hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ڡ / page 3 (9)

map - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2017-06-07 Wed

#2963. Palmerston English [esl][world_englishes][map][variety][history]

˥塼ɤ3000km⤫֥å (Cook Islands) ϡ˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫Ǥ롥̾ϡCaptain Cook 1773ǯˤν˾ΦȤˤʤࡥ1888ǯ˥ꥹ°ΤȤʤä塤1901ǯˤϥ˥塼ɤ°ΤذܹԤ1965ǯ17٤ο͸ꡤ8٤ݥͥϤΥåޥ²Ǥ롥åޥȱѸ줬Ȥ˸ѸȤʤäƤ롥ʲϿޤǺܡʹޤϡ#2215. NiueѸѸȤƤĺǾιʺǿǡˡ ([2015-05-21-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

Map of Cook Islands

Avarua Τ Rarotonga 400kmۤɤΤȤˡPalmerston Island Ȥ礬⤫Ǥ롥ǤϡΩΤ褯ΤƤ Palmerston English ȸƤФѸѼ郎äƤ롥Trudgill (100) εҤڤ褦

Palmerston English is spoken on Palmerston Island (Polynesian Avarau), a coral atoll in the Cook Islands about 250 miles northwest of Rarotonga, by descendants of Cook Island Maori and English speakers. William Marsters, a ship's carpenter and cooper from Gloucestershire, England, came to uninhabited Palmerston Atoll in 1962. He had three wives, all from Penrhyn/Tongareva in the Northern Cook Islands. He forced his wives, seventeen children and numerous children to use English all the time. Virtually the entire population of the island today descends from the patriarch. Palmerston English has some admixture from Polynesian but is probably best regarded as a dialectal variety of English rather than a contact language.


¾åδܾϡCIA: The World Factbook ˤ Cook Islands̳ʤΥååǡ򻲾ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2017-05-24 Wed

#2949. ޥ󥹸ʬ [family_tree][indo-european_sub-family][italic][map]

åɤŪʬʬˤĤƤϡ#1467. åɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-05-03-1]) dzפΥޥ󥹸ʬहäƤ⡤¯˥ƥ줫ŪʬͤΤŪʬ˴ؤŪˤäơʣʬबǽȤʤ롥ޤŪˤŪʬ̵ۤǤʤᡤϤ͡ʬब롥ҲŪʹθޤȡʣ#1660. ˥μҲء ([2013-11-12-1]) ǿ줿褦Ū¦̤˴ؤäƤ롥
Τ褦ʸȶʬˤĤƤΰŪʵȤƤϡ˰פ⤷ƤꡤͭѤǤ롥ξǡ (85) ϡޥ󥹸ˤĤŪŪȤ߹碌ʬ1򡤰ʲΤ褦󼨤Ƥ롥

٥ꥢޥ󥹸췲٥ꥢȾΥޥ󥹸ʥݥȥ졤ꥷ졤ڥ졤롼˥...
ꥢޥ󥹸췲ʥե󥹸졤åե󥹡ˡԥƸ̥ꥢ...
ꥢޥ󥹸췲ʥꥢν
ǡ˥ʥɡ졤ԥθ
饨ƥޥ󥹸췲ʥեꥦ̥ꥢˡǥ̥ꥢˡ󥬥ǥ̥ꥢˡޥ󥷥ʥˡ
ޥƥޥ󥹸췲20Ƭ˺ǸüԤ˴ޥƥ
ޥ󥹸ʥ롼ޥ˥

ǡ˥äפϰǤɡ䥫ԥθϡꥢǤϤʤƥ줫ľǤꡤޥ󥹸ΤʤǤϺǤŤ֤ĤƤȤ  *

缡֥ޥ󥹸ᤰäơס泤̥2014泤Ͷ2015١ʸ2017ǯ81--86ǡ

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2017-05-16 Tue

#2941. ū (2) [communication][linguistics][medium][map]

#1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1]) ˤĤƵ񤤤Х󥹡ܸǤ5ˡūθýǺܤƤ
ǯθˤСūϰƤ¿ϰǼƤ褦ĤƤϿؼԡ붵աιԲȤˤäƸū10㤢ޤȤƤ15ǯ֤θˤꡤ70ۤɤ뤳ȤʬäƤοϤäƤǽ롥ūϡŪˤϸΡʡ (surrogate) Ȥ֤ŤǤϤ뤬Ǿİоʹ֤Υߥ˥˴ؤθ򹭤ƤΤȻפ롥*
ä˶̣ΤƬȤбȤȡߥ˥Υ˴ؤ¦̤ʥꥢΥѤ륷ܡ᡼ȤڥĴˤѤūϡ첻ȻҲ򡤸ūΥԥåʲˤѲ©ǤȤɽηϤƤ롥ƬβηϤΤūǤϡūμȿȿοʤηϤȤȤؤƤ롥鷺ʶȿӰǤ⡤٤Ѥ­ȤΤä٤¤ޤĴѤūξˤϡūΥԥåϸƬˤĴбĴξȤϰۤʤηϤäƤȤפä⤺äʣʥƥबѤƤ褦
ŪˤϡūϸƬ٤ĹΥߥ˥˸Ƥ롥ŷϷʤɤιﲼǤϸūϿkmޤꡤºݤ˻Ϥ俹ӤǤαΥߥ˥ѤƤ뤳Ȥ¿󡤸ƬƱͤˡïˤ⽬ǤΤǤ롥
The World Whistles Research Association ȤΤꡤθūξ󶡤ƤΤǡͤޤǤˡ

J. ᥤָūסХ Scientific American ǡ١2017ǯ560--67.

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2017-03-25 Sat

#2889. 󥰤ΰưθư [old_norse][hel_education][history][map]

3National Geographic ǡ֥Х󥰡ƼԤǴꤹýȤǤ롥ϿȤơ (Vikings) ­פȹưϰϤ򼨤ϿޤդƤ񤭤ˤϡָŤ8˥֥ƥӤ餷äϿĤХ󥰡11ޤǤˤϡȾιϰϤǽסõԤ褦ˤʤäפȤ롥  *  *
бȤեȥ꡼ǽǡߤ⥷ȥɽݡɤǹԤʤƤ󥰤ˤˤʤפͻҤ䡤󥰤ȶʤɤΰʪʸʪۤ˽¢ͭ̾ Viking shipǥʯΥ롼ʸʤɤ򸫤뤳ȤǤ롥ѸˤǸťΥɸαƶʤɤҲ𤹤ݤΤΥӥ奢ȤƽǤ롥
󥰤ΰưθưϤϲäΤȤ˾䤤ˤ͡ʲꤦ롥#2854. 3000ǯʹߤδ䲽̱²ư ([2017-02-18-1]) Ǿ줿褦ˡưȤδط⡤󥰤ư1װȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ֥Х󥰡ƼԤǴפεǵ󤲤ƤװȤƤϡʲΤ褦ʤΤ (46--47)

