Map of the World Ȥ͡ϿޤɥȤĤõƤߤȡѸ䤽¾θ˴ؤϿޤ奢ˤ˭٤ǡܥ֥ȤƾҲ𤹤ͤȻפäΤǡʲ˥ĥäƤϿޤΰŪӤˤ˻Ȥ롥
English Language --- Facts & Infographic: ѸħѸˤ绨Ĥ˲⡥Τʤ English Speaking Countries Ͽޤͭѡ
Should English Be The Official Language Of The World --- Facts & Infographic: ȤƤθѸϰ̤ҴŪ˵ҡǡŵϤ狼ʤ The Web of Words Ǥϡ־ΥƥĤαѸΨ56%ʰŪ̡ˡ־Υߥ˥αѸΨ26.8%ˤĤ2̡ˤȤʤäƤ롥Ѹ줬ѸȤʤäƤ56ιƤ롥ե٥åȽ˵ȡAntigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Cameroon, Canada, Dominica, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia, ZimbabweϢơ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) #376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ⻲ȡ
Top Ten English Speaking Countries: ϿޤDZѸüԡüԤȤϸ¤ʤ˿ȥå10ιƤ롥ǡ뤬ե٥åȽ˵ȡAustralia, Canada, France, Germany, India, Italy, Nigeria, Philippines, United Kingdom, United States
Top Ten Daily Newspapers in English: ϿޤǼ뤬ƤȥɤΤߡ1ʿȯˡThe Sun (UK), USA Today (USA), The Daily Mail (UK), The Mirror (UK), Times of India (India), Wall Street Journal (USA), New York Times (USA), The Daily Telegraph (UK), Daily Express (UK), Los Angeles Times (USA)
Language Map of the World: 25Ȥ¾ȤǿʬϿޤ롥
UK Map --- United Kingdom: ꥹϿޤäȼȤ˻Ȥ롥Physical Map *
USA Map: ꥫϿޤäȼȤ˻Ȥ롥Physical Map *
Europe Map: 衼åϿޤäȼȤ˻Ȥ롥Physical Map *
Map of the World: ϿޤäȼȤ˻Ȥ롥 * * *
ۤ˥饤θϿޤȤƤϡ#715. Britannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡ ([2011-04-12-1]) ĥä䡤Ethnologue Browse by Map Title ȡ
²θɲ⥷ (see indo-european_sub-family) 6ƤǡBaugh and Cable (30--32) ˤꡤХȡָ (Balto-Slavic or Balto-Slavonic) ˤĤƲ⤹롥
θɤϡ衼åʤɤǤ롥̾μȤХȸ췲 (the Baltic subfamily) ȥָ췲 (the Slavic subfamily) ̤뤬ߤ¿ζ̤ħͭƤꡤ¾θɤ٤ζϹ⤤
Хȸ췲ˤϡOld Prussian, Latvian, Lithuanian 3줬°롥Old Prussian 17˥ɥĸˤäִ졤ߤǤϻȤʤäƤ롥Latvia ϥȥӥ¹200ͤθ졤Lithuanian ϥȥ˥¹300ͤθȤƷߤǤ롥ĥƸ뤳ȤȤ櫓 Lithuanian ϸŤˡ褯ݤäƤꡤȥ˥פñ Sanskrit θ뤳ȤǤȤ
ˡָ췲˰ܤָ췲ν7--8ޤǤϤ褽ͤäꤵƤ롥ָ췲˴ؤǤŤʸϡ9˷붵 Cyril (827--69) Methodius (825?--84) ˤä줿ΰȵʸ˻ĤƤ롥θָ췲°Old Church Slavonic Old Bulgarian ȤƸڤ뤬ָ췲ζ̤ĸˤʤᤤȤ롥˻ޤθȤƸҤݤäƤ
ָ췲礭 East Slavic, West Slavic, South Slavic 3ʬ롥East Slavic °פʸϡRussian, Belorussian, Ukrainian Ǥ롥Russian 17500ͤäƤǡθѸ졤ʸظǤ롥Belorussian ϥ٥롼ܤݡɤϰ900ͤääǤ롥Ukrainian ϥ饤ʤ5000ͤˤääƤǤŪ˰ҿΤȶ礷Ƥꡤ̱²Ūʱưˤ줫ζ̲ܻؤƤ롥
West Slavic ˤϡ4Ĥμפʸ줬°롥Polish ϸ췲ǺüԤͭƤ롥üԤϥݡɹ3600ͤˤȤɤޤ餺ƹ¾ذ̱500ͰʾޤࡥˡCzech Slovak Ϥ줾100͡500ͤۤɤüԤͭߤǽǤ롥ǸˡSorbian ϥɥĤ Dresden Ȥ¤줿10ͤۤɤˤääƤ뾮Ǥ롥
East Slavic West Slavic ŪϢ³ʬۤƤ뤬South Slavic ϰϥåɤ Romanian ² Hungarian ˤä¾ΥָɤʬǤƤ롥ޤSouth Slavic ϵ桼ӥνȤơʬʹߡߤʣʼҲŪ褷Ƥ롥South Slavic °פʸ Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian ʸޥɥ˥ȷŪ˶̤븽ޥɥ˥ˤǤ롥Bulgarian ŪˤϥХ륫ȾäƤǡϤ¾̱²줿ˤ⤫äԤθĤäǤ롥ȤƤθ֥륬ꥢϥȥ륳줫¿μѸޤǤ뤬ʸظȤƤѼϥ˶ᤤSerbian Croatian ϸߤʸηϤϰۤʤäƤΤθŪˤƱǤꡤŪʬˤ Serbo-Croatian Ȱ礷ƸƾΤƤˡ̱²ŪΩˤꡤϤŪˤϤۤƱ Bosnian ̤褦ˤʤäƤSlovenia ϡ٥˥150ͤˤääƤ롥
