƤϡߤ670ͤΥե󥹷ϥʥͤǤ롥ե󥹤ϡסõꥹȶ۶δǥߥå򲼤ꡤ1682ǯˤϥᥭѤãƤơ18Ƭκˤϡե󥹤Ƥ˹ʸפݤ˻ä
󥰥ɿͤ٤ƥʥؤθפϤƤ16Ⱦˤ Newfoundland St. John's ƽο̱ϤߤϥɥѲ (Hudson's Bay Company) Ωƥϥɥնθפꤷ18δ֤˱ʩΩ򤱤ʤʤꡤ1754--63ǯˤϥեǥ (French and Indian War) Ǿ͡ꥹξˤꥫʥιڤѿ̱ϤȤʤäδ֤ˡNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec Maine ޤ Acadia 顤Ȥե󥹷ϰ̱ꥫ Louisiana ʤɤ뤳Ȥˤʤäߤ Louisiana äƤե󥹸Ѽ Cajun (< Acadian) äϡΥե󥹷ϰ̱Ǥ롥
ꥫΩ˺ݤơꥹŪä (Loyalist) ο͡ϡꥫ˻Ĥ뤳Ȥ餷Ȥ4ͤȤϤ Nova Scotia ءΦؤȰܽŪʸ٤ι⤤滺ο͡ޤ̤˰̱ȤȤϡ˾塤ޤǤ롥ˡEngland, Scotland, Ireland ľܤΰ̱⤪ʤ졤ʥˤѸ͸̤αѸä̱ˤꡤ̥ꥫˤƥꥹǻ Upper Canada ʸߤ Ontarioˤȥե󥹿ǻ Lower Canada ʸߤ Quebecˤ̤褦ˤʤä2ΩȤ⤤1812ǯαƴ֤襤ǤϡUpper Canada ȤʤꡤꥫȥʥȤʬΥռޤ뤳ȤȤʤä
1867ǯʥ Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Quebec ѼΤȤʤꡤ1931ǯˤΩãϢˮ (The Commonwealth of Nations) ΰȤƻĤ⡤1965ǯˤ Union Jack Ȥ߹ѤơߤΥǤιѡ1982ǯˤϼηˡꤷ˼縢ʤ顤ʥΩݻƤꡤꥶ٥ȸȤƤʥʥλʾˤϥꥶ٥Ƥˡ
ߡʥ¿ȤǤ롥ʥͤ60%Ѹüԡ20%ե󥹸üԤǤꡤۤˤ轻̱̱ˤ100ʾθ줬äƤ롥
ʾ塤Ȥ Svartvik and Leech (90--95) 򻲾ȤƼɮʥˤѸιˤĤƤϡ#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1]) ӡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͤޤǤˡ֥饤󡦥ꥢॺ (60--61) ꡤʥˤǯɽǤƤ

