ɱѸˤˤĤơ#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#762. ꥶ٥Ūʥˬ ([2011-05-29-1]) ε̤άҤƤطʤˤ륢ɤγ̻ˤƤȻפʡޥåࡦޥå (60--61) 濴ˡ¿⻲ȤĤġάǯɽѰդɤϿޤ⻲ͤޤǤˡ

| 7000 | åȥɤǽο͡ΦϤĤäƥɤƽࡥ |
| 3200 | ܥήƻʯĤ롥 |
| 2000 | ɤǶ°ٹϤޤ롥 |
| 700 | ȿͤɤˤäƤ롥 |
| 432 | ѥȥåɤơιȾꥹȶ˲롥 |
| 795 | ǽΥХ֥٥˾ΦϤ롥 |
| 800 | 餯Υɿͤνƻǡ̩ۤɤɤɽŪܡإ륺ν٤Ĥ롥 |
| 1014 | ɤβ֥饤ܥ롼ڤ줷դ襤ǥХˤ롥襤ľ塤ϻ˴ |
| 1170 | ֥ȥܥפȥڥ֥ɤ˿ΥޥͤΥɿάϤޤ롥1ǯ塤ȥܥβˤʤ롥 |
| 1171 | ɹإ2ɤʬ۲ˤ롥 |
| 1366 | ɤΥޥͤϤ뤿ᡤɤ֥륱ˡˡפꤹ롥 |
| 1494 | ɹإ7ɵIJɿ̩λ۲ˤɻۤ롥 |
| 1601 | ɽꥶ٥1ɤ˷ꡤƥҥ塼ˡ뤪Ʊ襤ˤ롥 |
| 1603 | ɤڤ |
| 1641 | ȥåΥɿͤץƥȤΥɿԤå줿ϤɤΩ夬ꡤɴͤΥץƥȤ |
| 1649 | ɤθС०Ψ뷳ɤΥɥȥեɤǿͤԻȥåΥɿͤϤץƥȤԤˤ롥 |
| 1690 | ꥢबܥ襤ǥॺ2ηˤꡤɤΥץƥȵサϤ롥 |
| 1782 | ɵIJȼˡΧꤹ븢롥 |
| 1798 | ɤΩᡤ쥢ɿͶʤɤϤȿԤ˽ꡤͤ˴ |
| 1801 | Ϣˡˤꡤ졼ȥ֥ƥӥϢ粦Ω |
| 1845 | 㥬˱¤ȯ4ǯˤֵȤʤ롥ʿΥɿ̱ͤȤʤäƥꥫʤɤϤ롥 |
| 1870 | ꥢࡦåɥȡ꤬ɿͤξˡŪᡤǽŪˤϽͭǧ뿷ˡΩ롥 |
| 1913 | ɼˡƤꥹ屡3ܤݷˤ |
| 1914 | 1ȯˤꡤɵIJȡɤθ˴ؤˡ꤬٤롥 |
| 1916 | ˪ǥɤ̱²Ϥפʷʪɶ¹Ωϥꥹˤäð롥 |
| 1916 | ॺ祤ؼ㤭ݽѲȤξ٤ǤƱμפʺȤȤƳϤ롥 |
| 1919 | ǯ˾äեޤɹ̱IJʥɥˤĤꡤդӥꥹΩʥեȤϡ֤켫ȤǡפȤ̣˥ꥹȹ̱IJٻϤȤΤƮ롥 |
| 1920 | ꥹIJǥˡΩ̥ɤ6ˤҤȤĤεIJʳΥɤˤҤȤĤεIJ줾Ĥ롥 |
| 1921 | ꥹΤȤƤΥɼͳΩ롥ꥹɾФ롥̥6ϥꥹˤȤɤޤ롥 |
| 1922 | ꥹδΩȤ̱²ϤȿФڤꡤ̱IJꥹɾǧٻɤȿɤȤ1ǯˤ郎ȯ |
| 1937 | ɼͳѻߤΩ̱ȥμΩ뿷ˡ̱ɼˤ꾵ǧ롥 |
| 1949 | ˪1916ǯˤǰơ4뤬ȥɤȤʤꡤꥹϢˮæह롥 |
| 1955 | Ϣ˲ |
| 1959 | ǡ餬Τ˽Ǥ |
| 1973 | 衼åѷкѶƱ (EEC) ˲ɶ· (IRA) ̥ɤǤιƳ |
| 1985 | ꥹȤΤˡꥹɶ꤬हФ롥ˤꥢɤϡ̥˴ؤ롥 |
| 1991 | 衼åϢ (EU) ˲ |
| 1993 | ꥹξ꤬ƥ٤뤹̥ʿĤƤȤƱʥ˥ˤ˽̾ |
| 1998 | ɤ̥ɤǤɼˤꡤ٥եȹաˤΤ̥᤹Ū褬ǧ롥 |
| 2004 | EUεĹȤʤ롥 |
| 2004 | 衼åѺηкĹã롥 |
| 2005 | IRAƮν롥 |
| 2007 | Сƥϡ3ܤμФ롥 |
رʸʸʳ칶ŤѸ˸ǡǯ٤ιݳزؤλ뵡äǯ٤Ρ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) ˰³ǯ٤Ͻդ ICOME9 SHEL-9 ˻äƤΤǡܥ֥Ǥ⤽ ICOME-9 ˤĤơ
2015ǯ429?53˥ݡɤΥ֥ĥ (Philological School of Higher Education) dzŤ줿 The 9th International Conference on Middle English (ICOME9) ػäƤʲˡزȯɽȯɽԤγפĤΤΩĤȻפ

(1) زα
Jacek Fisiak Ω夲Ѹ˴ؤʸؤȸؤιݳزȹ碌Ʋ3789˻äüԤ50?70̾ۤɡʸطϤ椷ƸطϤ¿եο̤ǻϡֱȸĿȯɽޤ3¹Ԥǡ49ȯɽ69̾ȯɽԡʥޤˤä
1Rydzyna, Poland (1994)
2Helsinki, Finland (1997)
3Dublin, Ireland (1999)
4Vienna, Austria (2002)
5Naples, Italy (2005)
6Cambridge, UK (2008)
7Lviv, Ukraine (2011)
8Murcia, Spain (2013)
9Wrocław, Poland (2015)
(2) Ĵֱ
Hans Sauer (University of Munich) and David Scott-Macnab (University of Jahannesburg)
"The Names of a Thousand-and-One Hunting-Hounds in a 15th-Century List"
Marcin Krygier (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan)
"Laȝamon's Foreigners"
Michiko Ogura (Tokyo Woman's Christian University, Japan)
"What Really Happened to 'Impersonal' and 'Reflexive' Constructions in Medieval English"
Rafał Borysławski (University of Silesia, Sosnowiec)
"'Dreaming of the Middle Ages'?: Dream-Visions and Transgression from Marie de France to Chaucer"
(3) ̥å
The recipe in the history of English (cf. Bator, Magdalena. Culinary Verbs in Middle English. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2014.)