ָ췲ʬۿޤϡDistribution of the Slavic languages in Europe ȡ *
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
²θɲ⥷ (see indo-european_sub-family) 5ƤȤơBaugh and Cable (28--30) Fennell (28--29) ˤꡤʥå (Italic Albanian) 夲롥
θɤ˾äȤפʸϡޤǤʤƥ (Latin) ƥ줬˾ƬƤΥꥢˤʬۤäƤ600ǯޤǤϡ² EtruscanԾܤ Ligurian ʤ줬ԤʤƤǤ VeneticǤ Messapian äƤꡤϡ#1457. Х˥ɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-23-1]) ǿ줿 Illyrian ο̤Ȥ⤤롥ȥꥢϥꥷ㿢̱Ϥǥꥷ줬äƤΤ褦ʰ졦ΤΤĤܤΤʤǡLatium ˤƥƥ줬ϤФƤ
ƥϸ̩ˤ Latin-Feliscan 췲ʬɤǤ롥θ췲ȻطˤΤOscan-Umbrian 췲ǡԤ Samnium ȾǡԤ Latium θ¤줿ϰǹԤʤƤƥοĥˤꡤο̽ϱƤᡤ䤬֤ƤäγȤȤ˥ƥϥꥢȾˤȤɤޤ餺Corsica Sardinia 231ǯˡSpain 197ǯˡProvence 121ǯˡDacia 107ǯ˿̱ϤȤƥơ֥ƥإƥ줬ƱͤˤäΤ1ΤȤä
衼åѳϤسȻƥϡۤʤΰۤʤѼȤƻޤ줿Ȥ˲äϤδظαƶ⤢äơȼθŪȯã뤲뤳ȤȤʤäΥƥ줫췲 Romance ȸƤǤ롥ꥢ˺դȯŸե (French) ϡˤ Norman, Picard, Burgundian, Ile-de-France (Paris) ʬƤڡī (987--1328) γΩˤꡤIle-de-France (Paris) Ѹ졤ʸظȤͥȤʤꡤ13ʹߤϤɸեƱˤʤäեǤ langue d'oïl ΥեȤϰ褹 langue d'oc Provançal äƤ롥Provançal ϡ11ʸڤ뤬Ȥ櫓12--13˥ȥХɥθȤƱɤʹߡProvançal ̤Υե˲졤ߤǤϰ̤˴ŤƤ롥
٥ꥢȾǤϡڥ (Spanish) ȥݥȥ (Portuguese) Ūᤤطݤʤ鸽ߤޤǹԤʤƤ롥2ϸꥫؿʽФˤ礭̤Ƥ롥ä˥ڥϡ11ʸڤƤ뤬ߡѸΤ2̤üԿͭĶǤ[2010-05-29-1]ε#397. üԿˤȥå25פȡˡꥢȾǹԤʤƤꥢ (Italian) ϡäդȤƤΥƥ줬ľܤ˼ѤƤȤäơ¾ΥޥĹˤݤäƤ롥ꥢ10ʸڤ졤ɸѼȤʤä Florentine Italian ˤ Dante (1265--1321), Petrarch (1304--74), Boccaccio (1313--75) ʸؤ路ͥˤϥ衼å˰ҿؤä롼ޥ˥ (Romanian) ϥޥΤʤǤϺǤ˰֤뤬ϤȤĹ֡ޤȴطݤäǸŤʸ16ȿ
2ǽҤ٤ޥϼ6Τۤˤ⡤٤졦¸ߤ롥٥ꥢ Corsica ˤʬۤ Catalan ¿ʸؤġ¾ϡ٥ꥢ Galician Tyrol ˹Ԥʤ Rhaeto-Romanic 췲 Romansch٥륮ä Walloon ʤɤƤ
ʤ˵ޥϡCicero (106--43 B. C.) Virgil (70--19 B. C.) ɽ路 Classical Latin ǤϤʤ̱θѼ Vulgar Latin ΤǤ롥
åɤʬۿޤϡDistribution of Romance languages in Europe ȡ *
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
²θɲ⥷ (see indo-european_sub-family) 4ơϡBaugh and Cable (27--28) Fennell (26) ˤꡤХ˥ (Albanian) β롥
Х˥ (Albania) ϥХ륫ȾߡꥷܤǤ롥Х˥ϤθɤͣιǤꡤȤƥХ˥̱300ͤΤۤȤɤäƤ뤬¾ˤ⥳ܡޥɥ˥ꥷ㡤ꥢꥢȥ륳ƹˤüԤ750ͤۤɤȿפ롥Х˥ϡ Tirana ն Gheg ToskʸѸˤ̤뤬ǯϽ̤ޤäƤƤȤEthnologue ꡤAlbanian ȡ
θʸɡˤˤˤĤƤϡĤƥꥷɤ˸äʬवƤۤɤǤꡤΤƤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤΤϡǸŤΥƥȤ15̤ˤʤĤλǤǤ˥ƥ졤ꥷ졤ȥ륳졤θǤ¿ʬäƤ뤫Ȥ櫓ƥʤޥˤμѤϸäβȾᡤѸӤۤɡκٹ礤ϿӤ#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1]) ˤ̤ꡤХ˥ȱѸϡּѤѶŪʸ "Mischsprachen" ʺˡפȤƤζ̹ब롥
ˤϰäƤꥢ ( Illyrian) θȤ⤢뤬ˤ˳
ʾ̤ꥢХ˥ɡˤˤĤƤ¿εҤĤʤΤܥ֥Ǥϸܿδ饢Х˥˲٤ڤƤΤǡؤλȤ#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1])#1314. ([2012-12-01-1])

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
#1447. ɸɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-13-1]) ȡ#1452. ɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-18-1]) ³²θɤҲ𤹤륷3ơ Baugh and Cable (26--27) ȤơꥷɡHellenicˤҲ𤹤롥
ꥷɤϡƤΰޤǤϸɥ٥ Hellenic ʲ Greek ȤΤߤǡ٤ʬƤʤȤ顤ŪΩɤǤȤ롥˻νꡤϿͼȸΤĤܤäΥ硤ץ硤쥿硤ꥷڡϡ²ʸ²ʸߤƸĤäƤꡤʣ¿̱²¿ҲäƤ褦