536ǯФȡη̤ȤƤ­˵뵲ʥǥʥ̸̤¤Ǥ뤳Ȥա
줿ϤäƤΡͦԤ乶ħŤ줿ŪҲη
7Ѥ¤ѤȯŸ
ȿȤμ㤤ΤȤܤ

ʤ6ȾФҳη̤Ȥơݵ̲á֥饰ʥפޤ줿Ȥ롥ϡ¤ꡤǽ褬ơ٤Ƥοʹ֡ʪ䤨׻εǻϤޤäǤ롥Τ褦ʰŤΤʤǰޤ줿8ȾФ˳ظäȯȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤ
󥰤Υ֥ƥؤοˤĤƤϡ#1611. 깾ⳤ糤ء ([2013-09-24-1]) ε׻ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-17-1]

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2017-03-24 Fri

#2888. ʸˤˤե˥ʸν [alphabet][writing][grammatology][map][timeline]

ε ([2017-03-23-1]) ǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλ֤ͤʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤҲ𤷤εɤˤäơʸˤ䥢ե٥åȻˤˤե˥ʸν򤷤Ƥȡꤪ⤷ʤȻפΤǡ­Ƥ
ե˥ʸϡ켫Ȥ2ǯȾ̤륷ʥʸ丶ʥʸʤɤȯŸʸηϤǤꡤ1000ǯ˻ȤƤҲʸηϤǤ롥Υե˥ʸ顤ߤޤǹѤƤ¿¿ͤʥե٥åʸηϤȤǡޤ˥ե٥åȤȤˤդ路ʰʲʸʪ (8--9) Υ饤ΰǺܡˡ

ե˥ʸʹߤȯŸ  *  *

ե˥ʸαƶƼʸηϤϡŪˤϥ桼饷Φ˵ڤǤꡤ쥢δʸηϤ̤ȤСʤȤ⤳2ǯ֡ϵǺǤƶϤΤʸ롼פƤȤ롥
䤿Ѹ񤭵ΤѤƤ륢ե٥åȤϡ֥ޥ󡦥ե٥åȡפ뤤ϡ֥ƥʸסΤˤϡѼȤ٤ˤ줬ʸηϤȤƤäƤܼŪħ¿ϡե˥ʸΤäƤħͳ褹ȤäƤ褤äơѸʸֻˤĤƿͻƤȡݱʤ˥ե˥ʸ䤽ˤޤ̤륢ե٥åȤˤ򻲾Ȥʤ
ե˥ͤȤʸ˴ؤƤϡ󤲤Τۤʲε⻲Ȥ줿

#2105. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤ ([2015-01-31-1])
#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])
#2482. (3) ([2016-02-12-1])

奪ꥨʪۡԡˡʸʪ졡桼饷ʸΤٸ奪ꥨʪۡ2016ǯ

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2017-02-02 Thu

#2838. ͤоȽХեꥫ [evolution][origin_of_language][homo_sapiens][anthropology][map]

͡ʥۥ⡦ԥ󥹡ˤεˤĤƤϡեꥫñ쵯¿ϰʲ⤬롥ԤϡԤŸƤۥ⡦ͥǥ륿󥷥ʤɤεͤϤǿͤؤȿʲȤǤ롥ԤϿͤϥեꥫ˸줿θ塤ͤ丶ͤ餹ϤؿʽФƤäȤΤǤ롥
ǯϡߥȥɥꥢDNAѤѰۤʬۤθˤꡤ20ǯ˥եꥫ˸줿1ͤν֥ߥȥɥꥢ֡פ¸ߤꤷեꥫñ쵯⤬ͥȤʤäƤ롥ˡ2003ǯˤϥԥ16ǯΤΤȤ͹ʥۥ⡦ԥ󥹡ȥ̾դ줿ˤȯƤꡤ˿ʲľλѤǤϤʤȸƤ롥
ߥȥɥꥢ֤ǯˤĤƤϽ⤢ꡤǽҤ٤20ǯȤΤ1ĤβǤ롥ߥȥɥꥢ֤λ¹ʤͤեꥫФˤĤƤ⤢뤬褽10ǯΤȤȹͤƤ롥θŸˤĤƤϡë (241) 򻲾ȤƺʲϿޤ򻲹ͤޤǤˡ

Map of Human Exodus

ۥ⡦ԥ󥹤νʳäƤȲꤹʤСΰưϿޤϡΤޤ޿γȻϿޤȤʤ
Ϣơ#160. Ardi Ϥޤäʤɡ ([2009-10-04-1])#751. ϵ46ǯΤߤΤʤǤοȸ ([2011-05-18-1])#1544. εȿʲǯɽ ([2013-07-19-1])#1749. οʲŤΥԡɡ ([2014-02-09-1])#1755. οʲŤΥԡ (2) ([2014-02-15-1]) ⻲ȡޤOrigins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa? ε⻲ͤˤʤ롥

ë ̭ϵ塦̿138ǯοʲ١SBꥨƥ֡2014ǯ

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2016-12-29 Thu

#2803. ɸüԿ͸Ȼϰ [irish][ireland][demography][celtic][map]

ɤˤ륢ɸ줫Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ˤĤơ#2798. ̦رѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) Ǽ夲ؤϸߤʹɸ (irish) ϤޤΤ˻ѤƤ롥ɸѤμ֤ˤĤơ (20--20) εҤվ񤭤ˤޤȤƤߤ褦

奢ɤǤΥߥ˥μήϱѸǤ
ɸΤߤäüԤ¸ߤʤ
Ū˥ɸѤΤϡ͸2%٤Ǥ
2011ǯιĴˤȥɸüԡʡ֥ɸ줬äüԡסˤ177ͤǡ3аʾο͸40.6%
ɶ¹ˡ8ˤϥɸ줬 (national language) Ǥ1ѸǤ뤳ȤƤʱѸ2Ѹ
ɸϡ¿ΥɿͤˤȤäƳعdzؤָǤ
̱²Ǥ륢ɸ뤳ȤϸؤλŻ˽ɬܤǤꡤ⤯ɾ
ɤϡ2010ǯ2030ǯޤǤΡ20ǯάפǥɸȱѸΥХ󥬥Ǥ¤䤹ײΩƤƤ
ϤǤϥɸϡ֥ (Gaelic) ȾΤ졤ϰϡ֥륿ϥȡ (Gaeltacht) ȸƤФ

Ǹ˿줿륿ϥȤϡ濴˾ȤߤƤʤˤϥåȥɤΥϰޤˡÚdarás na Gaeltachta Υۡڡˤȡ"The Gaeltacht covers extensive parts of counties Donegal, Mayo, Galway and Kerry --- all along the western seaboard --- and also parts of counties Cork, Meath and Waterford." 񤭤롥ʲ˴ñϿޤƸƤʡ#774. ȸʬۡ ([2011-06-10-1]) Ͽޤ⻲ȡˡ