2000̥åȤ̥ꥫؤäƤ롥
800Хեǥɡåʬ
800ɹϤष̥ꥫ̤Ϥޤ롥
1000쥤աꥯΨХ󥰤̥ꥫ˾Φʤ餯˥塼եɥɡ֥ɥȡ⤦1ˡ
1020Х󥰤̥ꥫõ롥
1075饹Υ塼졦̥åȤ̶ʸͥȤʤ롥
1497󡦥ܥåȤ˥塼եɥɤȥס֥ȥ˾Φ
1534åƥȡõȡѤαߤեΤ롥
1583˥塼եɥɤꥹγ̱ϤȤʤ롥
1627ե󥹤̥ꥫˤĤä̱ϡ֥˥塼ե󥹡פ뤿ᡤ˥塼ե󥹲ҤΩ롥
1670ɥǰ׾ϥɥѲҤΩϥɥѤϤϰξȷۤ롥
170120ǯ֤γ38轻̱²Ȥե󥹤ʿ¾֡
1756ǯǡ礭ǤкϤǤ⾡륤ꥹο̱Ϥ˥塼ե󥹤
1763ѥ󤬷Ф졤ǯ褬롥ߥåˤäեο̱Ϥϥꥹڤˤʤ롥˥塼ե󥹤ϥ٥å̱Ϥ̾ΤѤ롥
1783ȥꥪ龦ͤΡȲҤΩ̤äʿΤޤǡ׽꤬Ǥ롥
1791٥åʥʸߤΥ٥åˤȥåѡ/ʥʸߤΥ󥿥ꥪˤȤʬ롥
1812--141812ǯ补ФǤϳ郎ʤ졤衼ʸߤΥȥȡˤϥꥫιꥫΥʥάλߤϼԤ
1821ϥɥѲҤȥΡȲҤʻǯĤŤƤϤ褬롥
1841ʥȡʥʥˤȥʥȡʥåѡʥˤʥȤƺƤ礵롥
1867ѹ̥ꥫˡˤꡤѼΥʥˤϥ󥿥ꥪ٥åΥС˥塼֥󥹥åޤޤƤ
1870ޥ˥ȥСĤŤƥ֥ƥå塦ӥץ󥹡ɥɡɤˤʤ롥
1885ʥǥ󡦥ѥեåŴƻ
1898桼ήǥɥå夬롥桼Ͻལϰ̤Ϳ롥
1905Сȥ󤬽ˤʤ롥
1931ȥߥ󥹥ϤˤꡤꥹμΤ˴ʼ롥
1947ʥȥꥹϡϢ粦Ʊϰ̤ĤȤˤʤ롥
1949ʥξ󵡹ΩСȤʤ롥ꥹϥ˥塼եɥɤ򥫥ʥִԡ
1965ޤǤΥꥹǻꡤդΥǥιǤ롥
1967ȥꥪ񤬳졤ꥹǤϤʤʥȤƤμФޤ롥
1968٥åδΩ򾡤Ȥ뤳ȤŪˡ٥åޤȿ롥
1970٥åΩʤ޿ŪʬΥΩΥ롼ס٥åꥹξ̳Ͷ٥åä򻦳
1982ʥϴʼͳ롥ꥹ餹٤ƤˡŪܹԤ줿塤ˡꤵ롥
1984ԥ롦ȥɡ꤬षǿݼޤΥ֥饤󡦥ޥ롼ˡ
1992ʥꥫᥭƼͳǰ׶Ĵ롥
1993ޥ롼ˡݼ޼Ǥθ򥭥ࡦ٥뤬ʥνȤưѤο塤ϥ󡦥ƥ롥
1995٥åν̱ɼǡ鷺1%κΩݷ褵롥
1998٥å¿ν̱Ω˾硤ϢˮܤεĤäƽΩǤ뤳Ȥ򡤥ʥǹۤ᤿
1999̥ʥ֥Ȥལˤʤ롥̱¿轻̱²ǤལȤƺǽ顥
2003ȥȤǡʳǺSARSʿٱˤȯ
2003٥åǼͳޤ٥åޤˤꡤΩɤޤˤۤ롥
2003󡦥ƥ10ǯؤ᤿κ¤ࡥǤϥݡ롦ޡƥ
2006ݼޤʥܤλ۸򰮤롥ƥ֥󡦥ϡѡ˽Ǥ


֥饤󡦥ꥢॺإʥʥ른եåι񡡥ʥ١ۤ׽ǡ2007ǯ
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 144--49.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-06 Mon

#1715. Ireland ˤѸ [irish][ireland][irish_english][history][map]