Translating Middle English literature
(4) ȯɽԤν°浡ؤι
ʲϡȯɽԤν°ؤιʬۡƮƤ롥
Poland (33) ************************************
Germany ( 6) ******
Japan ( 4) ****
Austria ( 3) ***
France ( 3) ***
Norway ( 3) ***
Spain ( 3) ***
Belgium ( 2) **
Russia ( 2) **
Switzerland ( 2) **
Ukraine ( 2) **
USA ( 2) **
Finland ( 1) *
Italy ( 1) *
South Africa ( 1) *
United Kingdom ( 1) *
#2305. Ѹ25Ͽޡ ([2015-08-19-1]) 11ܤȤƵƤ Tristan da Cunha ˤĤդä롥Tristan da Cunha ϡեꥫꥫΦΤɤ餫Υ줿䳤θ硥եꥫ2400ꥫ3360ΥƤ롥6Ĥξ礫ʤꡤͭ Tristan da Cunha Gough Island 2ĤΤߤǤ롥ηϡ1506ǯ˥ݥȥͤγ Tristão da Cunha ˤäȯ줿17ʹߡ٤ˤ錄ä꽻λߤäԤΤ1816ǯΥꥹַˤΤǤ롥St. Helena ήˤ줿ʥݥ쥪ε߽Ф˻ߤ뤿ʼȤ롥1816ǯ˱ѹΤȤʻ礵줿1817ǯ˷űषʹߤϡ˻ĤäμԤȡˤ衼åѿͤɺήԤ̱ΤۤȤɤǤä1886ǯˤ97ͤȤ𤬤롥1938ǯˤ St. Helena ݸΤȤʤä2009ǯˤϰ̤ϲä졤ѹ St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ΰȤʤäƤ롥2015ǯߡ259ͤǤꡤΤۤȤȤѸȤ ENL ϰǤ롥

ʲϢ볰ĥäƤ
Website of the Tristan da Cunha Government and Tristan Association
Wikipedia ˤ Tristan da Cunha ε
BBC ˤ St Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha profiles
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
Edgar Allan Poe ˤ The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) Chapter 15 ˡTristan da Cunha ŪŪʾܤҤ롥
ʤSt. Helena ˤĤƤϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǤڤƤ롥
ʸ嵭2015/09/01(Tue) McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. "TRISTAN DA CUNHA" (1056) ι⻲ȡαѸѼϡHighland English ƱħͭȹͤƤ롥
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Ѹˤؤ־ͭѤϿ25ĤǷǺܤƤ륦֥ڡߤĤΤǾҲ𤷤25 maps that explain the English language ǤϡϿޤɽ魯ȤΤǤѸ˾νפ꤬夲Ƥꡤ줬褽¤٤Ƥ롥25ܤ̾ȴФƤߤ褦
1. Where English comes from
2. Where Indo-European languages are spoken in Europe today
3. The Anglo-Saxon migration
4. The Danelaw
5. The Norman Conquest
6. The Great Vowel Shift
7. The colonization of America
8. Early exploration of Australia
9. Canada
10. English in India
11. Tristan da Cunha
12. Countries with English as the official language
13. Which countries in Europe can speak English
14. Where people read English Wikipedia
15. Where new English words come from
16. How vocabulary changes based on what you're writing
17. Vocabulary of Shakespeare vs. rappers
18. Where English learners speak the language proficiently
19. Scores on the Test of English as a Foreign Language
20. Immigrants to the US are learning English more quickly than previous generations
21. Where Cockneys come from
22. Dialects and accents in Britain
23. North American vowel shift
24. American dialects
25. You guys vs. y'all
ܥ֥Ǥ⤳¿夲ƤΤǡϢ뵭ɤǸ줿ϿޤɽΤ褦ʻлˤĤƤ⡤ܥ֥ǤѶŪ˷ǺܤƤmap γƵ⤴
#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1])#2262. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (2) ([2015-07-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ[2015-07-07-1]ǤϡFisher Ȥ Gramley ˤŪʿ⼨ʤ顤̱οפñ˳ǧ Fisher Ȥ David Hackett Fischer ˤ Albion's Seed (1989ǯ) ˵äƤ褦ˡ D. H. Fischer ȤؼԤϡꥫѸ˸ԤãǤ Hans Kurath, George Philip Krapp, Allen Walker Read, Albert Marckwardt, Raven McDavid, Cleanth Brooks ˰͵ĤġŪʿפοʤ顤ꥹѸȥꥫѸϢ³ĥƤΤǤ롥
Fischer εҤꤷ Fisher ޤȤʢ֤꤬̾Ƥƺ𤹤Τա˽̱ˤˤĤơʲ˰Ѥ褦 (Fisher 60) ̱Ϥؤΰ̱95%ʾ夬ꥹǤꡤ4Ȥˤ狼ƹԤ줿Ȥ
1. 20,000 Puritans largely from East Anglia to to New England, 1629--41, to escape the tyranny of the crown and the established church that led to the Puritan revolution;
2. 40,000 Cavaliers and their servants largely from the southwestern counties of England to the Chesapeake Bay area and Virginia, 1642--75, to escape the Long Parliament and Puritan rule;
3. 23,000 Quakers from the North Midlands and many like-minded evangelicals from Wales, Germany, Holland, and France, to the Delaware Valley and Pennsylvania, 1675--1725, to escape the Act of Uniformity in England and the Thirty Years War in Europe;
4. 275,000 from the North Border regions of England, Scotland, and Ulster to the backcountry of New England, western Pennsylvania, and the Appalachians, 1717--75, to escape the endemic conflict and poverty of the Border regions, and especially the 1706--7 Act of Union between England and Scotland, which brought about the "pacification" of the border, transforming it from a combative society in need of many warriors to a commercial and industrial society in need of no warriors, with the consequent large-scale displacement of the rural population.