2000ǯդ꤫顤ΤĤܤءꥷɤθô꤬̤鿯οϲ٤Ȥˤäƽ˿ʤߡʳǰۤʤ⤿餵줿ˡꥷڡ硹αߤʤɤǽ٤ʬ̤ۤȤʤäǸŤʸؾηϡܻ Homer ˤ뵪8ȿꤵ Illiad Odyssey Ǥ롥ꥷˤ5Ĥμ̤롥(1) Ionic ϡפʲǤ Attic ޤۤ䥨硹ʬۤ(2) Aeolic ϡʬۡ(3) Arcadian-Cyprian ϡڥݥͥȥץʬۤ(4) Doric ϡ˥ڥݥͥ Arcadian ֤(5) Northwest ϡʬۤ
ΤȤ櫓פʤΤ Attic Ǥ롥Attic ϥƥͤȤƱɤۡĦʳءůءʸؤθȤ Pericles (495--29 B.C.) Ѥ줿ۤÆschulus, Euripides, Sophocles Ȥäȡ Aristophanes˲ Herodotus, Thucydides, ͺ۲ Demosthenesůؼ Plato, Aristotle ˤäƤѤ줿ΰҿ Attic ϡ4ʹߡꥷξ˷פ koiné ȤδˤᡤAlexander 粦 (336--23 B.C.) ˤƱϾꥢݥߥץȤˤƤݶ̸Ȥƺդkoiné ˤĤƤϡ[2013-02-16-1]ε#1391. lingua franca (4)פȡˡθȤơޤΥӥʸؤθȤƤפǤ롥
Υꥷϡ嵭 koiné ΤǤ롥ߡꥷϡȯ㯠(demotic or Romaic) ȸ奮ꥷϤäʸ (Katharevusa) ΤɤѤȤ뤫ҲŪƤ롥
奮ꥷϡѸˤľܡܤ¿μѸƤǤꡤߤǤ neo-classical compounds ʤȤ櫓ʳؤʬˤƬ뤷³ƤפʸǤ롥greek γƵȡ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
#1447. ɸɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-13-1]) ˰³ϥɸ (Indian) ȿƶδطˤ륤 (Iranian) 夲롥Baugh and Cable (24--25) ꡥ
ɤϡ饤⸶ˤʬۤפʸɤǤ롥ɸɤʬƤϡޤʬۤϰ饻ϽαƶƤꡤʸ¿ϥϤʸǽƤ롥¸ǤŤɤΥƥȤɽ蘆Ƥϡ Avestan Old Persian Ǥ롥Υ٥ϡŵ the Avesta ʥ٥ŵˤθǤ롥θϸŤ Zend ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢äΤˤ Zend ϸ蘆줿٥ŵθؤᡤߤǤϤޤѤʤ٥ŵϡthe Gathas ʥˤȸƤФΤʬȡΡ⡤ˡޤ the Avesta Τʬ졤ԤθΤۤɴǯŤ1000ǯۤɤ̤Ȥ롥λŪʺˤꡤ٥ŵξʬθŪʺ礭ΰӸؾνϡɴפɽ魯 satem Ȥ˴ط롥˴ؤƤϡ##100,101,109,1150 γƵȤ櫓#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1]) ȡ
Old Persian Ϥ٤ܸʸʸȤƻĤäƤꡤ¿ Darius (522--486 B.C.) Xerxes (486--66 B.C.) ΤǤ롥ǤĹʥƥȤϡPersian, Assyrian, Elamite 3ܸʸˤĦ줿ϿǡKirmanshah λʢǸĤäƤ롥
Old Persian θѤ Middle Iranian 뤤 Pahlavi ȸƤФǡī (226--652) θѸȤƵǽ줬 Persian 뤤 Farsi ȸƤФȯŸ9ʹʸʸؤθȤƱƶϤؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ڥ륷η Shahnamah ⤳θǽƤ롥ڥ륷ϥӥαƶƤꡤäʤɤȾХӥǤ롥
ߤǤϡڥ륷ʿԤơ褽̤ä¿θ줬ϰǹԤʤƤ롥ϥե˥ѥ Pashto (Afghan), Baluchi ϥ른 Kurdish ʤɤΤ롥¾ˤ¿θ졤ѥߡ⸶ԳߡեëʬۤƤ롥ʲϿޤȾϰʤäƤȹͤ롥

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) ۤme_dialect γƵǰäƤűѸˤĤƤܥ֥ǤϤޤ꿨ƤʤäűѸϿޤˤĤƤϡ#715. Britannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡ ([2011-04-12-1]) ǥĥä Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia The distribution of Old English dialects ؤʤΤǡȤؤΤ˥Ǥʲ˺ƷǤ롥

űѸϡŪˡNorthumbrian, Mercian ʤ2Ĥ碌 Anglian ȤƤ֡, West-Saxon, Kentish 4Ĥ˶ʬ롥4˶ʬȤäƤ⡤űѸºݤ4Ĥʤäȸ櫓ǤϤʤɤȤȤСʸؼԤˤޤǤܤʤɤɽ蘆ƤʬϤȤŪħˤ4٤˶ʬΤŬڤȤȤˤʤäƤ롤ȤȤǤ롥ߤűѸƥȤ3000ƥȤۤɤǡ300ۤɤǤ롥٤εϤǤϡ˹ǤʤСܺ٤ħФȤϤǤʤޤϰŪʺΤߤʤ餺űѸСλŪʺͿƤϤǤꡤºݤˤäǤűѸ¿¿ͤѼ¸ڵˤ꽽ʬȤȤȤʤΤǤ롥
11θűѸˤʤȡWest-Saxon ˤդɸŪȤʤꡤפʸΤۤȤɤѼǽ뤳Ȥˤʤä10ˤϡ¾ˤ줿ƥȤ⾯ʤʤºݡˤäƥƥȤɽ蘆ˤФ꤬롥ϡôϰ褬ŪʸŪͥäȤŪ¤ƤꡤΥƥȤŪ̻ŪʬۤΤޤҲỤ̄ӤӤƤ뤳Ȥɽ路Ƥ롥
Ǥϡ10θűѸƥȤɽ蘆ƤʬۤCrystal (35--36) ͿƤ̤ˡˤɽηǰʲ˼Ƥߤ褦줾ƥȤμ䵬ϤˤĤƤƤʤΤǡޤʬۤλͤޤǤˡ
| probable date | Northumbrian | Mercian | West Saxon | Kentish |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 675 | Franks Casket inscription | |||
| 700 | Ruthwell Cross inscription | Epinal glosses Charters | ||
| 725 | Person and place-names in Bede, Cædmon's Hymn, Bede's Death Song | Person and place-names in Bede, Charters | ||