Map of Gaeltacht

ɸˤγάˤĤƤϡBackground on the Irish Language εͭѡϢơɤˤˤĤơ#762. ꥶ٥Ūʥˬ ([2011-05-29-1])#2361. ǯɽ ([2015-10-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

̦رѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ

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2016-11-22 Tue

#2766. Ѹˤ1;̾ʤΰ۷֤ʬ [laeme][eme][map][personal_pronoun][owl_and_nightingale][compensatory_lengthening]

ѸΥƥ The Owl and the Nightingale Cartlidge ǤɤǤ롥868ԤˤΥƥȤͣȤơ1;̾ʤȤ ih ֻ롥椬ΤΤˤĤƵƤ륷ǡNe singe ih hom no foliot! ȤѤƤ롥ֻCܤΤΤǤꡤФJܤǤϤβս˰Ūֻ ich ѤƤ롥
λ¤顤Ѹˤ1;̾ʤΰ۷֤ʬۤ˴ؿäǡLAEME ʬۤ򤵤äĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤä˵ˤʤäƤΤϸλҲ̵ͭӤλҲμǤ롥첻̵뤷ŵŪֻפФƤߤȡich, ik, ih, i դ꤬󤬤롥٤Фۤˤ⤢ꤦ뤬̤4ֻˤĤƽиʬۤ绨ĤˤߤƤ
LAEME ΥץϤ褯ǤƤΤǡιԤʤäȤȤС֤˴ؤϿޤɽ뤳ȤΤߤʲ4ʬۿޤĤʤ碌ΤǺܤ롥ץ󤬾ɤߤˤִطϼɽ˼̤ʲ򥯥åгǤˡ

ʲιϿޤǤΰMap No.
00001312I: Ih, ih and yh
00001305I: 'ik', all k forms, incl icke.
00001302I: '(h)ich' and 'ych' incl iich and ichs
00001308I: I.

LAEME Map for Variants of I

ʬۤȤƤϡŪ ich ϤǤ̤˹äƤΤʬ롥λҲ i Ϥֻ̤ǤꡤȤ˹äƤ롥 ih Ϥܤֻɽ魯ΡǤݼŪȸʬ˻٤Ǥ롥 ik Ϥϡ˻ߤ٤ǡŪǤϤʤ
The Owl and the Nightingale ˤĤƤ͡ʵʤƤμܤ⡤ΤΤȤ᤬ŪǤ롥餹ȡCܤ ih 줿ȤȤϡѸΤȰפ
˴ؿäƤΤϡŪ ich ʤϩéäƸ I ؤѲƤäȤŪ˴ط뤫μդˤĤơ#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#1773. ich, everich, -lich ch ä ([2014-03-05-1]) Ǵñˤñ /ʧ/ ꤵҲü첻Ĺ (compensatory_lengthening) ȹͤƤǤ褤ΤǰĤΤǤ롥Ū˻ ih ik θҲϡ/ʧ/ ̻ŪŪˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤih λҲ /ʧ/ μ岽ǡüؤʳɽ魯ΤǤϤʤʲǽƬ⤫֡

Cartlidge, Neil, ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2001.

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2016-10-24 Mon

#2737. 奤ꥹѸˤͭ̾ hern ʬ [map][personal_pronoun][suffix][dialect][terminology]

#2734. ͭ̾ hers, his, ours, yours, theirs -s ([2016-10-21-1]) εǡ-s -n ġhern, hisn, ourn, yourn, theirn ʤɤŪʽͭ̾˿줿η֤ɸѸˤϻĤʤäǤϺ⸽Ǥ롥Upton and Widdowson (82) ˤ롤hern ʬۤʲ˼󥰥ȾʬˡȹʬۤƤ뤳Ȥʬ

Map of

-n ˤĤƤϡWright (para. 413) Ǥ⿨Ƥꡤ19ˤνǹѤƤȤΤ롥
-n ϡɸŪǤϤ뤬¤ηŪ˹׸Ƥ롥mine, thine ޤơΩˡνͭ̾줬Ӥ [-n] ǽ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ष[-n] [-z] ߤƤɸѸηϤϡʬ礤ƤȤ⤤롥
ʤmy mine Τ褦ˡΰ㤤ϡUpton and Widdowson (83) ˤСͭ̾ (attributive possessive pronoun) Ƚҽͭ̾ (predicative possessive pronoun) ȤѸˤäƶ̤Ƥ롥뤤ϡconjunctive possessive pronoun disjunctive possessive pronoun ȤѸȤƤ롥

Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Wright, Joseph. The English Dialect Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1905. Repr. 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-07-1] [2018-11-21-1]

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2016-09-03 Sat

#2686. ICEHL19 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤ [academic_conference][icehl][etymological_respelling][map]

2016ǯ822--26˥ɥĤ University of Duisburg-Essen dzŤ줿 ICEHL19 (19th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics) ˻ä

Map of Germany (Essen Marked)

ϡ2ǯ֤ۤɸ椷Ƥ etymological_respelling ˤĤ "Etymological Spelling Before and After the Sixteenth-Century" ȤȯɽƤαѸʬˤιݳز˻ä뤳ȤˤꡤسĬή褯İǤ뤳ȤǧICEHL19γز񻲲äȳسĬήˤĤơرʸʸʳ칶Ѹ˸𤹤뵡񤬤äΤǡƤγάܥ֥ˤܤƤICEHL18ˤĤƤϡ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) 򻲾ȡˡʲICEHL19θȯɽ˴ؤPDF󤲤Ƥ

ץ
ȯɽ
åװ
ȯɽ׻ݤξ

(1) زα

ICEHL-1 (1979)
ICEHL-2 (1981, Odense)
ICEHL-3 (1983, Sheffield)
ICEHL-4 (1985, Amsterdam)
ICEHL-5 (1987, Cambridge)
ICEHL-6 (1990, Helsinki)
ICEHL-7 (1992, Valencia)
ICEHL-8 (1994, Edinburgh)
ICEHL-9 (1996, Poznan)
ICEHL-10 (1998, Manchester)
ICEHL-11 (2000, Santiago De Compostela)
ICEHL-12 (2002, Glasgow)
ICEHL-13 (2004, Vienna)
ICEHL-14 (2006, Bergamo)
ICEHL-15 (2008, Munich)
ICEHL-16 (2010, Pécs)
ICEHL-17 (2012, Zurich)
ICEHL-18 (2014, Leuven)
ICEHL-19 (2016, Essen)
ICEHL-20 to come (2018, Edinburgh)
ICEHL-21 to come (2020, Leiden)