Fischer Ūʥꥫؤν̱ˤεҤפˤä䶯ȤȤϱѸѼϢ³ͤǤ˽פʾǤ롥
ꥹѼ狼饢ꥫѼؤϢ³ݤɬˤʤΤϡnon-prevocalic /r/ Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ȡ#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) ǹ碌Ƴ#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2) ([2012-10-15-1]) ʣ˸ڤȤFisher (75--77) ⿵ŤΩ줫餳ФƤ롥Τˡ250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ ξüɥդǻϤޤäȤȤȡꥫؤΰ̱17Ⱦ˻ϤޤäȤȤϡʥʴطǤϤΤǤ⡤˸ŪϢ³˴ؤڡʼĥϿ٤ǤΤΡDZѸ˸ˤϢ³βǽդʧäƤȤϾɬפȤⴶƤ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.
ε#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ȡ#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Gramley αѸ˽ϡϿޤɽ¿ؽ仲ȤǤ롥ꥹ饢ꥫؤνΰ̱ΥѥˤĤƤ⡤"Major sources and goals of immigration" (248) ꤹͭѤʥꥫ쳤ߤϿޤǺܤƤ롥Gramley ϿޤǤϡ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Υ롼ȤΤۤɥġֽ硤ɥĤΰ̱ήηϩʤɤ⼨Ƥ롥

ΰ̱⥢ꥫѸ˲餫ιƤȹͤ뤬ε ([2015-07-06-1]) ӡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ȤƤ狼Ȥꡤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Ȥ櫓פ̤ȤϤޤǤʤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱ˤĤơפޤŪʸϤ Gramley (246) ˤΤǡѤ褦
The English language which the settlers carried along with them was, of course, that of England. The colonists surely brought various regional forms, but it is generally accepted that the largest number of those who arrived came from southern England. Baugh (1957) concludes --- on the limited evidence of 1281 settlers in New England and 637 in Virginia for whom records exist for the time before 1700 --- that New England was predominantly settled from the southeastern and southern counties of England (about 60%) as was Virginia (over 50%). Fisher's figures indicate that 20,000 Puritans came between 1629 and 1641, the largest part from Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and East Anglia with fewer than 10% from London, and that 40,000 "Cavaliers" fled especially from London and Bristol during the Civil War and went to the Chesapeake area and Virginia (Fisher 2001: 60). The Middle Colonies of Pennsylvania, new Jersey, and Delaware probably had a much larger proportion from northern England, including 23,000 Quakers and Evangelicals from England, Wales, Germany, Holland, and France. Over 250,000 from northern England, the Scottish Lowlands, and especially Ulster settled in the back country . . . . In each of the areas settled the nature of the language was set by speech patterns established by the first several generations.
ꥫ New England ؤΰ̱ˤϡνпȼԤ¿ͿꥫƤ˱Ϥؤϡ륺åȥɡɤΰ̱¿äȤƳǧǤ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Baugh, A. C. A History of the English Language. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.
ɸϡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) Ǽ夲ϿޤĤIJ⤹롥
ꥫѸˤϡ17˻Ϥޤ륤ꥹ礫νΰ̱ȡθΥꥫǤΰܽˤ礭ؤäƤ롥ꥹͤˤ륢ꥫؤο̱ϡ1607ǯ Jamestown ηߤ˻Ϥޤ뤬ο̱˷ȤäΤϼȤƥпȼԤäǽԤȤθŪ礭 Jamestown ˤ⤿餵졤˥ꥫ˳Ȥ줿
1620ǯ Plymouth ˤɤ夤 "Pilgrim fathers" ˤ⡤ʤ˽пȼԤ¿äϡԤƱͤˡ褽ħȤƿΦϤäΤǤꡤNew England 濴Ȥϰˤħ夵
1680ǯ夫ϥ䥦륺Υ (Quakers) Pennsylvania Pennsylvania ʤɤؤϡ18ȾФ˥åȥɷϥɿ (Scots-Irish) ¿ήθưϤȤʤäޤ19ȾФˤ¿ΥɿͤꡤؤŸ饤ʳϰ褫äƤ̱ϡɸŪȤ륤ꥹȤƿΦˤäƤΤνΥꥫˤ礿Ȥʤ (Midland dialect) μäΤǤ롥