| 750 | Leiden Riddle | Charters | Charters | |
| 775 | Blickling glosses, Erfurt glosses, Charters | Charters | ||
| 800 | Corpus glosses | |||
| 825 | Vespasian Psalter glosses, Lorica Prayer, Lorica glosses | Charters | ||
| 850 | Charters | Charters, Medicinal recipes | ||
| 875 | Charters, Royal genealogies, Martyrologies | |||
| 900 | Cura pastoralis, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle | |||
| 925 | Orosius, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle | |||
| 950 | Royal glosses | Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Medicinal recipes | Charters, Kentish Hymn, Kentish Psalm, Kentish proverb glosses | |
| 975 | Rushworth Gospel glosses, Lindisfarne Gospel glosses, Durham Ritual glosses | Rushworth Gospel glosses |
줢뤤ֻ up ϡޥĸ *upp- ʥ op, ɥĸ auf, ťΥɸ uppˡ ˤϰĸ *upo ̤롥ϡֲءפǤꡤѸΡ־ˡפؤĤʤΤ̣ȤˡϢƥ sub 䥮ꥷ hupó ϵǤֲפơֲˡפθ뤳Ȥˤʤäsub- ʲ, super- ʾ, hyp(o)- ʲ, hyper- ʾ ʤɡ岼줿ȯãǤʴϢơ[2010-04-14-1]ε#352. ƥ /s/ ȥꥷ /h/ бڤ[2010-04-12-1]ε#350. hypermarket supermarketפȡˡʤѸ over Ʊ̤롥
Ѹˤ up б down ϡ츻ޤä̤ΤȤˤ롥űѸ of dūne (from the hill) Ǥꡤadūne Ƚ̤ޤäˡθƬ첻üơűѸˤ dūne ȤƸƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ졦ֻ down ϡƱ۵ȤƼˤ̸ФȤƵƤ̾ down ä˥ӤŬ뾮⤤ϡˤȡ츻ŪˤϴϢƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ˤ North Downs South Downs ȸƤФӤäƤ뤬 down Ǥ롥֤ȤϹ⤯ƾˤΤ顤줬 down ȤΤ̯ʤΤ

űѸ dūne ʵ֡ˤͳϤ餯ΦΥȸ *dūnom ʺ֡ˤˤꡤ˱ѸȤʤޤ衼åѽؤȼѤ줿ȹͤ롥ؼ줿֤եͳ dune Ȥơ18˺ƤӱѸäƤΤȤΰ̣ϡֺ֡פä
ʤĸˤޤ̤СѸ town down Ʊʸֺ֡פȡˤǤꡤ츻Ūˤ downtown Ȥ̯Ȥ߹碌Τ褦˻פƤ롥
夫褯狼ʤʤäǤ
[2012-11-24-1]ε#1307. most mestפǼ夲ѸκǾ most ΰ۷֤ˤĤơѸˤ첻̤ʬۤ LAEME ѤĴϿ˰֤ŤƥȤФ most ΰ۷֤249㤢ꡤ촴첻˽äʬ̤Τ HelMapperUK ήɤ߹ޤǡեޡ礭٤㤹롥

<mast> ʤ <a> ΤϼȤʬۤ<mest>, <meast>,
do /duː/ α߿Ĺ첻Фơdoes /dʌz/, done /dʌn/ ߿û첻ΤϤʤ
do ȤζѸǤϤĹ첻 /oː/ äƤȹͤ뤬줬첻ܤˤ /uː/ ؤѲdo ǤϤĹ첻ݤ줿ΤĤ does, doest, doth, done Ǥû/uː/ ȤȤ /u/ Ԥʤûȯ/u/ > [ʌ] Ѳ岽ˤ˹ήߤ /dʌz, dʌst, dʌθ, dʌn/ Ϥ줿 do СŪʲѲήϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1]) Ǽ夲 blood, flood ƱȤȤˤʤ롥ۤˤϡOE mōste > PDE must, OE ōþer > PDE other, OE mōdor > PDE mother, OE brōþor > PDE brother, OE mōnandæg > PDE Monday ʤɤ첻ѲƱͤǤ롥nothing, none 첻ꡥ
岽17Ȥ롥Jespersen ˤ뵭ҤѤ褦
The change /u/ > [ʌ], by which /u/ was perhaps first unrounded into the high-back-wide vowel and then lowered, must have taken place in the 17th c. (11.61)
The change /u/ > [ʌ] affects . . . all short /u/s existing in the 17th c. . . . (11.64)
岽βˤĤƤϡJespersen μĥʿưľưǤϤʤľưʿưäΤǤϤʤȤ⤢p. 300ˡ
岽 The Wash ¦ʥˤǤǤϸߤǤŪȯȤ /ʊ/ ʹ, p. 299) ʲ Chambers and Trudgill (128) θѸϿޤǤ褦some ˤ߿첻 [ʊ] ¤ǼƤ롥ʤ chaff ˤû첻 [a] ¤

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. Cambridge: CUP, 1980.