(2) Ĵֱ

Gabriella Mazzon (University of Innsbruck) --- Shift in politeness values of English Discourse markers: a cyclical tendency?
Simon Horobin (University of Oxford) --- 'No gentleman goes on a bus': H. C. Wyld and the historical study of English
Erik Smitterberg (University of Uppsala) --- Late Modern English: Demographics, Prescriptivism, and Myths of Stability
Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade (University of Leiden) --- Usage guides and the Age of Prescriptivism
Daniel Schreier (University of Zurich) --- Reconstructing variation and change in English: the importance of dialect isolates

(3) ȯɽ

Phonology
Stress
Metrical matters
Inflectional Morphology
Morphosyntax
Word-formation
Lexicon
Syntax
Modals/modality
Semantics
Pragmatics
Discourse
Orthography
Style
Texts
Variation
Dialects
Relationships
Multilingual Texts
Glosses/Glossaries
Visual Text
Grammar and Usage books
Usage and errors
Identity
Types of Change

(4) å

The Dynamics of Speech Representation in the History of English (Peter J. Grund and Terry Walker)
Intersubjectivity and the Emergence of Grammatical Patterns in the History of English (Silvie Hancil and Alexander Haselow)
Diachronic Approaches to the Typology of Language Contact (Olga Timofeeva and Richard Ingham)
Early American Englishes (Merja Kytó and Lucia Sievers)

(5) سĬήʤɵŤ

ICEHL-18 ˸줿historical sociopragmatics θ corpus ǹԤפȤݤäĬή˿䤷ʤƤʴĴֱȥåפΥ˥塼򻲾ȡˡ
ʸˡǧθؤΥץС
ּŪʡѼؤδؿضƤ롥
ֽγزǤϡ"Standard English", "phonology", "morphology", "syntax" ʤɤɤǤꡤ"corpus", "xxx English", "pragmatics" ʤɤϽФƤʤä (R. Hickey)
ŪǥʬǤ phonology, morphology, syntax ʤɤߡʸԤνпϤпؤʤɤȤδϢꡩˡ
ʸˡΩʤʤäƤ롥
˰³åפ4ѰդƤꡤ¤Ƥ
ȤƤϡűѸȸѸ¿äδ֤ѸȽѸŪʤä
ܿȴϢƸ츻ʸạ́ˤȯɽ¿ä㤨С
- "Food for thought: Bread vs Loaf in Old and Early Middle English texts" (Sara M. Pons-Sanz)
- "Buried Treasure: In Search of the Old Norse Influence on Middle English Lexis" (Richard Dance and Brittany Schorn)
- "The Penetration of French Lexis in Middle English Occupational Domains" (Louise Sylvester, Richard Ingham and Imogen Marcus)
बץȤʤȤƤγز񡤤Ȥ֤Ť
- ŪʥСȤǤΥåסʸʸǡˡ
- ץȤδ衤вʤɡ
Ťפ򿷤ľ㤨С嵭 Bread vs Loaf ʤɡˡ
ܿͤˤȯɽ4ͤȻǰʤ龯ʤä

ݳزλäˤĤƤϡ#2327. ݳز˻äĹû ([2015-09-10-1])#2326. SHEL-9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-09-1])#2325. ICOME9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-08-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-09-09-1]

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2016-04-29 Fri

#2559. ޸αѸ [world_englishes][pidgin][creole][map][lesser-know_varieties]

޸ϡѸ̾ Bonin Islands ȤͤǤʤäȤ顤ܸΡ̵͡ʤ֤ˤˡפͳ褹Ȥ⤬롥¤ϡˤǺǤΤƤʤѸüԤζƱΤ롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ꡤBonin Islands ι (18) Ƥߤ褦

Bonin Islands Perhaps the least-known anglophone community in the world, these Japanese-owned islands (Japanese Ogasawara-gunto) are in the central Pacific Ocean, about 500 miles southeast of Japan. The population is about 2,000. The islands were discovered by the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543. They were then claimed by the USA in 1823 and by Britain in 1825. The originally uninhabited islands were first settled in 1830 by five seamen --- two Americans, one Englishman, one Dane and one Italian --- together with ten Hawaiians, five men and five women. This founding population was later joined by whalers, shipwrecked sailors and drifters of many different origins. The islands were annexed by Japan in 1876. The English is mainly American in origin and has many similarities with New England varieties.


޸硤硤3ˤޤྮ޸ˤʣǤ롥ȤȤ̵ͤϰǤꡤ1543ǯ˥ڥͥӥܥˤȯ줿ȤƤ롥ܿͤȤƤϡ˭ýȤ̿ҳ޸꤬1593ǯȯΤǽȹˤꤳȯԤ̾դ졤ߤ̾ΤȤʤ롥1675ǯܤϳޤ뤬ޤ1727ǯ˾޸²ˤ⼺ԤθгŪк鳫ȯĤϽФ줿¼Ūˤϼ¤ʤä
Ȥ뤦ˡ19Ⱦ˥ꥫˡꥹδˤ줾ơͭ1830ǯˤϥꥫͥܥ꡼餬ϥ磻ϽͤϢưܽ°äƱѴ֤ʶĤ⡤ΰܤ1862ǯΤȤͭܤϤΤȤȬ̱ΰܽƤԤƤ롥θ塤ܤ1873ǯ˽ܳŪʷбĤ˾轻Υꥫͤܤ˵2Ǥβ礬ƤηϤȤʤꡤϥꥫ˻ܤä1968ǯܤִԤ줿
άˤ狼̤ꡤ޸ǤϡͭͲǽʳ顤ܸǤϤʤʤѼΡ˱Ѹ줬äƤȤ롥αѸѼ᤯ԥ첽20ˤƤܸȺ¤ƥ쥪ȤʤäơΥǥƥƥȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäWikipedia: Bonin English ˤС20ˤǤ Bonin English ̤Ѥ줿Ȥäܸʤñ˲ʤǤƤȤΤȤǤ롥

Map of the Ogasawara Islands

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2016-02-29 Mon

#2499. Ǵھɼʸȯ (1) [grammatology][writing][archaeology][map]