ꥹ礫ΰ̱νпϤǰƬˡ嵭ޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥ɸŪʥȤпȼԤϡɸѼꥫ New England ؤɸŪʥ륺åȥɡɤνȤпȼԤϡɸѼꥫ Pennsylvania ؤȹ绨Ĥ˿ȡʲϿޤ̤Ǥ롥

Τ褦ʥꥫѸ (1607--1790) ˤ̱θ̤ϡ奢ꥫѸ non-prevocalic /r/ ʬۤˤ褯ȿǤƤȸ롥#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) Ͽޤ˼̤ꡤ绨ĤˤäƥꥫιϰǤ car, four ʤɤθ /r/ ȯ롤ʤ rhotic Ǥ롥ϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡΥɼϰ non-rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥб롥ꥫ New England Ǥϡ褽 non-rhotic Ǥ롥ϡɤ濴褽 rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥ礹롥[2010-07-24-1]ǿ줿Ȥꡤʬۤ϶ȤȤǤϤʤŪϢ³٤
̱ηʬۤˤäƤϡ̱νпϤȷȤƤܤ뤳ȤפǤ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1])
#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1])
#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1])
#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])
#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1])
ɸ3ϡŪ˵ʷϩ̤ɸѸꡤ夷Ǥ롥vane סˡvat ʾ¤Ѥʤɤβˡvixen ʻĥ͡ˤϡƬͭ v äƤ롥Ƭ v ǤϵǤⲿǤʤΤͺ˥ĥͤɽ魯 fox Фƻĥ vixen ٤Ƥߤ褦ˡ3ˤƤϸ츻Ū̵ f ͽۤȤͭðۤʤΤǤ (cf. OE fana, fæt, fyxen) ŪˤϡѸǤΤ߸Ƭ̵ΧͭʬۤŪ˸¤Ƥ3ˤĤƤϤɤ櫓ɸѸؤȯŸѼ˼ޤ졤̲ΤǤ롥ȤʤäƤϤۤȤɵŤʤ3ϻҲΡ¤äȯͳ褹ΤǤ (cf. vixen ˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary ˤ vixen ⻲ȡˡ
Ρ¤פϡΥɤǤ¸³Ƥ롥ǤϸƬ [f] Τ٤Ȥ [v] Τߤʤ餺[s], [ʃ], [θ] Τ٤Ȥdzơ [z], [ʒ], [ð] Ȥä褦ˡΤбߤ롥Upton and Widdowson (52) Ͽޤꡤfinger θƬˤĤʬۤ

ɤκüCornwall üǤɸŪ [f] ԤƤ뤬 Cornwall αѸήΤǤϤʤ˽Υȷϸ Cornish ֤ɸѸ˥롼ĤĤΤǤ (cf. #779. Cornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1])#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])ˡ
ơߤǤϸƬ [f] [v] ʬۤ˸¤Ƥ뤬Ѹˤϥ˹äƤιϰϤǡ餯Ǥ˸űѸƬͭϤޤäƤΤȻפ롥ѸǤ fader vader ʬۤ Plan and Bibliography (9) ˴Ť (101) ϿޤǤߤƤߤ褦

űѸǤϡǷѲޤǤϡˤ餺 [v] [z] ϸƬ뤳ȤϤʤäȤѸǤϡѲΤߤʤ餺̤ξƬ뤳ȤǽȤʤäLass (58--59) ϡθƬȤƤ [v], [z] ΰŪʵƤͳ1ĤϡޤͭˤȤߤƤ (cf. #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]))
A third factor, perhaps the most likely, was the existence in Middle English of varieties that had in Old English times undergone voicing of initial fricatives. Many southern dialects had voiced at least initial /f s/ --- a development whose relics survive still in the rural West Country ('Zummerzet'). This parallels, and may well stem from, the same process in continental West Germanic: the <v> in G Vater 'father', now pronounced with /f/, and Du. initial <v> and <z> in vader and zon 'sun' (/f s/ in more innovating dialects, still /v z/ in conservative ones) reflect this. While the voicing in England was mainly southern, it did extend well up into the midlands in Early Middle English, and the standard still has a number of forms with voiced initials like vat, vixen, vane (OE fæt, fyxen, fana). Contact between speakers of these dialects and others without voicing may have facilitated borrowing of French /v z/, making them less 'outlandish'.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Kurath, Hans, Margaret S. Ogden, Charles E. Palmer, and Richard L. McKelvery. Plan and Bibliography. U of Michigan P, 1954.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ
522ʶˤ23ڡˤˡʡ縩來Ԥǡ來ʿΡ祵ߥå2015פ롥ܡȥꥢޤᡤʿνä륵ߥåȤǡʿϰ߳뤳ȤȤ롥ۥȹǤܤϡߥåȳŤ˹碌콵515˶ߤǥ˥塼ɼΤΥ˥ (Niue /niˈuːeɪ/; ̱̾ȷƻ Niuean /n(j)uːˈ(w)eɪən/) Ⱦǧ뤳ȤꤷܤǧȤϤ195Ȥʤ롥˥塼ɡɤʤɤäƹȾǧƤ뤬ϢˤϲƤʤ