[2011-01-24-1]ε#637. 륬ʸĸפǡĸθϤˤĤơŪͭϤ Gimbutas ˤҲ𤷤饤ʡեΥƥåӤ˱ɤƤ륬ʸ (the Kurgan culture) ô꤬3500--2500ǯۤɤλؤγȻϤԤ衹轻̱ѤƤäȤڽǤ롥
Фơųؼ Renfrew ϰӤȿФؤĥäƤRenfrew ˤС7ǯޤǤ̤ꤦĸ Anatolia 뤤üȯȤŤؤä̱ŪʿŪˤäȳϤ˺դƤäȤGimbutas Renfrew ϡϡȻˡΤ٤ƤǿøΩƤꡤĸȤƤϡߡǤܤ٤Ǥ롥ʲRenfrew μĥΤ褯ޤȤޤä1989ǯʸꡤRenfrew
(1) 1962ǯ V. Gordon Childe ˤäƽ줿Υƥåӵ⤬ǯ Gimbutas ˤ䶯졤¿ιųؼԤƤ뤬ϡʤд絬̱²ưȤŪƤʤ(108--09)
(2) Gimbutas ⤬ȤƤ褦ˤϡųŪʪ̱²Ū˷ӤĤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̱²ȸŪ˷ӤĤ뤳ȤǤʤˡʸѲܤɬפ롥(109)
(3) ϰѤ줬ؤˤ4ˡ롥(a) "initial colonization", (b) Schleicher Ū "divergence", (c) Schmidt Ū "convergence", (d) "replacement" Ǥ롥(109)
(4) replacement ˤ4֤롥(a) "elite dominance", (b) invaders that "take advantage of power vacuum", (c) pidgin creole , (d) the introduction of a new "subsistence economy" ("the coming of farming"). (110)
(5) 衼åѤ˵7ǯˤ⤿餵줿ȤϡAnatolia ⤿餵줿(110)
(6) 嵭 replacement (a) ϡԤͥ줿Ѥ¦¦μҲȤʤ뤬Ԥ Childe Gimbutas ǤϤޤDzˤԤγΩϥ衼åѤǤƼ夫ΤȤǤ롥(110)
(7) ̱Ȥλ¹ȤˤäˤäơȤŤʤưƤäȤ "the wave-of-advance" model Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza ˤäƤ(111) ȤˤΨĤ50ܤȻꤷ125ǯ̱ͤ18kmưȲꤷƻȡ1ǯ1km®٤ǰưŤȤȬ˳ȤȤηˤСAnatolia Ȥ衼åˤɤĤΤ1500ǯۤɤǤꡤųؾȯȹפ롥(110--11)
(8) ºݤˤϡ̱ܽԤ轻̱ȤŪ˶ΤǤϤʤ轻̱٤̱ܽԤؤӼäȤ¿äʥꥷХ륫Ⱦ硤沤ꥢʳǤϤΥäȻפˡξˤϡؤ®٤ߤʤäϤǤ롥ơΤ褦ʾˡΰ³ĹĤä줬 Basque, Estruscan, Iberian, Pictish ʤɤǤϤʤ(111)
(9) ǤϡȤƥåӤ Anatolia ŤΤǤϤʤεդǤ뤳ȤƤ뤬饤ʤ˽̤ξڵϤꡤųŪˤٻ롥(113)
(10) Υ衼åѤؤϵ6500ȡ衼åѤˤϤޤꤵƤϤ뤫ĹϢ³ݤäƤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤƼˤŴˤ⡤"sudden discontinuity" ϤʤäȤˤʤ롥(113)
(11) The Nostratic Theory ([2012-05-16-1]ε#1115. Nostratic ²פȡˤμƳ Illich-Svitych Dolgopolsky ĸθϤ Anatolia ȹͤƤAfro-Asiatic, Indo-European, Dravidian üԤΰŪʴطȤƤꡤThe Nostratic Theory ĸ Anatolia ȤĴ¤롥(114)
ʾ Renfrew Υåϡ2ʸ
Its [the new theory's] immigrants come from Anatolia rather than from the steppes and at a date (6500 B.C. or so) several thousand years earlier than has generally been suggested. My hypothesis also implies that the first Indo-European speakers were not invading warriors with a centrally organized society but peasant farmers whose societies were basically egalitarian and who in the course of an entire lifetime moved perhaps only a few kilometers. (113)
θϤγפˤĤƤϡ֤3ϡֹųؤο---륬ʸȶᤰäơ(99--135) ɤߤ䤹 *
*
*
*
Renfrew, Colin. "The Origins of the Indo-European Languages." Scientific American 261 (1989): 106--14.