ʸȯ˴ؤ벾ϤĤ뤬¸ǸŤʸ󶡤Ƥ᥽ݥߥϤڤ췲ǴڷʸεǤϤʤȤ⤬롥᥽ݥߥʸˤ־ɼפ̤ȤܤǴڤΥޤʸθĤǤϤʤȤʸˡ٤路 (41--42) ⡤βƤ褦Ǥ롥

4ǯ3000ǯˡ᥽ݥߥʥꥷ mesos ֿˡסpotamos סˤȤ̿̾ΤȤȤʤäĤꥹȥ桼եƥȤˤϤޤ줿ʸ᡼ʸо줹롥ʸ˲ŪȯĤΤ⤽αƶƤʸȯǤ롥ʸνиϾʤȤѰۤʤĤΰҤ˷ӤĤ롥ԲŪҡϡΰҤǤ롥Ȥ⤫̿ηϡʥɡˤȤȤϡ̿ηϤͭ륰롼פ䶦ƱΤ¸ߤȷդޤ̿ηϤˤäǽ¸ߤȤĤʤ롥ʸ߽ФƱΤϡΤˤȡ1928ǯʹߤȯפȤʤäƤ桼եƥκߤϥ᥽ݥߥ˰֤륦륯ʺǤϥ륫ˤȤ̾ĮΥ᡼ä̱ǤäʸεǽϡθϤη֡Ĥޤ귡Ф줿ޤϻΤ֤ĤƤ뤪Ӥ־ɼסά͡礭α߿ܡ̡̡Ф褦ξɼ㤨«κݤݾڤΰ̣ɽ魯뤷ȤäѤ򤷤ƤƬӤϤΤ˹դ硤Ƭξɼ⤷ϤƬǾħŪɽ魯ʣξɼǴڤεΤΤǤ롥
줫餳Ǵڶ̤޼ΤƤˤĤƵܤ뤳ȤפĤ褦줬줿Ǵڶ̤οƤߤʬ뤳Ȥ򵭺ܤȤȤǡ̵̤ʤȤ򤷤ȤϤ餯򤷤ʤä褦ʸκϤƤǤäĤޤ꽸ġ㤨зӤοˤɼο򤽤ˡο򥷥ܥ饤ƵȤȤǤ롥


Ǵھɼʸȯϡ͸ųؼ Schmandt-Besserat ƾΤǤꡤʸε˴ؤ뽾ε˰ФꤸΤȤơߤǤ⤭ƽפʸȤʤäƤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǼ夲롥
ʲˡ᥽ݥߥ濴ȤϿޤ Comrie et al. (164) ƸƤ

Map of the Near East

륤᥸󡦥 ʸ Ρ ʸˡ١Ͻн˼1998ǯ
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "The Earliest Precursor of Writing." Scientific American 238 (1978): 50--59.
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-03-02-1] [2016-03-01-1]

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2016-02-23 Tue

#2493. 󥰥ͤϲäơͤϰ󤻤줿 [history][anglo-saxon][map][archaeology]

ޥɤν̱²5˥֥ƥؿάаޤˤĤƤϡ˳ؤ͸ųؤˤ͡ĴȸڤԤʤƤε1ĤȤȤǵ󤲤褦ȻפѸ˳路 Gramley (14--15) "The Germanic migrations" ꤹǡ󥰥ͤ "push-factors" ˤꡤͤ "pull-factors" ˤ֥ƥؤäƤȤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥ʲ˰Ѥ롥

In ancient times the peoples of Europe periodically moved from their homelands to new territories. Just why they migrated is a matter of conjecture and surely differed from case to case . . . . The major reason mooted is overpopulation, which led smaller groupings (rarely if ever a whole people) to move off to find sufficient land to settle on. On occasion pressure came from outside invaders such as the Huns, who pushed various peoples further to the west and caused them to try to find lands in the Roman Empire. Drought or other natural catastrophes might also have forced groups to pull up stakes and look for (literally) greener pastures. All of these points might be understood collectively as push-factors. The migration of the Angles to Kent was probably such a case since it seems that whole clans moved. . . . Pull factors . . . are also often seen as motivation for migration. Raids by bands of young warriors, perhaps younger sons without land, seem to have been quite frequent. While many of them were just that, raids, from which the men returned home with booty of all sorts, on other occasions, they settled in the areas invaded and, after removing the male competitors they had defeated, took the indigenous women as wives. This may apply to the Saxons, whose pattern of settlement in the English Midlands with small and equal allotments suggests a well-regulated system of distributing spoils. Furthermore, since the Saxons practiced primogeniture, smaller allotments would suffice, while the larger ones in Kent suggest more the Angles' system of gavelkind . . . . / Other pull-factors may be found in the changing structure of Germanic society under the influence of Roman expansion and Roman culture. The Roman Empire represented a high standard of living with well-established associations of power and prestige. In the case of England, even after the withdrawal of the Roman legionnaires there would have been no abrupt change.


ʤߤ˾嵭ȤƤ褦ˡGramley (17) ϥȤ򽱤ä礿뿯άԤϡŪʥ塼ȿͤȤϡष󥰥ͤǤȤѤƤ롥
ʤˤС449ǯ Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians ν̱²֥ƥ˿ȤˤʤäƤ뤬͸ųŪʾڵˤСޥ̱²ϤΩ5Ƭˤϳμ¤˥֥ƥ˵サƤGramley (16) ϡ"Pre-Conquest Germanic cemeteries" ꤹάϿޤʲΤ褦ͿƤ롥

Pre-Conquest Germanic Cemeteries

ܵǰäƤȴϢơGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥󥵥Chapter 1: The Origins of English (PDF) (p. 23) ɲŪʲ⤬ΤǡȤ줿ޤܥ֥椫#33. 塼ȿͤ̾Τˡ ([2009-05-31-1])#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1])#1013. 󥰥ͤϤɤ֥ƥϤä ([2012-02-04-1])#2353. ʤ󥰥ͤϥ󥰥ɤ򤫤᤯Τ ([2015-10-06-1]) ε׻ȡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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2016-02-02 Tue

#2472. եꥫαѸ [demography][world_englishes][new_englishes][esl][map][timeline][pidgin][creole][standardisation][africa]

#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸο͸פˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦  *  *

countrysignificant UK contactcolonial statusindependencetotal populationEnglish speakers
percentagetotal number
Botswana19th century188519661,640,000--38%630,000
Lesotho protectorate19661,800,000--28%500,000
Malawi18781891196413,000,000--4%540,000
Namibia18781920 (S. Afr.)19901,800,000--17%> 300,000
South Africa17951795191047,850,000> 28%13,700,000
Swaziland18941902 (UK)19681,140,000--4.4%50,000
Zambia188819241953, 196413,000,000--15%--2,000,000
Zimbabwe189019231953, 198013,300,000--42%5,550,000
 
Cameroon19141916196018,500,000--42%7,700,000
Gambia1661, 1816189419651,700,000--2.3%40,000
Ghana (formerly gold coast)1824, 18501874, 1902195723,480,000--6%1,400,000
LiberiaUSA 1822none18473,750,000--83%3,100,000
Nigeria18511884, 19001960148,000,000--53%79,000,000
Sierra Leone1787180819615,800,000--83%4,900,000
 
Kenya18861895, 1920196339,000,000--9%2,700,000
Tanzania1880s1890, 1920196142,000,000--11%4,000,000
Uganda1860s1888, 1890196231,000,000--10%2,500,000


South Africa Nigeria ¸ߴȴƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ޤǰƤեꥫ䥢αѸѤƤѸϡºݾۤܤ٤ ESL ȹͤƤ褤եꥫǤϰ ENL ԤƤꡤ¾ϰǥ쥪Ѹ줬ԤƤȤ⤢뤬Ūˤ ESL ϰȸƤ֤ˤդ路¿ιϰαѸѤˤĤƶ̤ƤΤϡȼαѸ줬 "endonormative" ǼҲŪϰ̤ơٲĤĤ뤳ȤǤ롥Gramley (306) ϼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥

In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.