˥ϡ˥塼ɤ2400km˰֤Ѥ259ʿkmʼ縩ǷȤۤƱˡ1,500ͤǤ롥Ԥ AlofiʲˡϿޤȹ

άˤCaptain James Cook 1774ǯ˾Φ̱μŨդˤʤ "Savage Island" ̿̾1830ǯ붵Ĥ礷1852ǯ̱ꥹȶ1900ǯ˱ѹ⥢ʬΰȤƥ˥ʻ礷1901ǯˤϡ˥塼ɤåΰȤƱʻ礷1904ǯˤʬΥƼΤȤʤä1974ǯ˥˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫ܤΩŪˤϤΤȤ˻¾ΩäƤ褤̱ϥ˥塼ɻ̱Ǥꡤɱҡϥ˥塼ɤǤդǰ¸Ƥ˥塼ɤؤΰܽԤ¿
ѤƤˤĤƤСEthnologue Niue ιˤС˥ (Niuean) ȱѸ줬ѸȤʤäƤ롥̱ΤۤȤɤ˥äѸѤ롥˥ϡȥͥ²ݥͥɤ°ܤȥ䥵⥢롥
ѸˤδˤǤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥˥깭Ū˹ȾǧΤϺΤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ˾ǧ뤳Ȥǡ˥ϡֱѸѸȤƤĺǾιפΥȥʥåȤˤʤ롥#1747. ѸѸȤƤĺǾι ([2014-02-07-1]) Ǽ夲ʥϡѤǤϥ˥⤺äȾΰ̣ǤϤޤֺǾפˤĤƤХʥ1ͤΤФ˥ɴͤȤϤǤ뤫ֺǾפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ѸȤʬۤ˴Ϣפ¾ξɬפƤ
Ϣơľܥ˥ꤳޤޤƤʤ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ʤɤȤ줿ѸγȻȤδϢǤϡ#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ȡ
˥˴ؤ볰ȤƤϡʲΤΤ롥
̳ʤˤ˥åǡ
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Niue Υǡ
Wikipedia ˤ Niue ε
˰³La Francophonie ˤĤơLa Francophonie θǸեեˡ ˡե˴ؤפޤ͡ʿǺܤƤ롥οϡOIF (Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) ˤ2014ǯ4ǯȤ˹ˤ˴ŤΤȤĤ
La Francophonie 80ιϰ褬äϢ54β23Υ֥С3ν
եϱѸȤȤ5ΦäƤǤ
27400ͤΥեüԡʤ5Φ21200ͤȤƻѡ
12500ͤΥեؽԡ7600ͤȤơ4900ͤȤƳؽ
衼åѤ7700ͤŪʥեüԡڤ5200ͤΥեǽϤͭ
5ܤˤ褯ä
3ܤζ̳Ѹʥ衼åѤǤ2ܡ
4ܤΥͥåѸ
2ܤ˹ݵؤѤƤ
嵭ΥȤˤϥե˴ϢϿޤ⤤ĤǺܤƤ롥ʲŽդ褦



2ܤϿޤˤ褦ˡLa Francophonie ˤ54β (États de gouvernements membres de l'OIF)23Υ֥С (États observateurs), 3ν (États associés) η80ιϰ褬äƤ롥ϰ褴Ȥ̾褦
Afrique de l'Ouest
ɸ䤤˼üˤϡɽǻGörlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ
| South | Midland | North | ||
| Present Indicative | 3sg. | -(e)þ | -(e)þ | -(e)s |
| pl. | -(e)þ | -(e)n | -(e)s | |
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| LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' | LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero |
|
| LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero |
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| eLALME: 3sp 's' | eLALME: 3sp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 's' | eLALME: pp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 'n' | eLALME: pp 'e' or zero |
#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])ޤ¾εǡŵŪŷϩȤŪ¦̤˸ڤƤ濴ŪϰϤФгŪϰǤ⤢ꡤϤȾŤƤȤޤ뤿ˤˤη̡濴ϿդϸŤȤʬۤ˻롥ߤ˱Υ줿֤ĤȤݤϡ츫ԻĤˤ꤭줤Ĥ
ʾ夬ŵŪषޤäդ濴ŤդȤʬۤ㤬롥ܸΥʬۤܤǤ͡ʥȤԤƤꡤ弰ȡȡü쥢ȡ췿ȡ̵Ȥ̤롥̣ȤˡΥȤʣʬۤϤ褽ؤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨2̾4Ĥη̤Ǥʣʵ弰Ȥϡ̾Ȥꡤ濴ȤƶᵦȾΦˤޤʬۤƤ롥γ¦ˤ2̾3Ĥη̤뼡ʣȤʬۤ롥ޤߤ顤ϡʸǽҤ٤̵ϰϽ̤̳ƻޤdzȤäƤꡤ϶ᵦӱۤȶ彣ˤޤʬۤƤ롥ĤޤꡤȤϡᵦʬǤƤʬܽʬۤƤ롥
³2̾2Ĥη̤ü쥢Ȥϡ彣ϤȤƤ鷺ʬۤˤȤɤޤ롥1Ĥη⤿ʤ췿ȤϡǼ縩ԾˤΤǧ롥Ǹ˷̤ʤ̵Ȥϡ븩ڸʡ縩ƶ彣ιϰʬۤƤ롥Τ褦˸ߤ˱Υ줿Ȥߤ뤳Ȥϡ۵롥
ŵŪۤʤΤϡŪˤϤŤ奢Ȥܽ˻ĤäƤꡤ꿷Ȥ¾ŸƤ뤳Ȥޤʿ»εǤ2̾5Ĥη̤ƤȤΤƤ롥ȡʿ»εΥȤΤʣˤƺǤ褯ݤäƤΤ弰Ȥǡ缡ñ㲽줿ȤȾʬۤƤȲǤ롥濴ʣǸŤդñǿȤǤ뤬μĥȤϤषդǤ롥ܤʬ䤹Ҳ𤷤ɧ (77) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ؤˤʸŪǤϡ褯졤ȤФդ뤤⤿䤹äΤǤγ¦ؤˤʤȤ줬ޤꡤ˳ؤǤϤäȼޤޤᵦ濴˱ߤ褦ˤơ濴Ȥη¦ƤΤϡΤǤϡŪѲΤ褦ΤǤ
ߤϤʹơäסʸȯǿ줬ޤƤҤꡤˤϤդ뤤줬ΤɤȤΤȿФȡפ⤷ޤιͤñΤҤˤ褯ƤϤޤޤ
Ǥ⡤Ȥ濴ˤƹͤ줿㤯ϡ֥ȤʤɤΤդĤʷĤΤΤۤѲ䤹פȤȤФΤ⤦ҤȤĤѲλäƤޤ
¤ŪŪñʸʣʥȤϡѲŤλ˴ؤơ̤˰ɬפȤȤ¤ŪʣѲ®٤Ȥδ֤˲餫δϢ뤫⤷ʤȤ붽̣ݤ⤷ʤƱˡΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡϤ䶵ȤҲŪϤѤƤȤͤ롥
ʤǤʬ̵ۤȤǿȤȤǤСϺܸ쥢ȤλѤͽΤǤȤǤ롥¡ɧ (75) ϡ־ܸϤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ޤ㡤ʤǤ礦פȳοŪǤ롥 *
ɧ 롡ϤޤۤΤȤС١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1]) ڤӡ#2037. Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1]) ˤ褦ˡϡ¾ʸŪƱͤˡ֤˱äŤ뤳Ȥ¿äϥƥӤ䥤ͥåȤʤɳƼΥǥȯãʪŪʾ㳲Ȥ⤿䤹ӱۤƤޤǤʪŪʸ̤ʸŪŤδäˤä