廰ذθζõ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1993ǯ
ε[2012-05-16-1]ǡ#1115. Nostratic ²פβ (The Nostratic Theory) Ҳ𤷤ߡ˸ؤӸδؿ顤˾ԤʸޤιۤƤ롥
1ĤˤϡNostratic ²ȤΩ²ȤơNorth Caucasian, Sino-Tibetan, Yeniseian, Eyak-Athapascan 4²ޤ Sino-Caucasian 뤤 Dene-Caucasian ²ƤƤ[2011-02-08-1]ε#652. פΰֲοޤȡˡ˲äơꥫǥΤۤȤɤθޤȤ Amerind ²ʤθ²꼫ΤŪȤʤäƤˤβ⤬Ƥ롥Ruhlen ϡˤ Eurasian ĸߤ嵭²֤ηطΤ褦ꤷGelderen, pp. 31 οޤȤ˺ˡ

Eurasian ꤷȤƤ⡤եꥫ3²ȥꥢθ췲ʿΤθ췲ϡޤ줺ΩƤ롥 Eurasian ĸʬΤꤵ롥
Geldren (29--32) ϡѸ˳ȤƤΤ褦²βˤޤƧ߹ǵҤƤꡤͭѡν²ˤĤƤϡ[2010-05-30-1]ε#398. ²Ⱦʬפ䡤Ethnologue language family index ͤˤʤ롥Oxford 桼饷ΦδñʸϿ⻲ȡ *
Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
Ruhlen, Merritt. The Origin of Language. New York: Wiley, 1994.
19ӸؤŪ˿뤲²ˤȤɤޤ餺²ȸ²δ֤2ӤߤϡǤƱ긫줿ۤʤ²2ӤǤϤʤ²٥ǤӤܳŪˤʤ줿Τ20ȾˤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥1964ǯIllich-Svitych Dolgopolsky Ȥ2ͤӸؼԤΩƽפʸȯɽǤϡIndo-European, Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic), Kartvelian, Uralic, Altaic, Dravidian 6Ĥμ²Ӥ졤ƱϤ줿礹²̾Ȥơ1903ǯ Pedersen ƤƤ "Nostratic" Ȥ٥뤬Ϳ줿ߡNostratic ²ˤϡ5Ĥθ² (Eskimo-Aleut, Chukchi-Kamchatkan, Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, Sumerian) դäƤ롥
Nostratic ²ӸŪ˸ڤǤ礭1ĤϡӤǤǤ롥Dolgopolsky ϡäȤѤˤΤǤȤ15ӽФ ("I, me", "two, pair", "thou, thee", "who, what", "tongue", "name", "eye", "heart", "tooth", verbal NEG (negation and prohibition), "finger/toe nail", "louse", "tear" (n.), "water", "dead") 줫ƸбǤӤĸη֤Ʒ (reconstruction) Ƥä
Illich-Svitych ϡNostratic ĸη֤κƷߡΤ褦ö餷Ƥ롥

Nostratic ²β (The Nostratic Theory)ϡñ²Ķ뵬ϤӤȤơ٤κ˻٤ƤΤȤƤϡߡͣΤΤǤ롥Ӥ٤Ǥ䡤ƷγϷ㤷ŪȤʤäƤ롥βǮʸԤ⤤СӸؤθ³ˤꤲ븦Ԥ¿1920Ƨ߸ǤƤ褦ˤߤӸؤǤ¿ĤƤꡤεˤĤƷŪ⤬ʤ[2011-01-24-1]ε#637. 륬ʸĸפȡˤΤ顤Nostratic βʤʤȹͤΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥ॢȤƻ뤳ȤǸƤħ⤢뤫⤷ʤ줬Ū Nostratic θ1ĤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʾ Kaiser and Shevoroshkin ʸȤƼɮ *
Kaiser, M. and V. Shevoroshkin. "Nostratic." Annual Review of Anthropology 17 (1988): 309--29.