Fennell (198--200) 󤹤ǡɤˤѸѤˤˤĤάҤ롥ɤˤѸαƶŪ˵Ҥǡפʻ3Ĥ롥1Ĥϡɤ˥󥰥Υޥ󷳤 Henry II (1133--89) μ1171ǯǤ롥ΤȤˤϱѸϰҿ줺˥ɸüԤˤꥢɲƤޤä1366ǯ Statutes of Kilkenny ˤѸϰ̤䶯ܺʤ줿̤ϽФʤä1550ǯ˽פؤȿȯ顤ץƥȤħѸФƥȥåħ륢ɸȤޤФ졤16桤ɤˤѸΩä  *
³17--18ϡѸαƶ˴ؤ2ȤƽפʻȤʤäλ󥰥ɿͤϥץơߤ뤳Ȥˤꥢɤ̱ϲ18ˤϥɤԻǤϱѸΰҿޤꡤɤλؤҿƱѸؤ֤褦ˤʤäΩưä1790ǯˤϡǤ¿ΥɿͤѸäޤǤˤʤäƤ
Ūʱƶڤܤ3ϡ1800ǯϢˡ (Act of Union) ˤꥢɤꥹʻ礵ưʹߤλǤ롥ѸϰҿξħȤʤꡤȿФ˥ɸȯŸ˸Ȱռ褦ˤʤä²λϻҶ򥤥󥰥ɤäƶ餹ޤǤˤʤä20ˤ J. P. Synge, Sean O'Casey, W. B. Yeats ʤɤɱѸˤʸسưᡤѸΰҿϤ˹ޤä1800ǯλǤϥɿ͸βȾɸȤƤ1851ǯˤϤΨ23%ޤǸ1900ǯˤ5%ˤޤƤ1900ǯˤϡ¤85%Ķ͸ѸñüԤȤʤäƤΤǤ롥19˱ѸüΨäطʤȤơ4Ĥװͤ (Fennell 199)

(1) the expansion of the railways out from English-speaking Dublin and Belfast;
(2) the spread of education, first in unofficial 'hedge' schools and then in the national schools from 1831, where English was promoted and the use of Irish actively discouraged;
(3) dramatic demographic change caused by famine and the massive emigration to America and other countries from 1830 to 1850. The famine particularly decimated the Irish-speakers in the west of Ireland, possibly halving the number of speakers.
(4) the association of English with progress, modernization and an international voice. . . . [E]ven nationalist politicians in Ireland preached their message in English, in the knowledge that it would bring them a wider audience.


1916ǯΥ˪θˤʤäơɸ줬ɤΥǥƥƥȤƤߤʤ褦ˤʤäѸδפϤǤФȤʤäƤߤ⡤ɤEUˤΩϱѸȤƤΩäƤ뤷Dublin ιԻԤȤƤ̾ѸäƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-05 Sun

#1714. ƤαѸBluefields Puerto Limon [history][caribbean][map][lesser-know_varieties]

ε#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1]) ˰³ƤˤѸˤĤơϡBluefields (Nicaragua) Puerto Limón (Costa Rica) αѸܤ
Nicaragua Υֳ̤Į Bluefields ϡBritish West Indian, Nicaraguan ladino, Miskito (Afro-Indian) ο͡򺮹礵¿ʸϤǤ롥եꥫϥ衼åѿͤϱѸȤäʳ٤κϤ쥹ڥäNicaragua Υֳߤ19ȾФޤǥꥹλ۲ˤꡤƱμϰƱͤˡɽͳƤäƤեꥫͤ衼åѿͤߤĤȤ¿äߡλ¹ѸäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Bluefields αѸüԽĤϡ Bay Islands αѸüԽĤƱͤˡڥä¿ɽĤȤ⡤սαѸϰȤϢȤΤۤʰʾ塤Lipski, pp. 194--95 ˡ

Map of Nicaragua

ˡCosta Rica Υֳߤ̤ Puerto Limón äܤ#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) #1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ǯɽǼPuerto Limón αѸѤˤϡBay Islands Bluefields ٤٤Ǥ롥ĮαѸüԤĤϡ1871ǯʹߤŴƻߤΤ Jamaica ʤɤϢƤ줿̤ιϫƯԤǤ롥ϫƯԤϡ̤ Costa Rica ̱ϳΥ졤θ⸽ߤ˻ޤͻ礷ȤϸPuerto Limón αѸüΨϡBay Islands Bluefiedls ٤㤤Ѹˤ붵εʤɤͿƤʰʾ塤Lipski, pp. 195--96 ˡ