"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥󥵥βPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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2016-01-30 Sat

#2469. αѸ [demography][world_englishes][new_englishes][esl][map][timeline][efl]

αѸˤĤƤϡʲε¾Ǽ夲Ƥ

#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENL, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#273. αѸ ([2010-01-25-1])
#375. ENLESL ο͸Ψ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21͸ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1])
#1593. եԥαѸ (2) ([2013-09-06-1])

Ѹ̤ꤦǡѸüԤ˴ؤ͸פϽפʰ̣ġ͡ʸ󤲤뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥ Gramley (313, 314) "Anglophone South Asian countries" "Anglophone Southeast Asian countries" ɽɥå󥰤Τ򼨤  *

countrysignificant UK contactbeginning of colonial statusindependencetotal populationEnglish speakers
percentagetotal number
Bangladesh169018581947162,000,000--2%3,500,000
India160018581947--1.2 billion> 20%> 230,000,000
Nepal none 25,000,000> 25%7,000,000
Pakistan185718581947164,000,000--11%18,000,000
Sri Lanka17961802194820,000,000--10%2,000,000
 
Singapore1819186719655,000,000--80%--4,000,000
Hong Kong1841184219976,900,000--36%2,500,000
PhilippinesUSA: 18981898194697,000,000> 50%50,000,000
Malaysia178617951957, 196327,000,000--27%7,400,000


ѸüԤο͸פȤϡɡѥ󡤥Х󥰥ǥϤȴƤ롥եԥ21ˤޤޤӤƤ椯ޤɽ˷ǤƤΰϤESLϰǤ뤬ޤǤʤƶ쥢ˤӹEFLϰ褬äƤꡤǤϱѸ춵餬㳰ʤˤʤäƤ롥ºݾ太ŪʱѸüԤ³뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤΤʤǥϺαѸȤι˱ƶͿ票ꥢȤʤܤϡΤ褦ʶ٤αѸĶѲˡ褯դʧȤɬפǤ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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2016-01-26 Tue

#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ [writing][medium][history][timeline][map]

̺ˤĤơ#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1]) ȡ#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1]) Ǽ夲ϡ̺ȤƤλܤ
椬ʸ˿ʱƶڤܤȯǤ뤳ȤϡܤΰפȤǤ롥ȯϡεҤ˴ŤθˤСǯ105ǯˤˡѤΥܥʤɤѤƻꡤιΤǽȸƤǯȯȸˤСε170ǯˤϤǤ˻椬ƤǤ⡤Ѥϡ浻ѤԤȤƤޤˤ̾Ĥˤͤ  *
θ塤1ܤˤ⤿餵줿ȹͤ뤬ܤˤǽϡħˤ굻Ѥ⤿餵줿610ǯʿ18ǯˤΤȤȸ롥浻Ѥ륯ɤͳƥ衼åäΤϡѤǯʾ12ʹߤΤȤǤ롥Ūˤϡ1144ǯˡࡼͤλۤƤڥΥϥФǽƻ椬졤ե󥹡ɥĤؤ̾夷ۤ1274ǯˤ泤ͳǥꥢΥե֥ꥢΤˡ줿  *
(113) ϡ滺ȤˤȯפȤơ(1) 105ǯѤˤȯΤˤϾ嵭̤浻Ѥˡ(2) 1798ǯե󥹿ͥ륤١ˤ뾶浡ȯ(3) 1844ǯɥĿͥ顼ˤںѥפȯ(4) 1807ǯɥĿͥåҤˤź󥰤ȯ󤲤Ƥ롥
λȤɤ顤̺ȤƤǤϤʤʥܡ롤ʤɡˤۼʥȥåȥڡѡʤɡˤȤƤӤ⤢ꡤμ夫鸽ߤޤ³Ƥ
ˡΤäƤ˰ܤ (3) ϰʲ8󤲤Ƥ롥

ʿ顤ڤơŬʶޤäꡤʤꡤ夷ꡤڤʤɤβù䤹
ΤۼΤǡ񤤤ꡤ䤹
̵Ǥꡤdz䤹Ȥ롥
ڤưפʬ򤷤Ƥޤ
Ǯˤ롥
¾κʤ¤
ǽʿʪݤǤ롥
ѤϺȤƺѤ䤹


(3) ϡֿʹ֤ȯǺǤۤ¿äΤϻ¾ˤʤפ³ΤƤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥衤̺ϡǴġѥԥ륹СʸۡˡڴʡݴʡХ顼ʳ¿աɡߥޡΥѥߥܿҤաˡ桤Ѥȥޥơ̵ֲ̤ܺμˡѤæڤοˤʤ͡ʤΤѤƤ٤ơ椬͡ʤ줿褯äƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤϡ2ǯ̺֡βԤǤȸäƤ褤  *

ѽӡػʸ١1992ǯ

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2016-01-04 Mon

#2443. 󥰥ɤˤ륱ȸ̾ʬ [celtic][toponymy][onomastics][geography][anglo-saxon][loan_word][history][map][hydronymy]

Ѹ̾ˤĤƤϡtoponymy γƵǼ夲Ƥˤ֥󥰥ɤˤ륱ȸ̾ˤĤơ (pp. 191--209) ˴Ťơ󥰥ɤΥȸ̾ʬۤˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
5ȾꡤޥΥ󥰥͡͡塼ȿͤ꼡ǥ֥ƥ򽱤轻ΥȷϽ̱²̤ɤꡤ˥󥰥ɤȸƤФΰ򤷤аޤϡ褯ΤƤ (#33. 塼ȿͤ̾Τˡ ([2009-05-31-1])#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1])#1013. 󥰥ͤϤɤ֥ƥϤä ([2012-02-04-1])#2353. ʤ󥰥ͤϥ󥰥ɤ򤫤᤯Τ ([2015-10-06-1])) ޤԤαѸ줬ԤΥȸ줫ۤȤΩäüѤԤʤäȤ⡤褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ#1216. űѸΥȼѸ ([2012-08-25-1]) #1736. ꥹ̾ͳ ([2014-01-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̾ˤĤƤ㳰Ȥ٤ǤꡤȸǤȤɤ륤󥰥̾ϾʤʤȤ櫓󥰥ɤβˤĤƤϡ¿ȸϤ̾ͿƤ뤳ȤŪ˻ŦƤ (cf. #1188. 󥰥ɤβ̾ Thames, Humber, Stour ([2012-07-28-1]))
ޥν̱²꽻ϡλ֤򤫤ơ󥰥ɤ줫ؿʹԤȹͤ뤬ϥȸ̾ʬۤȤ褯פ롥ʲϿޡp. 199ˤϡȸϤβ̾ʬۤˤꥤ󥰥ɵڤӥ륺4Ĥΰ˶ʬΤǤ롥Ⱦʬ Area I 顤Ⱦʬޤ Area IIƤϢܤ Area III 顤ǤŪʥ륺䥳󥦥뤫ʤ Area IV ޤǡȸϤβ̾ڤ̩̾٤ǻʤ롥

Map of Celtic Placenames

꽻ˤȥȸ̾ǻøϢŤȡΤ褦ˤʤArea I ϡ5--6˥󥰥ͤ䥵֥ͤƥ褷ܵϤȤΰǤꡤͽۤ褦ˤˤϳμ¤˥ȸϤȤ̾϶ˤƾʤܤ Area II ؤϡͤ6Ⱦˡ󥰥ͤ7˿ʽФΰǤϡArea I ٤֡Ӥʤɤ̾˥ȸϤ̾¿뤬Ѹ̾ȤӤˤʤʤ餤Ǥ롥ˡ7--8ˤơ󥰥ͤϡ¦ʤ Devonshire, Somerset, Dorset; Worcestershire, Shropshire; Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland ʤɤ Area III ؤŸΰǤϡ֡ӤΤۤ¼졤ŪħŤ˥ȸǤä¿ѻ롥󥰥ͤ Area III ؤοʽФϡArea I ٤2ۤɤ٤줿λ֤κȸ̾Ǥǻøκˤ褯Ƥ롥ǸˡCornwall, Wales, Monmouthshire, Herefordshire ʤ Area IV ϡȷ轻̱ǸޤƧߤȤɤޤäΰǤꡤʤ顤ȸ̾Ū¿
Τ褦˷ˤ̾Ǥˤ줤ȿǤƤϾʤʤ⤦1ĤλȤơ#818. 󥰥ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ

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2015-11-10 Tue

#2388. μפʱѸѼβŪʬ [world_englishes][model_of_englishes][ame_bre][ame][bre][irish_english][australian_english][new_zealand_english][scottish_english][scots][map]

μפʱѸѼʬहߤϡȤƼҲŪʻ͡ˤʤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤model_of_englishes εǼ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥ŪʴʬȤƤϡTrudgill and Hannah ˤ벻˴ŤΤΤƤ롥ŪˤС礭 'English' type 'American' type 2ʬˡǤꡤľŪǿͤˤ򤷤䤹ξQŪ˸ʬबȤƤϡŪʸϤٻȤȤǤ롥 'American' type 'English' type 2ʬˡϡѶŪŪʻС绨Ĥˤäƥ󥰥 'northern' type 'southern' type 2ʬˡ뤳Ȥդ
Trudgill and Hannah (10) ϡŪܤ٤Ȥưʲ10󤲤ơѸѼ޼

Key
1. /ɑː/ rather than /æ/ in path etc.
2. absence of non-prevocalic /r/
3. close vowels for /æ/ and /ɛ/, monophthongization of /ai/ and /ɑu/
4. front [aː] for /ɑː/ in part etc.
5. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ as in cot and caught
6. /æ/ rather than /ɑː/ in can't etc.
7. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɑː/ as in bother and father
8. consistent voicing of intervocalic /t/
9. unrounded [ɑ] in pot
10. syllabic /r/ in bird
11. absence of contrast of /ʊ/ and /uː/ as in pull and pool

10  9   8   7   6   5        6   7   8   9   11         10         11  5   1   2

|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   |          |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   | Northern |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   | Canada |   |   |   |   | Ireland  | Scotland |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   `----------+----------'   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |              |              |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   `--------+---+---+---+--------------+--------------'   |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   |              |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   `----------,   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |   USA      |   |   |   ,----------+---+------------------'   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   | Republic |   |                      |
|   |   |   |   `------------'   |   |   |   of     |   |   ,------------------'
|   |   |   |                    |   |   | Ireland  |   |   |
|   |   |   `--------------------'   |   |          |   |   |  England  ,--------------------------------- 3
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | 
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |  Wales    |         ,----------------------- 4
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | South   | Australia   New
|   |   `----------------------------'   |          |   |   |           | Africa  |             Zealand
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |         `----------------------- 4
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |
|   `------------------------------------+----------'   |   |           `--------------------------------- 3
|                                        |              |   |
`----------------------------------------+--------------'   `--------------------------------------------- 2
                                         |
                                         `---------------------------------------------------------------- 1

οޤȤơTrudgill and Hannah (10)

We have attempted to portray the relationships between the pronunciations of the major non-Caribbean varieties in [this] Figure 1.1. This diagram is somewhat arbitrary and slightly misleading (there are, for example, accents of USEng which are close to RP than to mid-western US English), but it does show the two main types of pronunciation: an 'English' type (EngEng, WEng, SAfEng, AusEng, NZEng) and an 'American' type (USEng, CanEng), with IrEng falling somewhere between the two and ScotEng being somewhat by itself.


Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡIrish English 2ʬˤޤ뤳ȡŤˤ Scots English ȼϩԤäƤ뤳Ȥ϶̣

Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.

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2015-10-25 Sun

#2372. ݥȥƱ [portuguese][history][linguistic_imperialism][francophonie][map][lingua_franca]

Ϣ#2370. ݥȥ줫θüѡ ([2015-10-23-1])#2371. ݥȥǯɽ ([2015-10-24-1]) εǡݥȥ夲ƤݥȥϡݥȥιȤ1ͤˤääƤ뤬2Ͷ᤯ο͸ʤ֥饸ǹȤäƤ뤳Ȥΰ̣礭ۤˤ⡤Ūʷаޤˤꡤݥȥ줬ѤƤϰϤ롥Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde Islands, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, São Tomé e Príncipe ǸѸȤѤƤꡤ¾ Ethnologue Portuguese ˤа Andorra, China-Macao, France, India ǤäƤ롥
ݥȥüԤϥݥȥε̾ Lusitania ˤʤǡLusophone ȸƤФ졤ޤüԶƱΤ LusosphereLusofonia 륾ե˥ˤȸڤ롥ݥȥ쿢̱ϤϤ٤ΩϤǤ˲äƤ뤬1996ǯˤݥȥƱ (Community of Portuguese Language Countries, or Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (CPLP)) ƤϥꥹܥˡϡꥹƳΡ#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) 䡤ե󥹼ƳΡ#2192. La Francophonie (1) ([2015-04-28-1])#2193. La Francophonie (2) ([2015-04-29-1]) ΥݥȥǤȤߤ뤳ȤǤݥȥο̱ϼθɾ⤢롥
С Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, São Tomé e Príncipe 9Ǥꡤ¾ΤĤΥ֥С֤Ƥ롥¤ܤϥ֥饸ͤȤͥĤȤ顤2014ǯ7 CPLP Υ֥СȤʤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ2014ǯ723դ̳ʤˤƻ򻲾Ȥ줿