ǻϤޤä䡤˸ꤵƤ֤˱äŤϡܤˤߤ롥ޤǤܤʪήδϡΦγƻǤϤʤ賤ιϩǤ롥ͽδǯ (1624--44) ˲¼ (1618--99) ˤܽϩȡܽαߤˤ˽褦ˤʤä塤ⳤܳߡĤϩȡ͡ʿδߡܳߡĤϩȡ塤ʿδߡͤϩääܳߤ褷ϩγ褯ΤƤ롥ϺϡġܸšĸҤʤɤ˴ιĮ˾ʪʡʸ澮ιĮΦӱۤơΥ줿礭ʹĮ˾뤳ȤȤʤäΤǤ롥 *
СϩפäϤˤϵηɾΡ?Ϥסʶ̸Ρ?פˤԤƤֹۤԤʤפΰդζᵦ֤㤻ס֤Ȥפΰդ֤ʤס֤ɡפΰդζ彣֤ФäƤפʤɤʹʰ塤p. 44ˡޤܸŤʤɴ긩αոĸҤǤϡ֤꤬Ȥפΰ̣ǤΡ֤ˡפʹ롥ۤĸǤϡּѤפȤ֤פɽ뤬äΤǤ롥ϤˤΤ褦ԤƤϰ褬ʤΩʬۤƤ뤿ᡤβϩȤ֤˱äƤиݤȲ᤹ۤʤޤȬΡ֤פϸŤԤǡĬ˾äή夤ȸƤꡤ̣Ǹ֤˱äŤȤäƤ褤ʰ塤pp. 8--9ˡ
γäθ˵ΦŴƻ֤ȯãǿषƤäȤȤŤΥ롼ȤѤäƤäΤȻפ롥
ͺʴƽˡϿޡ١ե졼٥ۡ2009ǯ
#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1]) ǡԻԤԻԤؤθŤ˿줿̤̤ȯãμҲǤϡ͡ιưȾ¤礭ʤư϶٤ϰ˸¤롥ξˤϡŤͼϡȾ (wave_theory) ͽۤȤˤʤ̤ȯãҲǤϡ㤨ƻϩ֤Ŵƻ֤˱褦ʤɤơߤ˱Υ줿ԻԤԻԤؤФΤ褦ŤΤ褦Ⱦϸߤ̷⤹ΤǤϤʤषμҲθ̤ȯã٤ѿȤ롤ŪؤȻȤǤ褦˻פ롥
Ťȸ֤ȤϢưƤ뤫Τˤϡǡ֤Фפɽ魯ɸ manger trough ִƤʬۤįΤ褤Survey of English Dialects ΤĴʤƤ20ȾФˤϡϰǤ trough ԤƤ̤ɸ manger ¤˿ƩĤĤäοηϩܤߤƤߤȡɥرӤ봴ƻϩŴƻ֤ˤԤäȱ褤ʤ鿻ƩƤ뤳Ȥ狼äΤǤ롥̤Ȥơ֤˱äϰǤϿ manger դ֤鳰줿ϰǤϸŷ trough ³ƤȤ줿ʲTrudgill (130--31) ꡤϿޤȸϿޤξϿޤ˽Ťʤ뤫ˤϡGIF˥ɤ

It can be seen that each of the three southward-encroaching prongs of the manger area, two of which actually reach the coast, coincide with the main London to Dover road and rail route, the main London to Brighton route, and the main route from London to Portsmouth. The spread of the incoming form is clearly accelerated in areas with good communications links, and is retarded in more isolated areas. (Trudgill 132)
˸¤餺Τˤ襦륹ˤˤ衤Τ֤˱äơŪˤϥߥ˥ͥåȥ˱äưưŤ롥ͤƤߤΤȤɤˤ֤ФפΤ褦ϿޤǼȡΤȤŪǤǼǤ롥ؤ˥ʥߥåǤ뤫̣碌Ƥ빥#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) ʬθȤƤɾǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ȤС#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1]) Ǥߤפ㤬褯ΤƤ롥ۤˤ⡤֤Ȥܡ١ˡפؤŤʡ礫ˤƤȵܺȤΥ줿ϰʬۤ㡤פ̣ȥ¸줬Ϥ̤ȶ彣ΩʬۤʤɤΤƤ롥衼åѤ albus ͳ褹ŷդ˻¸Ƥ⡤#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) ǤߤǤϡѸˤȤơ
1Ĥϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ϿޤǤ롥r æȤȯسȤäƤ롥ߤεڤǤʤʤɤμŪϰǤϡr ݻŷ¸Ƥ롥Τ褦ŵǤϡ֤ߤ˱Υ줿 (relic area) ˸롥
Upton and Widdowson ΥϿޤѥѥįƤơ⤦1ŵŪĤ뤳ȤǤʲϡUpton and Widdowson (140) ˷ǺܤƤ֡ʥ亮ΡˤФפ̣ beak ʬۤǤ롥

ɸǤ beak ɤȾʤäƤ뤬ն bill ξ礬١ʬۤƤ롥ۤɸߤΥ줿ϰΩ bill ȯȤϹͤˤΤǡˡĤڤʤäƤ bill ŪΤ beak ˵ͤ졤ƤοȤ줿褬նʬۤƤΤȲ᤹롥3 neb ⤢٤ʬۤƤꡤ㴳ʣ褹롥
beak ϸťե bec μѸ13ȾФäƤŪǤ롥bill ϸűѸ bile ̤ǡεϸŤneb Ʊͤ˸űѸ neb(b) ̤Ǥ롥ߤϥΤۤåȥɤˤȤƻѤƤ뤬̴ФäʬۤϡѸŪˤϸťΥɸƱ nef ¸ߤˤä䶯줿ΤǤϤʤȹͤʤ롥
Ѹˤθʤ餳Ͽޤɤ߲ȡ̻ŪˤϼΤ褦ʲäΤǤϤʤ롥ޤűѸˤ bill ˹ʬۤƤ¤ neb ⤽ʤʬۤƤǽ뤬Ȥ櫓ťΥɸȤܿ衤ϤƤä³Ѹ˥ե줫ο beak 餯Ƴ졤Ⱦ˥ڤŤƤäȾϰǤ beak θ֤Ĥ夷Ƥäˤ bill neb ֤ȤӤ뾮褬ȻĤ뤳ȤȤʤäʾ1ĤˤΥʥꥪˤʤʤȤϿޤμʬ̷ۤ⤷ʤʥꥪǤ롥Ͽޤɤ߲1ĤλȤơ#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
ȾŤƤȤȾ wave_theory ˤĤơζ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1])#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1])#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) ʤɤǤߤƤȾκǤʲˤСϤʸ̤ƱߤʤȤäƤȤ롥Ū֤ѸǸȡ濴ϤȤʤĮ¼顤̤ء٤礦Į¼˽缡ŤƤȤȤˤʤ롥
νȾˤƤϤޤʤŤλ¿ڤ롥Τߤʤ餺ʸŪήԤˤ¤ˤ衤ɬ٤礦Į¼ŤȤϸ¤餺Υ줿ӲФȤȤꤦ롥Ȥ櫓֤ȯãҲǤϡդ¼̤ꤷơԻԴ֤dzͭ륿ߥΤۤᤤȤ¿㤨Сȯγϡ쳰Ⱦ˹ޤ⡤쳤ƻ˱äӤ˲̾͡Ųԡۤᤤ⤷ʤξ硤ȾȤꤷʤ롥ξ¾ŪʴطǤϤʤФγʾǤϲ̾͡ŲԡˤϡϤλɷˤꤽ濴ˤϤ꿷椬äơȾΤۤŪʥǥǤ餷Ȥ狼롥
Chambers and Trudgill ˤƤǴϢʲʸϤȤΤǰѤƤ