Map of Costa Rica

Ⱥε Bay Islands, Bluefields, Puerto Limón ʤɰ̤ˤΤƤʤƤαѸˤΤϡȤƤαѸ줬ҲξɤˤääƤϰ褬¸ߤȤ¤դäǤ롥嵭ΤϤǤ⡤ѸμҲŪΩϡҿΤϤ¿ɸǤ륹ڥΰϤˤꡤŪ㤤ŪˤϱѸϸˤưҿΤǤȤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤ㳰ʤɤǤ⤽Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤȤǧƤɬפ롥

Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-10-1] [2014-01-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-04 Sat

#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands [history][caribbean][map][lesser-know_varieties]

ƤϿ̱ˤˤѸǤϤʤڥݥȥ줬ͥϰǤϤ뤬ֳפƽˤϱѸ줬ȤäƤϰ褬ߤƤ롥ϡ19ȾСѿ̱ϤˤѻߤȼäкѴơϰο͸ưȤͳ褹롥ߡѸȤƱѸѤƤ Belize Τۤˤ⡤Bay Islands (Honduras), Bluefields Ȥ륫ֳϰ Corn Islands (Nicaragua), Puerto Limón (Costa Rica), Livingston Puerto Barrios (Guatemala)San Andrés Providencia (Columbia)Bocas del Toro Colón (Panama) ʤɤˤơѸ줬ȤäƤ롥ϡHonduras 򸫤Ƥߤ褦

Map of Honduras

Honduras ߤ Costa de Mosquitos ȸƤФƤꡤ͸¿ʤѸ١Υ쥪äǥ̱²Ǥ롥̴ϰ La Costa Norte ȸƤФƤꡤ쥪ѸäͤޤतĤξ̱²Ǥ롥β⤫ Islas de la Bahía (Bay Islands) Ǥϡ1830ǯ˥ֳ Cayman Islands ̱Ƥ͡λ¹ǤꡤǯڤΥڥüԤܽƤƤΤΡѸ줬礿ȤäƤʡ#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) ڤӡ#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ΰ̱ǯɽ򻲾ȡˡꥫδѸҤˤ͵⤤
Ūˤ Bay Islands 17곤±βǤäͭԤ٤ѤƤ¼Ū˳ۤ뤳ȤϤʤäȤäƤ褤ߡ̱¿ͤͤѸȤäƤꡤڥμϤޤʤϡ糰˽ФȤˤϡڤˬȤ⥢ꥫɽαѸ (äĤνпϤǤ Jamaica Cayman Islandsˤˬ뤳ȤΤۤ¿ۥ󥸥饹ڤȤδطŪ嵭θ1986ǯ Lipski (193--94) ˰͵򤷤ΤʤΤǡǤ˸ŤˤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤȤǤäƤ

Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.

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2013-12-24 Tue

#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νп [geography][geolinguistics][history][timeline][map][caribbean]

4֤ε ##1698,1699,1700,1701 ǡGramley αѸˤѥ˥󥵥ꡤ7ϤΤ­򻲾Ȥʤ顤Ѹο͡ΰܽȤȼѸȻˤŪϤ뤤ϽпϤˤƤϤΰϢκǸȤơƱ pp. 7--8 ꡤֳϰ (the Caribbean) ؤο͡ȱѸοʽФ

FROMTO
17th Century Movements
BritainBermuda (1609); Providence Island (1631); Cayman Islands (1670)
IrelandSt. Kitts (1624); Barbados (1627); Nevis, Barbuda (1628)
AfricaBermuda (1609)
BermudaProvidence (1631); Bahamas (1648); Jamaica (1655); Turks + Caicos (1678)
New EnglandProvidence (1631)
St. KittsNevis, Barbuda (1628); Antigua (1632); Montserrat (1633)
The Leeward IslandsAnguilla (1650); Jamaica (1655); St. Thomas (1672)
BarbadosSuriname (1651); Jamaica (1655)
SurinameJamaica (1655)
JamaicaCayman Islands (1670)
St. ThomasSt. John (1684)
18th Century Movements
Belizethe Moskito Coast (1730)
Jamaicathe Moskito Coast (1730)
LeewardsSt. Croix (1733); Guyana (1740s); St. Vincent, Grenada (1763)
St. ThomasSt. Croix (1733)
BarbadosGuyana (1740s); St. Vincent, Grenada (1763), Trinidad (1797)
American SouthBahamas (1780ff)
Moskito CoastBelize, Andros, Bahamas (1786)
WindwardsTrinidad (1797)
19th Century Movements
US (freed slaves)Samaná (Dominican Republic) (1824)
San AndrésCocas del Toro (Panama) (1827)
Cayman IslandsBay Islands (Honduras) (1830s)
JamaicaPuerto Limón (Costa Rica) (1871)
USPuerto Rico (1898)
20th Century Movements
JamaicaPanama (1904--1914)
USthe American Virgin Islands (1917)