Map of CPLP

Referrer (Inside): [2015-11-05-1]

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2015-10-24 Sat

#2371. ݥȥǯɽ [history][timeline][portuguese][map][age_of_discovery]

ε#2370. ݥȥ줫θüѡ ([2015-10-23-1]) ǡݥȥ줫ŪʼѸߤμѸäϡ15--16˥ݥȥ뤬ιȤŸˤäƤ롥طʤ򤹤٤ϿޤźĤġݥȥǯɽإʥʥ른եåι񡡥ݥȥ٤δ (p. 60--61) Ƹ褦

Map of Portugal

4200ȿŪʼҲˤäơݥȥΥݥǡ䥴른ͥ˵褬Ƥ롥
500ŴΥȿͤݥȥۤ롥
201񤬥ݥȥߤ۲ˤ
140ޤȿͤ񹳤ƻۤ礹
27޹륫롦ȥݥȥդ°륷˥Ĥ롥
567ޥϤȿͤ٥ꥢȾ˻ۤ礹롥
711ඵ̤η⤬٥ꥢȾ˿롥θ7ǯΤ˥٥ꥢȾΤۤΤࡼͤΥޥīλ۲ˤ롥
1096֥르˥ȤΥꥱݥȥȤʤ롥
1143ե󥽡ꥱȤʤꥤ٥ꥢȾ¾ʬʬΥΩݥȥ벦񤬷񤵤롥
1249ե3٥ꥢȾ礫ǸΥࡼͤɤФݥȥ񶭤Ω롥
1416ꥱҳҤ쥹˳ϤȹҳعĤꡤҳ夬Ϥޤ롥
1488ݥȥ͹ҳΤΥХȥᥦǥ˾ޤҳΤ˥ؤιϩΩ롥
1494ڥȥݥȥ뤬ȥǥ㥹हӡ̥ꥫΦȯϤξʬ䤹롥
1497ޤɤؤ2ǯ֤ιҳ˾Фθ塤ݥȥͤΥؤɤȤǰפϤޤ롥
1500ڥɥ쥹֥뤬֥饸ãݥȥȥꥫΦȤǰϩ򳫤
1572륤ǡ󥤥ݥȥͤαʱξħȤʤإ른٤
1580ڥ󲦥ե2ݥȥ벦ե1Ȥ¨̤ݥȥϥڥʻ礵롥
1609ݥȥ벦ե2٤ƤΥꥹʥꥹȶ̤˲ࡼ͡ˤ̿롥ηˤꡤݥȥкѤ礭˼򤦤롥
1650졼ˤμȤʤ롥
1755Ͽ̤ꥹܥ򽱤6ͤ˴¿ηʪݲ롥ꥹܥϥݥХߤλشΤȺƷ롥
1807ʥݥ쥪󡦥ܥʥѥȤݥȥ˿񲦥祢6ϥ֥饸ƨ졤1821ǯޤǥ֥饸ˤ롥
1822祢6©ҤΥڥɥ֥饸Ω֥饸Ȥʤ롥
1846̱˪ˤꡤ⤬ͳݼΤդĤϤʬ롥
1890ꥹκǸĭ򤦤ơեꥫˤ뿢̱ϳײ롥
1908񲦤ĹˤꥹܥǰŻ롥ˤޥ̥2Ȥ¨̡
1910̿Ϥޥ̥2̤1Ω
1911ˡ򡥽ǧ롥
1916ꥹܥǥɥٽᤵ졤ɥĤ۹𡥥ݥȥϢ¦Ȥ1ェޤ2ǯ臘
1926ǥå48ǯ֤ˤ錄뷳Ϥޤ롥
1928ȥ˥ǡ顦饶뤬̳ä˽Ǥ롥
1932饶뤬Ȥʤꡤ䤬ȺۼԤȤʤ롥
1933֥ɡΥʿȡˡ׷ˡ򤷡μͳ¤ȥ饤ȿܱưػߤ롥
1936饶뤬ڥǥե󥷥ե󥳾Ψ뱦Ϥٻ
19392Ω롥Τꥹ쥹ζϤѤ뤳Ȥǧ롥
1947ȺȿФꥹܥιϫƯԤȷˤܤð
1949ξ󵡹 (NATO) ߥСȤʤ롥
1955ϢʹϢˤ˲
1961ɤݥȥο̱ϥʻ礹롥󥴥顤˥⥶ӡȿ𤬤롥
1968饶뤬ȯݤ줿塤ޥ륻Τ˽ǤȷˡˤȤŤ򤪤ʤ
1974̿͡ǡ衼åѺĹȺݤ̱׵ˤꡤܤ̱ѡ
1975̱Ϥä˥ӥ⥶ӡܥ٥ǡȥᡦץ󥷥ڡ󥴥Ωǧμ³λ롥
1982ʸ̱褹롥
1986ޥꥪ쥹60ǯ֤ʸ̱ΤȤʤ롥˥Х롦ХФ˽Ǥ衼åϢ (EU) ʤǤ衼åѷкѶƱΤ˲
1999Ǹ˻ĤäƤڤǤޥڿ̱¹ִԤ롥
2002̲ߥɤλѤᡤ桼˰ܹԤ롥


15ȾꥱҳҤˤҳפ󤫤ȡ1Ⱦδ֡ݥȥꡤδ򤭤᤿λΥݥȥγˤäơѸܸˤŪʸäήΤǤ롥
θ塤16Ⱦ˥ڥ󲦥ե2ˤäʻ礵˵ڤӡݥȥιϤŪ˸Ƥ17˥֥饸˶ۤȯȡݥȥϺƤӳϤ᤹Ȼפ줿٤¿ǰ׶̤Ƥषꥹ˵ۤƤꥹǤλȳ̿٤뤳ȤˤʤäꥹȤδطǤС19ˤݥȥϥꥹΰϤˤꡤեꥫǤο̱ϳײ򤨤ʤʤäаޤ롥ݥȥˤȤäơꥹϡ˾ŤƱǤʤ⡤ȤܤξΤ󤳤֤äΤǤ롥
ݥȥιǤݥȥܤСߤ̾Ω1ĤǤ롥#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) ˤС7̤θǤꡤüԿ2Ͷ᤯ȸѤƤ롥

顦ǥåإʥʥ른եåι񡡥ݥȥ١ۤ׽ǡ2010ǯ

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