As for dialect-to-dialect change, the wave model was first proposed to describe the geographical diffusion of linguistic innovation. Then some geographically aware linguists developed an extended theory on linguistic diffusion over space. Chambers and Trudgill, for example, advanced the gravity model against the wave model to account for the path along which innovation diffuses in space (166). In this model, a linguistic innovation is likened to a stone skipping across a pond because it spreads not necessarily from a speaker or place to the immediate next but jumps from a speaker or place to another which may be geographically apart but socially connected. For example, linguistic innovation can spread from a big city to another, skipping through small towns in between. (Hotta 173)
Ť˴ؤζȤƤϡˤֶפɽ魯 bridge ɸˤ brig ʬۤʰʲϿޤ Upton and Widdowson 154 ˡԤϸűѸŪʷ (brycg) ѾǤꡤԤϸťΥɸƱη (bryggja) ƶȤǤ롥ŪʬۤȤƤϡȾ bridge Ǥ brig ԤƤ뤬ߤ2սꡤ줾Υ줿ꥢˡbridge ѤƤ뾮褬롥1ĤϺ̤ Newcastle, Sunderland, Durham ޤ२ꥢ⤦1ĤϤ Humber ϸ Grimsby ޤ२ꥢǤ롥Ϥ٤ brig Ǥϰˡ2Ĥξ褬ݥĥݥĤȾΤ褦⤫ǤݤϡϤȤɸ bridge ȾǤ露˵ͤäƤȤϡ쳤ߤԻԤԻԤؤʬۤȤƤȤŤλ롥ơ쳤ߤγԻԤ٤ؤȡ٤Ϥ褽ȾʬۤȤƤäȤ

Trudgill (129, 132) ϥɤԻԲĬήȴϢŤơʬۤɤ߲Ƥ롥
The geographical patterning of the occurrence of the two words suggests that the southern and Standard English word is beginning to spread north, and in a rather interesting way. In its spread northwards, bridge has first invaded the coastal city areas of Sunderland and Grimsby, and then spread outwards again from these centres. This is just one example of the importance of urban centres in the spreading of new forms in language . . ., and of the way in which the increasing urbanization of England has contributed in this century to the loss of Traditional Dialects.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." PhD thesis, University of Glasgow. Glasgow, November 2005.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006. *
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
͡ϿޤįʤܸȥɱѸˤĤƳפؤܤȻפʲ4äɤŪɤߤ䤹ڤϿޤΤ⤷̣廊Τ褤
𡡡ܤ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1958ǯ
ԡˡܤϿޡ33ǡҡӡ2013ǯ. *
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006. *
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ؤȸˤ̩ܤʴطˤ롥ϤˤǺƤ졤ˤμϿޤβƤ롥ξԤϢȤռС̻֤ȶ֤θȤʤ뤷ƻŪ (panchronic) ʿ̤Ȥʤ롥ѸˤεҤ䶵ˤ⡤θळȤˤꡤʲǽΤǤϤʤȴƤ롥
ơܤˤϿˤϡΤʤǤǤŤत°롥 (ii) ˤȡʸʤιĴѰɸλͤȤ뤿˲ȸˡ˴ؤĴԤ̤ȤƴԤ줿29̤Ρزʬۿޡ (1905) 37̤Ρظˡʬۿޡ (1906) ܤؤνȯǤ롥Gilliéron ˤŪʥեϿ (Atlas linguistique de la France) νǤ1902--10ǯǤ뤳ȤͤȡܤᤤȯŸƤΤ褦˻פ롥ιĴѰŪɸȤäŪʿ̤ȤƤؤΤθȯŸ礭뤳ȤϤʤä
ܤؤˤȤäƼνפʷȤʤäϡĹˤΡ͡ (1930) (cf. #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])) Ǥ롥ĤФĬήˤܺäȯŸԤʤФʤʤä塤Ω츦ʸʡʸģˤˤ絬ϤĴη̤Ȥơ300̤˵ڤܸ֡Ͽޡ (1966--74) Ԥ줿Ūؤܸˤθ˻뤳ȤǤꡤȰۤʤꡤ餫˲ʳŪƤܸؤܳŪߤϤ˻ϤޤȤäƤ褤˼䤹ܤϿޡ١ԡˡˤϡܸϿޡ٤300̤50̤ӽФǫ˲⤷ؤǤ롥
ѸϿϡܤ¾Υ衼åѽ٤ơ٤ƤɱѸκǽܳŪϿޤϡHarold Orton Eugen Dieth ޤLeeds ؤȤƹԤ줿絬ϤĴ˴Ť Survey of English Dialects A in 1962; B in 1962--71) Ǥ롥ϡĴ1948--61ǯΤ313ˤ (Traditional Dialects) Ĵ̤ǤꡤɤؤδäʤΤǤ롥
ܤˤƤ⥤ɤˤƤ⡤絬Ĵ˴Ťƺ줿ϿޤߤγƸؤδäȤʤäƤ롥줾줹ǤȾʾĴ̤ǤꡤŤᤫʤäƤ뤳ȤǤʤϿޤ11礬줾θüԤˤʪäƤꡤǤȤȤ˵Ṯ̌¯ȤʤäƤ롥
ε#2026. intrusive r (2) ([2014-11-13-1]) Ǹ奤ɤʬۤ礵Ƥ븽ݤ1Ĥܤ⤦1Ĥε®ʬۤȤƤ벻ѲǤ [l] 첻Ҳ𤷤褦벻Ķˤ [l] 첻βӤӤ뷹ǸȤʤäƤƤꡤ礷Ƥ (Trudgill 63--66; Ͽޤ Trudgill 64 Ȥ˺)

ɽȤƵΤmilk ȯǤ롥 [mɪlk] ȯ[mɪʊlk] Ф [mɪʊk] ؤѲƤƤ롥[l] (ä dark l; cf. #1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1])) Τĸľ첻˱ƶͿơ[ɪ] [ɪʊ] Ѥ [l] ϾäƹԤȤǤ롥첻θ [l] ³ĶǹäƤꡤhill, roll, ball ʤɤǤƱݤǧ롥ŪˤƱ (assimilation) 1ǤꡤۤȤǤʤɥä˸˵äƤꡤ쥤ɤ濴˱ƶϤϤƤȤ̣Ǥϡfill feel Ȥ [fɪʊ ? fɪʊl] ˹줷Ƥꡤdoll dole [dʌʊ] ؼ̤pull Paul [pʌʊ] ͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ æɥդǵꡤϤ礷ƤȤͤȡ non-prevocalic /l/ æɥ濴˻ϤޤäƤȤȤϼŪǤ롥塤ɤΤ깭ϰس礷ɸˤɸܤ褦ˤʤǽ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ڤӡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ǹ奤ɤαѸʬǼΤϤ (Traditional Dialects) Ǥ롥20ȾФˤϤǤ˸षƤꡤ21θߤǤϤθब³ǤäƤȤäƤǤϤʤǡפ븽 (Modern Dialects) ääƼ㤤˱ƶϤڤܤƤꡤȤƤϼήΥפȤʤäƤ롥Υɤ Modern Dialects ϡܸؼԤΰͺִܸĤĤΤȤֿפˡĤӤ졤̣
Trudgill (5--6) ϡTraditional Dialects ֤ΤȤƤ Modern Dialects 뤤 Mainstream Dialects Ȥܤζ̤Τ褦ɽƤˤĤƤϡ[2012-02-20-1]εΰѤȡˡ
Mainstream Dialects, on the other hand, include both the Standard English Dialect and the Modern Nonstandard Dialects. Most native English speakers speak some variety of Mainstream Dialect. These dialects are associated with native speakers outside the British Isles, especially in recently settled areas which speak mixed colonial dialects, such as Australia and most of America and Canada. In Britain, they are particularly associated with those areas of the country from which Standard English originally came --- the southeast of England; with most urban areas; with places which have become English-speaking only relatively recently, such as the Scottish Highlands, much of Wales, and western Cornwall; with the speech of most younger people; and with middle- and upper-class speakers everywhere. The mainstream Modern Nonstandard Dialects differ much less from Standard English and from each other, and are often distinguished much more by the pronunciation --- their accent --- than by their grammar.
ʲ˼ΤϡTrudgill (66--67) ˤ Modern Dialects ζʬǤ롥ΡɤγĤǤ Flash ǤߤΤɤ
*
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.
#813. Ѹο̾ˡ ([2011-07-19-1])#1673. ̾¿ȿ̾ء ([2013-11-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ̾ˤ褯 -son (ex. Johnson, Tomson, Williamson, Wilson) ϸťΥɸ (patronymy) ͳ褹ȤΤѸˤǤ롥κϡ8Ⱦ˽졤줿 the Danelaw ˡȤ櫓 -son Ŀ̾ǻʬۤƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ʲˡCrystal (26) ʬϿޤǺܤ롥

Ͽοϡ줾νޤФȹͤۤʤοɽ魯ɤ˽椷Ƥ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥä Yorkshire Lincolnshire Ǥ6Ķ̾ťΥɸαƶΤǤ뤳ȤѸνο̾Ͽ狼äƤˡʬۤʤȤϡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) ˷ǺܤťΥɸͳ̾ʬۤɽ魯ϿޤɤŨ롥Baugh and Cable (99) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It may be remarked that a similarly high percentage of Scandinavian personal names has been found in the medieval records of these districts. Names ending in -son, like Stevenson or Johnson, conform to a characteristic Scandinavian custom, the equivalent of Old English patronymic being -ing, as in Browning.
©Ҥ̣̾ son ϸűѸ sunu Ȥ¸ߤƤꡤޥˤ¾Υɥ衼åѽˤƱ줬롥ΤϢȤѤ뽬ϸűѸˤϤʤä̲ǤϸťΥɸƱ sunr ϢȤѤ̾Ǥ Amundsen, Andersen, Jacobsen, Jespersen, Nielsen ʤɤ̾¿ߤ줿Ѹ̾ -son ղäϡűѸθťΥɸȤܿˤäƳ줿ŤǤѤäȤߤʤȤǤ롥
Ѹ줫 -son դο̾˽ФȡAcheson, Anderson, Cookson, Davidson, Dickinson, Dodgson, Edison, Ellison, Emerson, Harrison, Henderson, Hudson, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Jonson, Larson, Madison, Magnusson, Robinson ʤ¿롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
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