ֳϰܤˤȤäƤޤߤΤʤϰʤΤǡطĤߤˤ⤷ʤϰϿޤϡ#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1]) 򻲾ȡ  *
ο͸ή⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ƱϰǤο͡ΰưˤäȤ褯狼롥㤨СBarbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Jamaica, the Moskito Coast, St. Kitts, St. Thomas, Suriname ̾ϡȯϤˤŪϤˤ⸽Ƥ롥ޤJamaica ȯDZѸ줬ä the Bay Islands (Honduras), the Corn Islands (Nicaragua), Blue Fields (Nicaragua), Puerto Limón (Costa Rica) Belize ʤƤ°Ѹ¸ߤ˺줬ѸγȻ򰷤ǤϸƨʤϰαѸȻˤˤĤƤξܺ٤ϡHolm 򻲾ȡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Holm, J. A. "The Spread of English in the Caribbean Area." Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 1--22.

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2013-12-20 Fri

#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ [ame][variety][map][geography][geolinguistics][history][linguistic_imperialism]

ε#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1]) ǡLiberia αѸ줬ꥹѸǤϤʤꥫѸ˴ä֤ƤŪطʤάҤ#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ǤŪ˥ꥹѸȥꥫѸαƶˤϰ޼ϥꥫѸפȤѸŸ˱ѸŸΰŪʥѥˤĤƹͤƤߤ
̱פʤɤˤ͡ΰưϡ줽ΤΤŪ˹׸롥ϡgeolinguistics geography of language ȸƤФʬŪ˼갷Ǥ롥19ˤϡѸ濴Ϥϥ֥ƥˤꡤѸ줬̱פˤ̥ꥫֳեꥫȥꥢ˥塼ɡʤɤؤŸƤ19˶ŤȡꥫѸγȻΤ⤦Ĥ濴ϤȤĹƤѸϡ饢ꥫ饹ʥϤᡤֳϥ磻եԥ󡤥٥ꥢʤɤؤŸʴϢơ#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1]) 򻲾ȡˡꥫαѸγȻưǤϡϥꥹξƱͤ˽ž (mercantilism) ڤγ (territorial expansion) ä19ޤǤˤϡ˽ʸȤǤ⥢ꥫȯαѸγ˹׸
䤬ơNew England ȯƥʥäѸ⡤켫Ȥ⤦Ĥ濴ȤʤȤƤƤγŸ뤳ȤϤʤŪʳȻǤȤɤޤäȻβǿ濴Ϥ߽Ф줿ȤǤϡꥹ䥢ꥫ˼ƤѥѤȤʤѸγȻβޤ줿濴ϤȡΤʤȻGramley (159) οޤ򻲹ͤˡΤ褦ɽ路Ƥߤ

Spread of English In and From America

αѸγȻΥѥλǷ֤줿ꥹѸή Jamaica αѸ⡤켫ΤȻ濴ȤʤꡤꥫαرƶڤܤWestern Jamaica 鹭ä Belize, Bay Islands, Corn Islands, Blue Fields, Puerto Limón αѸ줬Ǥ롥ޤAustralia ϡNew Zealand, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea ؤŸ濴ϤȤʤäSouth Africa Namibia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Malawi ؤŸ濴ϤȤʤäˤѥǤ롥
Ѹϡ¾θȰۤʤꡤΥѥˤ᤿ΤǤ롥Gramley (159--60) ϡѸγˤĤƼΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥

What we see, then, is economically and demographically motivated expansion and closely related to it, a geographical spread of English to a unique extent. While the other major European colonial powers, Spain, Portugal, France, and The Netherlands, also acquired colonial empires, they differed because they did not establish settler communities which repeated the process of expansion to the degree that Britain did. In the case of Russia there was "merely" what is most frequently seen as "internal" expansion eastward. And the late-comers to the field, Germany, Italy, and Japan, were able to acquire relatively few and less desirable territories and were knocked out of the game at the latest by losing World War I (Germany) or World War II (Japan, Italy).


Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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2013-12-19 Thu

#1697. Liberia ι [vexillology][link][map][geography]

򸦵оݤȤϳ (vexillology) ȸƤФʬ롥Υǥͳ衤ˤʤɤ⸦оݤȤʤ뤬ˤؤ־ǡ褤󶡤Ƥ롥ѸˤǤ⡤ʹߤαѸŸ򤿤ɤΤ˻ͭפǤ롥㤨Сѹˤ򤿤ɤǡUnion Jack (Union Flag) ΩηаޤϽפǤʾܤΥ򻲾ȡˡ˴ؤʪ¿־Υ꥽ʤΤ¿ΤǡĤҲ𤷤Ƥ

Flags of the World (FOTWO): ͳˤʤɾܺ٤ʾޤߡͭѡ
World Flag Database: ե٥åȽǡ礭ǥɽ롥Ͽޤؤ٤롥
All Flags in Alphabetical Sequence: ե٥åȽ˥ͥǰƼΥե꡼ѤǤ롥
̳ʡι: ϰ褴Ȥ˥ͥǰΤ

ơ ٥ꥢ¹ (Republic of Liberia) Ȥι夲롥եꥫΤ̤Ϥˤϡ¿̱²ǤˤĤʤḽˤ˸¤С1822ǯ˥ꥫ̱ (American Colonization Society) ƹιͲϤȤȤ˻Ϥޤ롥ԤȤʤ Monrovia (ꥫ5 James Monroe ˤʤˤذܽꥫβ줬ؤȤʤꡤ1847ǯΩեꥫǺǤŤ¹Ǥ롥̾ˤϡƥǡּͳʡפ̣ liber ޤޤƤ롥

Map of Liberia

350ͤۤɤι̱Τλ¹ϿѡȤˤʤ᤯鲤ƼζҲŪˤϱƶϤΤ뽸ĤȤʤäƤ롥Ѹ줬ȤƺѤƤΤ⤽ΤǤ롥ѤƤѸѼȤƤϡꥫѸαƶɸŪѼΤۤLiberian English ȸƤФԥѸ⤢롥եꥫˤɸѸѼϡѿ̱ϤˤˤꥤꥹѸΤ礭ФäƤ뤬٥ꥢϥꥫѸ˴ŤƤꡤðۤ¸ߤǤ롥#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ǡեꥫΦΤʤͣ٥ꥢԥ󥯤ǼƤ뤳Ȥǧ줿ۤ Ethnologue: Liberia ⻲ȡ
ꥫȤδϢοϡˤ褯Ƥ롥ꥫ (Stars and Stripes) ˤǥǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥11ܤμʤϷˡεԤο1Ĥ (Lone Star) ϥեꥫˤϤȤʤ٤ΩȤξħɽ魯

National Flag of Liberia

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2013-12-11 Wed

#1689. ʿϰΥԥȥ쥪θ [pidgin][creole][map][reduplication][lexicology][etymology][tok_pisin]

ε#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1]) ơʿϰΥԥȥ쥪ꡥϢʬۿޤGramley (220) Ͽޤ򻲹ͤ˼Ƥߤ

Map of Southwestern Pacific Pidgins and Creoles

˵󤲤Ƥԥ䥯쥪Ū˴ϢŪˤᤤѸظ (superstrate language) ڤӸö (lexifier) Ȥ뺮ǡºݤˤä8ϱѸ١Ǥ롥Mühlhäusler 򻲾Ȥ Gramley (220) ɽˤȡ̥Ĥ Bislama ʡ#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) 򻲾ȡ, ѥץ˥塼˥ Tok Pisin, Solomon Pijin 3ԥǤߤȡʬۤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥


EnglishIndigenousOthers
Bislama90%53 (French)
Tok Pisin77167 (German etc.)
Solomon Pijin8965


̤˥ԥ䥯쥪θäϡظȤȡ (loan_translation)̣Ѳý (reduplication)ʬϤʤɤƤ롥ʲˡGramley (220--22) ˵ä Tok Pisin 򼨤hair Ȥ gras bilong hed (grass that belongs to the head)beard Ȥ gras bilong fes (grass that belongs to the face) ȤäǤ롥߷Ȳζ̤Ϥʤ㤨 stei (stay) ʸ̮Ǹߡΰ̣ˤʤꤦ롥tudir (too dear) ϡֹʡפɽ魯1ȤʬϤ졤Ʊͤ lego (let go) ϡֹԤ, sekan (shake hands) ϡ²򤹤פȤƸòƤ롥Ѹ arse ʿˤ˵, as ʸŪΩʡָפǤꡤ˰̣Ѳ򵯤ơֵפΰդǤѤ롥that's all ˵ tasol ϡŪ but ΰ̣³ȤȯãýŤˤĤƤϡ#65. Ѹˤ reduplication ([2009-07-02-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ϤʸäȿǤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ȥ櫓²̾ (kinship terms) Ǥϡmama (mother), papa (father) ޤǤɸѸƱϤΤȤФϤ줾 smalpapa, smalmama ϤΤȤФϤȤ kandare Ȥ1ɽ魯¹̤ζ̤ʤ勞 tumbuna ɽ롥⡤ƱǤ brataǤ susa ѤȤǡɸѸȰۤʤ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-16-1]

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2013-12-01 Sun

#1679. The West Indies αѸ [map][enl][creole][geography][caribbean]

The West Indies ɽˤϡ̥ꥫˤϤޤ졤Τ饫ֳӥᥭѤ֤Ƥ̾ؤ̾Τϥ֥ Indias ̾դȤͳ褹롥Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, Bahamas ν礫ʤ롥ϰӤϡå̮ȥǥ̮ĤʤлӤ٤Ǥ뤳ȡ̱ϡץơˤĤȤˤäƷӤĤƤ롥13Ωޤब¾ϱѡʩơڤǤ롥

Map of the West Indies  *  *

17--18ʩѡǥޡʤɤ󶯤ˤʬη̡ϰϢϼ夯ʤäϰϸŪˤʬ䡦̲ƤꡤѸե󥹸ʤɤζ̤ΤǤ롥ߤɽΤȤƤΰϤʤŪŪʴ4ĤϰʬΤǤ롥ϥޤҥѥ˥åϥ롼סɽ (The British West Indies or the Commonwealth Caribbean; cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]))ʩΥƥ (The French Antilles)Υƥ (The Dutch Antilles) 4Ĥ
Ȥ櫓Ѹܤ褦ŪʱΥɽϡBahamas, Jamaica, Caymans, British Virgin Islands, Barbados, Trinidad, Tobago, Leeward Islands, Winward Islands 鹽Ƥ1958ǯʬ Federation of West Indies ɽϢˮˤȤΩ椫 Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago ʤɤĤϰ褬¹ȤΩߡɽENLϰȸƤ٤Τϰʲ17ϰǤ롥

Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Christopher and Nevis (St. Kitts-Nevis), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Virgin Islands (US), the Virgin Islands (British)


չޤȡƤ Guyana Ƥ Belize ѸȤƱѸѤƤ롥ڥݥȥ줬ŪƤˤäƤϡ2ǤʤBelize ǤϥڥŪˡGuyana ˤĤƤϡ#385. Guyanese Creole Ϣ³Ρ ([2010-05-17-1]) ε⻲ȡ
ŪαѸϰˤĤƤϡ#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο͸ ([2013-09-04-1])#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
ޤƱϰͭΥ쥪ϰǤ⤢롥Ϣơ#1531. pidgin creole ʬۡ ([2013-07-06-1]) ⻲ȡ

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2013-11-11 Mon

#1659. ޥɥ˥μҲ [linguistic_area][map][slavic][history][dialect_continuum][sociolinguistics][ethnic_group]

Х륫 (the Balkans) ˤ̱²ʬۤʣʤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Х륫Ⱦϡ#1314. ([2012-12-01-1]) Ƥꡤ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ιȤʤäƤꡤ#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]) ȤҲŪ󶡤ƤʤɤλˤꡤҲؾ塤ͭ̾ˤƽפϰȤʤäƤ롥ʲEncylopædia Britannica 1997 Ʊϰ̱²ʬۿޤʲ˷Ǻܤ롥ʬۿޤˤĤƤϡ˴ؤȤȤ Ethnologue Greece and The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ȡ#1469. Хȡ᥹ָɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-05-05-1]) Ǹڤ Distribution of the Slavic languages in Europe 󤲤Ƥ

Ethnic Map of the Balkans

ޥɥ˥¹ (The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) ϡ͸200ʤХ륫ȾΦǤ롥̱2/3ʾ夬ޥɥ˥ (Macedonian) ѤƤꡤѸȤʤäƤ뤬Ǻξ̱²Ǥ륢Х˥ͤˤꥢХ˥ (Albanian) äƤʿ͸ Ethnologue Macedonia 򻲾Ȥ줿ˡޥɥ˥ South Slavic 췲θǡSerbian Bulgarian Ϣ³Ƥ롥Ҥ褦ˡޥɥ˥ϡϢ³Τȡ°ˤ椨ˡߤ˻ޤǸ autonomy ˶줷Ƥ롥
ޥɥ˥ͤȤϤˤϸŤAlexander the Great (356--23 BC) ڽФޥɥ˥ Gibraltar Punjab ޤǤιۤޥɥ˥ (Ancient Macedonian) Ϥθޥɥ˥ (Macedonian) ȤϤޤäۤʤꡤޤꥷȤ̤ȸ뤬ꥷͤϸޥɥ˥򥮥ꥷ1ȤߤʤƤаޤ롥ꥷϥꥷ autonomy Фޥɥ˥ heteronomy Ȥ罾طŪѤơޥɥ˥򼫤˽°ΤȤߤʤƤΤǤ롥ꥷˤŪ Makedhonia ̾뽣⤢ꡤޥɥ˥ˤȤäƤܤ륮ꥷ礭ŪϤ򴶤ʤ顤򱿱ĤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ºݡꥷϥޥɥ˥¹Ω򡤼縢ȤߤʤƤ롥
ơä˰ܤ롥ޥɥ˥6˥ӥƥΰǤä550--630ǯδ֤ˡϤ˥ѥ̮̤饹̱²衤ޥɥ˥λŪʸϥꥷȥδ֤Ǹؤ15ˤϥޥΰȤ߹ޤ줿1912--13ǯΥХ륫Ǥϥӥͤλ۲ꡤ1944ǯˤϥ桼¹礵줿ν°ˤβǡޥɥ˥äƤϡӥͤˤȤäƤϥӥ1Ȥߤʤ졤֥륬ꥢͤˤȤäƤϥ֥륬ꥢ1Ȥߤʤ졤θŪ autonomy 뵡ĤȤǤʤäߤǤ⡤ӥ֥ͤ륬ꥢͤϥޥɥ˥μΩ򡤤ʤ¸ߤǧƤʤޥɥ˥ˤƤϡŪ°ˤϸŪ°ˤäȤäƤ褤
Τ褦ʣˤ򤿤ɤäƤˤ⤫餺ޥɥ˥ȤƾΤ̱̾̾²̾̾˶̤ѤƤ뤳Ȥ򸫤ˤƤ롥ޥɥ˥̱²ˤȸޥɥ˥̱²ˤϻؼоݤۤʤȤΤ䤳դ3ϡκѤƥޥɥ˥ؤŪϤ򤫤ƤΤǤꡤޥɥ˥ϡθȤʤϤΩȤΩȤʤäƤ⡤ޤ԰ΩΩƤ롥autonomy ˸ƤƻΤϸ
ʾ塤Romain (15--17) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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