ѲϤ˹äƤ椯ͻҤˤĤơȾ (the wave theory; Wellentheorie) ̾ΤȤˡĤλƤʡ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])ˡѲζǤϤʤζۤƱͤ˹äƤ椯ǧƤ롥褯ΤƤΤϡեȯͤ uvular r ʸ r; IPA [ʀ]ˤγǤ롥
ȥåɥ (189--99) ˤС16ޤǤϥ衼åѤθǤ r ȯϡꥢ졤졤åȥαѸŵŪ˹ԤʤƤ褦Τդ뤨ƤäȤ17ˤʤäƥѥξήΥեˤ uvular r Ϥ衼åѤΰ⤽θ¤줿Ҳ餫ȯήԤϡ줫300ǯδ֤衼åѤιΰعäߤǤϡեȥɥĸǤ϶ܤۤȤɤο͡ˤäơޤΰǥޡΤۤ衤ǥȥΥ륦ΰǡuvular r ԤʤƤ롥ɥĸؤϹäƤʤȥåɥ (189) ϿޤǺܤ褦

ȾäɤȽȤʤ̳Хȳ̤Ϥ礦褦˿ʤߡä˽ФгϩǥǥʥȾüŤΤȤȤưפ˿¬Ǥ롥
ʤɸŪʱѸ r ϡIPA Ǥ [ɹ] ɽܶ (post-alveolar approximant) 뤤̵³ (post-alveolar frictionless continuant) Northumberland Durham ʤɤΥǤ uvular r ʹ롥
P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ
2֤ε ([2012-02-20-1], [2012-02-21-1]) ǡɤˤ븽Ѹʬγάɤ˺٤ʬƤ뤳ȤƻפΤ餵줿
ɤιڤŪˤ⤫餺ۤɤޤǤʬȤϡڤϹŪˤƱŪȤ륢ꥫѸȹоȤʤꥫǤϡ#591. ꥫѸ줬ͤǤͳ ([2010-12-09-1]) #457. ꥫѸʬ Kurath ǡˡ ([2010-07-28-1]) ˤ̤ꡤʬϤäƤξԤκۤϡѸ줬դȤˤʤäаޡˤĹ̤ȯãϤФռʤɡ͡װ˵롥
٤κϤ졤ʬϸˤȤäŪƱͤ˹ڤȤܤܤߤС褯Ǥ롥ʲϡƣ (167) ޤƸΤǤ롥
*
ܸ2ʬʬϡΰΤγΤʤ礭ʬܽʬ㸩λŲ̾Ф֡λܤΡظˡĴ٤ˤȡԢθҿʬȥάǻϥ춭˱ҥ¶ȥ륳ȥ륬ǡפȤʺƣp. 169--71ˡ
ƣ ˡŸ˾ܸ١ҡ1996ǯ
ѸʬˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-04-1]ε#130. ѸʬפϿޤȤȤ˼ꤢϡEngland ˤ븽Ѹʬ
μϡTraditional Dialect ȸƤФΤǡűѸѸ줫ʬαĹˤΤǤ롥Trudgill (5) Ѥ롥
Traditional Dialects are what most people think of when they hear the term dialect. They are spoken by a probably shrinking minority of the English-speaking population of the world, almost all of them in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. They are most easily found, as far as England is concerned, in the more remote and peripheral rural areas of the country, although some urban areas of northern and western England still have many Traditional Dialect speakers. These dialects differ very considerably from Standard English, and from each other, and may be difficult for others to understand when they first encounter them.
England Traditional Dialect Ĵϥ衼åѤ¾ι٤줿Orton, H. et al. Survey of English Dialects: The Basic Material. 4 vols. Leeds: E. J. Arnold, 1962--71. ˤ1950ǯʹߤʬۤ餫ˤƤʲ˼ΤϡʬŪ Survey ˰͵ Trudgill (35) ζʬǤ롥13ؤȶʬƤ롥
*
ޤTrudgill (40, 44, 47) ˽äƤ˲̶ʬΡɤγĤǤ Flash Τǡɤ
ɤκǤ礭ʬϡSouth North ʬ Lancashire ߤ the River Humber ϸǤꡤűѸѤäƤʤ1600ǯʾ³ʬǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.
ͭ̾ (onomastics) ΤʤǤ̾ (toponymy) ϡؤ˳ؤǻ̩ܤʬǤ롥[2011-07-24-1]ε#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾פǤߤ褦ˡ̾ιʬۤϡ̱²ŪʹưꤢȼƤ뤳Ȥ롥ε#1012. ˤѸ줫եؤαƶ ([2012-02-03-1]) ǻȤ Martinet ʸϡե˻ĤѸ켰˹줿̾ʬۤ顤ɸεͤǤ롥
Ѹ켰̾ŵ1Ĥˡñ -ing -ham/-tonפȤ֤ (ex. Buckingham, Nottingham, Birmingham; Padington, Islington, Arlington) -ing ϱѸŵŪ (patronym) ܼǤꡤ-ham home ˡ-ton town б롥⤷Ȥˡեˤ⡤ե첽ƤʬϤ뤬Tardinghen, Bouquinghen, Tatinghem, Conincthun, Verlingcthun, Audincthun ʤɡ餫˱Ѹ̾Υǥ˴Ť̾롥⡤ե Artois ʸߤ Pas-de-Calais ΰˤˡä Boulogne Saint Omer ˤƤϰ˽椷Ƥ롥Martinet (6--7) ϿޤˤСμαѸ̾77Ĥǧ롥
αѸ̾ʬۤΤϡĤƤˡαѸüԤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤ Anglo-Frisian Ϥޥ̱²꽻ƤȤȤǤ롥ϥ֥ƥϤݤȤƤϤ̤ǤϤʤϤ˽夤ơܤ Gallo-Roman ʸ˥եȯãˤ˸ŪʱƶͿۤɤ¸ߴƤǽ⤤
Martinet ϡʾξڵȡꥹξ¦˰֤פ֤εΥθơΤ褦ʲƤƤ롥
On est tenté de poser Boulogne, au nom celtique, comme le passage normal des deux vagues d'envahisseurs celtes qui ont passé la Manche avant notre ère. La distance de Boulogne au cap Dungeness est indiquée en pensant aux Saxons qui ont peuple le Wessex. / Notre hypothèse n'exclut pas un passage plus direct par la mer du Nord, mais le Jutland est à plus de 500 km des côtes anglaises. (10)
2Ȥˤ錄äƥꥹǤȿͤοάԤ̾ηϩȤƤϡȸ̾ӤӤ֥˥ꤷȤͤå˿̱ȤͤС֥˥夫̨ͥεΥŬڤβϡ̳ۤľܤηϩӽ櫓ǤϤʤåȥɤϥꥹγߤ500ʾΥƤΤ
ͤĤƥȿͤγ֥˥夫鳤˽ФȤ롼ȤѤꥹ¦Ǥϥå̱ԹΤ褤ĹҳΥų̂ͥߤȤ櫓ꡤͤϹҳĹƤϤȤ顤[2010-05-21-1]ε#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽפϿޤdzάŪ˼褦ˡ̳ϤФۤƤΥ롼ȤꤵƤ̾ʬۤ˻٤줿 Martinet β̥Ū

Martinet, p. 9 ϿޤǺܡ
Martinet, André. "Comment les Anglo-Saxons ont-ils accédé à la Grande-Bretagne?" La Linguistique 32.2 (1996): 3--10.
ε#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 the wave theory ϡޤʸݤγȻλȤȤϽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿̣롥
ȾȿϢŤƤ⤤ˡָŸն˻Ĥ (archaism in marginal areas) ȤΤ롥㳰⾯ʤʤϱˤкѡʸ濴Ϥˤ롥濴ϤȾ˳ȻƤ椯ΤȤʤ顤ΥΥۤɡնǤФۤɡȤϵڤӤˤ̤ȤơնˤϳαƶϤŤ֤ʤˡʤ꤬Ĥ䤹
Ǥ⤷ΤϡƱ߾˹äƤ椯ᡤնΰ A ̤ΰ B ȤϡƱնˤäȤƤ⡤˵Υγִطüʾˤϱߤ濴ȿ¦ɤΰִطȤʤ뤳Ȥ뤳ȤդˤСΤ褦˸ߤ˳䤷ABˤơϤȤϰۤʤܤ̤Ƴǧ줿硤ն˻ĤäŸפȤ줦ȤȤǤ롥
ե줫衼åѤعäȤơפɽ魯ƻ blank Ť˼ե blank ϡޤեؼѤ졤θ塤ƥꥢ䥹ڥˤޤȵڤݥȥǥ˥硤롼ޥ˥ˤϵڤФǤϤŤΥƥ albus ˤͳ褹줬ޤѤƤʰʲˡ (122) ˷ǺܤƤ König (48) ϿޤƷǡˡ

Υ줿ϰ alvo, arbu, alb ǧ뤳ȤϡȤ albus 衼åѤ˹ʬۤƤ̤ blank ȾŤȤڤФʤäնǸŸ줬¸ȹͤʤСޤǤʤŸϡжפ˻Ĥ롤Ȥ⤤뤫⤷ʤ
ͺӸ١ҡ1999ǯ
König, Werner. DTV-Atlas zur deutschen Sprache. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1978.

ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơŪ졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥
Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)
ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյäפȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥
It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)
ˡѸΦʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥
. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)
¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥
. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)
ǸˡϿλշǼޤŪʶ٤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥
. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
LAEME text database ǰƤ scribal texts οϡLAEME Index of Sources (PDF) ˤȡä168ĤΤʤϿΰ֤ꤵƤΤ121ġ72%ˤǤ롥־ Ordinance Survey National Grid Reference Ȥ뤷ƥƥȤˤĤƥդƤΤǡȤ߹碌СǡȤˤɤ٤εϤΥƥȤѥȤѤǤ뤫Ͽɽ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥κȤ[2011-08-21-1]εHelMapperUK --- hellog ͤαѹϿ CGIפǸϿġѤƹԤʤäʲ̤Ǥ롥

ۤʤǡ96ǡȴϢŤƥȡʷˤʿͤ6307ۤɤǤʥդ줿Ϥ㴳ˡȤϿޤα˼ɤαߤѤʿѸѤȤơƥǡѤȴִݤȤƤʻͤޤǤˡHelMapperUK ɤ߹ޤǡˡ
ϿޤįľŪˤ狼뤳ȤϡǡˤϿˤ衤South-West Midland South-East Midland ˿ʬȽ椷ƤȤȤǤ롥ϡLAEME ԼԤ1ͤǤ Laing ʸ "Never the twain shall meet" դƤ̤Ǥ롥LAEME ΥƥȤΰϡLALME Ԥ߽Ф "fit technique" ȤŪˡäƤ뤬μˡݤθ "anchor texts" ȸƤФμ¤ʽȯ¿뤫ɤȤˤ롥ǰʤȤˡѸȰۤʤѸǤ "anchor texts" ʤ˾ʤ"anchor texts" ϡŪʰ˺ݤƼФΤ褦˵ǽ뤿ᡤȯΥʬۤƤȡ줫 "fit" 褦ȻפäƤƥȤŪΤɤ餫¦˰ĤƤޤȤ̤ˤʤ뤳Ȥ¿Midland ˥ǡޤФʤΤϡΤ褦ʻˤⵢ롥
Ͽġ HelMapperUK ϡȾ LAEME γѤΤ˺ä褦ʤΤLAEME ΤʬϤΤˤѤǤ
ʤLAEME Index of Sources Žդ PDF Ǥ뤬¾ˤLAEME Υȥåץڡ Auxiliary Data Sets -> Index of Sources Ȥɤȡ͡ʥѥˤƥȤξǤ롥
Laing, Margaret. "Never the twain shall meet: Early Middle English --- The East-West Divide." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 97--124.
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow