hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 ڡ / page 2 (3)

teleology - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-29 18:54

2015-12-31 Thu

#2439. 첻ܤαѸ첻˾ΰյ [gvs][vowel][diphthong][drift][teleology][language_change][historiography]

ε#2438. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ (2) ([2015-12-30-1]) ǡ첻ܤαѸֻˤˤյˤĤƹͻκɾߤǤϡ첻ܤαѸ첻˾ΰյϲ첻ܤϡʤ1Ū˲ѲǤ뤫顤δΰյɾǽפǤ롥
Ѥ Brinton and Arnovick (313) 첻ܤβ˾ΰյˤĤƾܤΤƤ롥

[The Great Vowel Shift] eliminated the distinction between long and short vowels that had characterized both the Old and Middle English phonological systems. The long vowels were replaced by either diphthongs or tense vowels, which contrasted with the lax short vowels. Thus, the vowel system underwent a significant change from one based on distinctions of quantity (e.g. OE god 'deity' vs gōd ('good') to one based on distinctions of quality. While modern English does have long and short vowels (e.g. sea vs ceased), this distinction is now merely an allophonic difference, completely predictable by the voicing qualities or number of consonants that follow the vowel.


첻ܤȤơѸ첻ηϤ̤˴ŤΤ˴ŤΤؤƤ뤲ȤλŦϡŪĽפƶǤ롥緶ˤСҲγ̿ž褦ѿȤ֤ǤϤʤ첻̤ζ̤Ż뤹ܸΤ褦ʸüԤˤȤäơѸβγؽϰפʤ첻ܤǤΰüȤȤˤʤ롥ܸüԤˤȤäƤϡ첻ܰ첻ηϤΤۤߤ䤹ä˰㤤ʤ
벻Ѳ򤽤θβ˾˰֤ŤŪɾȤߤϡޤǤԤƤ㤨С첻Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1])#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1])#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬϡ ([2015-01-07-1]) ƤȤǤ롥
Τ褦Ūɾ켫Τϡä˸ؤˤƲ̣ΤʤΤΤ褦ɾطʤˤϡή (drift) Ū (teleology) ȤäѲѤε̣⸫줹롥첻ܤ̤ơ˵ (historiography) ȤĤߤˤĤƺƹͤ뵡Ȥʤä
2015ǯ hellog ɡ꤬Ȥޤ2016ǯꤤޤ

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-03-24-1]

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2015-11-02 Mon

#2380. Gould and Vrba γŬ (1) [exaptation][terminology][evolution][diachrony][teleology]

ε#2379. Ƶ̾γŬ ([2015-11-01-1]) Ǥ夲Ŭ (exaptation) ϡ衤ʪʲѸǤ롥#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡGould and Vrba ˤʪʲγŬʪؤˤ褯̤ؼ Lass ѲƤϤ᤿Τä
Gould and Vrba ʸϡۤĹʸǤϤʤȯŪǤ롥ʪؤ糰ǤɤۤɤΰƤꡤ餳ؤؤŬѤ;ϤäΤʲˤѸ̤ơб복ǰߴط餫ˤ褦ȤʸǤꡤνѸ䳵ǰϡΤ˹פиѲˤƤϤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥ʸƬ׻ (4) 餷ŪͤƤΤǡΤޤްѤ

Adaptation has been defined and recognized by two different criteria: historical genesis (features built by natural selection for their present role) and current utility (features now enhancing fitness no matter how they arose). Biologists have often failed to recognize the potential confusion between these different definitions because we have tended to view natural selection as so dominant among evolutionary mechanisms that historical process and current product become one. Yet if many features of organisms are non-adapted, but available for useful cooptation in descendants, then an important concept has no name in our lexicon (and unnamed ideas generally remain unconsidered): features that now enhance fitness but were not built by natural selection for their current role. We propose that such features be called exaptations and that adaptation be restricted, as Darwin suggested, to features built by selection for their current role. We present several examples of exaptation, indicating where a failure to conceptualize such an idea limited the range of hypotheses previously available. We explore several consequences of exaptation and propose a terminological solution to the problem of preadaptation.


̻ŪȯȶŪͭκƱȤꡤƤ뤿οѸȤƤ exaptation ϡˤƤΩĤϤǤ롥ߥ˥ΩĤ٤̻ŪȯƤ (adaptation) ȡȯãƷŪΩĵǽ (exaptation) ̤ƤȤϡΤɬפޤexaptation ϡŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤйѸȳǰͿƤ褦ˤפ롥
Gould and Vrba (5) ϡ"A taxonomy of fitness" ꤹɽǡʲΤ褦˴ϢѸƤ롥

ProcessCharacterUsage
Natural selection shapes the character for a current use --- adaptationadaptationaptationfunction
A character, previously shaped by natural selection for a particular function (an adaptation), is coopted for a new use --- cooptationexaptationeffect
A character whose origin cannot be ascribed to the direct action of natural selection (a nonaptation), is coopted for a current use --- cooptation


νѸ췲ѲˡʬŪˤǤŬѤˤϻԺɬפʤȤϤޤǤʤˤ¿βǽƤ褦ľ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.

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2015-03-17 Tue

#2150. Ѳˤʹ [phonetics][phonology][language_change][causation][teleology][hypercorrection][assimilation][dissimilation]

#2140. ѲΥ饤ե ([2015-03-07-1]) εǡǯβѲʤӸѲ̡ˤθˤơäʹ䤬׻뤵褦ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿Τ褦Ԥ1ͤ Ohala 롥Ohala (676) ϡäδͿꤷ§ȤƲѲʹˤäƼƳȤΩäƤ롥줾ϢʬȴФ

. . . variation in the production domain does not by itself constitute sound change since there is no change in the pronunciation norm; the listener is able (somehow) to reconstruct the speaker's intended pronunciation.

Misperceptions are potential sound changes because they may result in a changed pronunciation norm on the part of listeners if their misperceptions are guides to their own pronunciation.


ȯε ("pronunciation norm") ѲΤȤѲȸƤ֤ΤǤС줬夹ʹΤʤǤꤻʤʹϼνִ֤äˤʤȤ̣ˤƤϡβѲŪ˼¸ΤäȤƤȯù԰٤ˤƤǤϤѲΤϡʹȤƤôäƤȤǤ롥ʹϡ̾äˤ뵬ϤæѰŪȯŬڤˡֽפ뤳ȤǤ뤿ᡤϤΤΤݻΤ˹׸롥Ȥʹ꤬Ŭڤˡֽפ뤳Ȥ˼ԤȡʹεϤΤΤѲǽ롥ΩˤСѲŵǤƱ (assimilation) ʹˤ뽤Τʤ (hypocorrection) Ȥơޤ۲ (dissimilation) ʹˤ뽤Τ (hypercorrection) Ȥª뤳ȤǤ (Ohala 678)
Ohala (683) ϡνΤۤǡѲ̵Ūä̵ͿʹνŻ3碌ƶĥƤ롥βѲˤŪŪʸȡäʻС˽Ż˿øȿФɷŪǤ롥

. . . sound change, at least at its very initiation, is not teleological. It does not serve any purpose at all. It does not improve speech in any way. It does not make speech easier to pronounce, easier to hear, or easier to process or store in the speaker's brain. It is simply the result of an inadvertent error on the part of the listener. Sound change thus is similar to manuscript copyists' errors and presumably entirely unintended.


̻μ̤ȤϤ⤷Ȥʸ̤˼äƤõ򤹤Ȥ̣Τ褯ʤȤ򤢤ƤСФ̻ˤ̤ΤΤȼ㤨夷Ȥ񤭸վθѲϡ̵ǤϤʤ⤷ʤʤȤⲻѲ椷¿ˤʤȤϽҤ٤Ƥ褤Ȥˤϡ"at its very initiation" ʤˤƤϡˤâ񤭤Ż뤷
Ohala μĥʹƤȡѲ̤ˤʹƹͤɬפΤǤʤȻפƤΤϳΤ

Ohala, John J. "Phonetics and Historical Phonology." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 669--86.

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2015-03-13 Fri

#2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ [exaptation][grammaticalisation][syntax][generative_grammar][unidirectionality][drift][reanalysis][evolution][systemic_regulation][teleology][language_change][invisible_hand][functionalism]

#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸˤƤפѲϤֵǽƤȯפȤª뤳ȤǤ뤬ϡֵǽ͹¤γŬפȴ뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ衤޸οȼäƸ͹¤ (Lexical Projection) ǽ͹¤ (Functional Projection) ؤȺʬϤˤƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ǽƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ؤȳŬƤäȤΤ
ʸˡεǤϡʪʲʬŪѤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) ȤǰѤ褦ˤʤäƤݺ (151) Τ狼䤹

ŬȤϡȤСʪʲ¦̤ǤϡȤβݻΤ¸ߤƤӤΩ줬¸Ŭ夲̤ȤʤꡤĻؤοʲĤʤäȤͤǤά͡Lass (1990) ϤγǰѲ˱Ѥư DO ȯãγŬʤȤȻưäΤ̵̣¸ߤȤʤꡤ̤Ӥ˳Ѥ줿ˤƤޤܽǤϡιͤʤᡤ¤ޤŬȼĥȻפޤά͵ǽƤϤȤȰĤ FP (Functional Projection) ȹͤ졤Ŭη̡ޤޤʹ¤Ȥƶ񸽲Ȥ櫓ǤѸϤ̻ŪѲβǡ̾ưζ޷֤ξüȶˡ濴ι¤鵡ǽ濴ι¤ؤȰܹԤƤȹͤ졤η̡졤ư졤ư֡λʹԷ¿ͤʬۤȸ櫓Ǥ


Τ褦ʸѲѤϡɭοʲȤͤˤĤʤ롥ҥȤͭθȯȿʲָʲפȸƤ֤ȤС嵭Τ褦ʸѲϡָξʲפȤߤ뤳ȤǤȤĴ碌ʤֿʲפȤߤǸ椬ʤƤ롥
ݺ (158) ϡμȿκѤ˿ʤ顤κǸ򼡤Τ褦᤯äƤ롥

켫ΤĤƻõѤϡ뼫ȿʼȯŪȤޤˤȸʤȤǽǤȿȤη뾽䥷ޥޤΥ֥ͭ̾ǤʪŪʪŪ¦̤ФǤʤȤСϤĻФԷ֡ʰδֳֻ֤ѡˡݸݡкѥƥҲΩʤɤˤڤӤޤξʲޤˤΰȤƹͤ졤ưŪŬѲᥫ˥ߤ¸ߤȤǤ줳ȤФοʲƳָפȸΤǤϤʤǤ礦ѸˤʸˡθݤϤޤˤιǤꡤѲθ椬ʣηϤʳؤĤμʤˤʤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ƤƤΤǤ


Ѳ礭1ĤβǤ롥

ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ

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2015-03-10 Tue

#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ [language_change][causation][systemic_regulation][teleology]

ꥦϡѲˡָפϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ΰ츫ԲIJʰ⤤򤹤ˤϡꥦָפȤդDzؤƤ뤫Ȥ館ɬפ롥ˤͤϡ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) ȡ#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1]) ɸ̤Ǥ롥ʲָˤȷ̤ˤѲФ̻Ū¤ΤСŪŪΰ̣פꤹ륳ꥦ6 (259--343) ꡤ3սѤʰʲʸη֤Ƥˡ

ˤϡäơѲҤָפʤΤ¸ߤͣκѸäμͳˡޤͳ¸ߤʤϾŪνΤΤˡΤϡäθŪͳˤͤ졤ѤʤƱˤɽߵ˱ѲȤȤΡƻŪסʵŪˤʾǤ롥ηϤΤޤˡּסɽ׵ᤫ鸫ơŪʼʤˤɤ뵻Ūʷ١ѲΡָפǤϤʤŪͳȤȤǡƻפ켫Τ¤Dz褹٤Ǥ롥äơʤ롤ƤʤʤФʤʤΤϡΡ뤤ϼͳγˤָפ򤢤줳õ뤳ȤǤϤʤġ˾ΤȤǼͳˤäƼ¸줿ΤŪŤȤǤꡤ줿ѲԤη٤ȲǽȤˤäơɤΤ褦ʤɬ⤷ϲǽȤƷʸˤΤĤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥 (286)

ɡŪȤưŤΰ෿Ǥ롥ϡָפ֤ˤäƲ¸ߤ褦ˤʤˡѲ뤤Ͼü¸ߤˤ٤ƤΤΤǤפꡤָפΰŪǰˤȤƴޤޤ롥ꥹȥƥ쥹ϼΤΤ褦˻ͼΡָפ̤Ƥ롥Ф뤤߽ФΡʺưԡʤưѰˡѤƲФǺ̼̰͡ˡ줫鲿복ǰܼ⤷Ϸ̷͡ˡᤶƲȤΤΡŪˡʡؼءII3II7ˡäơŪŪˤȤϡĤθǤ뤫顤ֺѰפͳȰտȤ򤽤ʤΤǤȤˡϤ븶Ǥ롥ơˤΰ̣ǤϡѲȤϡºݤ˥ꥹȥƥ쥹θͤĤưŤ򤽤ʤƤ뤬椨ˡָפĤȸäƤޤä̷ϤʤĤޤꡤ¤ϡïˤäơʺѰˡäơʺˡΤδǰäơʷˡΤŪ˺ΤǤ롥줬ѲˤϡָʤפȸΤϡʳŪʰ̣ǤθʤȤΤȤǤäơСʪŪʤΤΤФơͳγˤäơֵҴŪפǼʪΤ褦ʸϤʤȤ̣ˤƤΤߡäƤΤǤ롥Ϥ켫ΤȤƤʡָפȤѸλѤȿФƤΤǤϤʤͿƤ̣ȡĤϸǤⲿǤʤŪʸȸĥȿФƤΤǤ롥 (290--91)

ѲϡΤȤΤǤϤ뤬綠Τʤ¤ϡä꤬Τ¤뤫¸ߤΤǤäơä꼫ȤˤȤäƳŪʡʪŪɬΡֻʪפǤʤСθ֤ΡɬŪԲŪʵפǤʤ¤Ρΰ̣ǡָŪפͣȤϡͳŪäơ¤ΤȤΤǤ롥ʳϡʪŪʵǤꡤޤԤѼԤȤƤθĿͤθŪͳưԤäξǤ롥


̤˸ѲΡָפȸƤФƤΤϡ¤ϡָפȤϡ־פȤߤʤ٤ΤȤǤ롥θȤϡԤξΤȤˤ뼫ͳջ֤ˤѤǤ롥δ顤ƸѲθȽˤĤƹͤƤ

E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ꡽̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ

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2015-01-07 Wed

#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬ [phonology][gvs][vowel][diphthong][meosl][drift][teleology]

#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ȡ#2080. /sp/, /st/, /sk/ Ҳð ([2015-01-06-1]) ǰѡȤƬ (Ikegashira) ϡ"A Dependency Approach to Great Vowel Shift" ꤹʸǡ¸ (dependency phonology; DP) Ȥߤ첻 (gvs) ʬϤƤ롥ϰ¸ˤĤƤ̵ΤʬϤˤ첻ܤޤ᤿ѸμפʲѲˤϰӤ򸫤ȤǤȵƤꡤؿäΤʸɤǤߤƤꡤǿͤˤ񤷤äݤ߹᤿Ȼפ
¸ΩӤʬϤˤȡ첻ܤβѲϡӤƲṽ¤ڤ ("lightening") ǺѤȤ¸ˤַڤפϹ٤ŪǤˤŪΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤݥȤ첻ܤƲѲӤäƤꡤäưӤƵҤ뤳ȤǤȤĥǤ롥Τ褦ʼĥʤ뤫ˤϡή (drift) ѲŪ (teleology) Ȥ̵طǤϤʤºݡIkegashira (42) ϱѸˤˤӤ "lightening" ή˸ڤǤ롥줫顤첻ܤƲѲƱĥƤ롥

GVS is a change which is caused by that 'drift' (or tendency) of English to make the total weight of words lighter. To make all the 'long' vowels lighter, the phonological element |a| is made less powerful either by lowered (sic) to the the dependent position from the governing position or by deletion. In the cases of the vowels where there is no |a|, [i:] and [u:], the only way to make them lighter is to change the 'middle weight' phonological elements [i] and [u] with the lightest one |ə|. / . . . . As a result of lightening, the vowels have been raised or made into diphthongs. The problem of the starting point of this change thus has no meaning. It was 'simultaneous'. It is quite natural to suppose that GVS occurred at the same time as a result of the long and continuous 'trend' of English to lighten words in some way.


ŪˤϡʣŪʲѲӤǤΤϳΤ̥ϤǤ롥Ʊ褦ư顤Ritt Ρ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ⡤drift ȤŤؾäΤȻפѤʵȤơӤŪȳ첻ѲƱȤɤΤ褦ľܤ˷ӤĤΤ첻ܤӤ "lightening" ܻؤƤȤ줿ȤƤ⡤ϳƲѲƱ˵äȤưŪ˴ްդΤ夲 (push chain) Ǥ夲 (drag chain) ǤʤȤ̣Ǥϡ#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ ([2013-03-01-1]) Ȥ̤ΥХХȸäƤ褵ŪȤƤ٤
ʤƱ¸ʬϤˤС첻ܤΩѸγĹ (meosl) ϡϤû첻γơ˲ |a| ղä줿ΤȤưӤƵҤȤ (Ikegashira 35) ̥ϤȲƳǧǤǤ롥

Ikegashira (Kadota), Atsuko. "A Dependency Approach to Great Vowel Shift." Ľظʸ22桤2007ǯ31--43ǡ

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2014-09-27 Sat

#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ [language_change][causation][teleology][unidirectionality][invisible_hand][drift][functionalism]

εǰѤ Luraghi ƱʸǸѲŪ (teleology) ˤĤƤ롥teleology ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤˤƤäƴϢǰˤĤƤɬפ롥
ޤѲ therapy ʼšˤ prophylaxis ͽɡˤȤ롥#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) Ǽ夲ˤƤȤƵǽŪʸѲ (functionalism) 롥Kiparsky "language practices therapy rather than prophylaxis" (Luraghi 364) Ȥΰ⤤ĤƤ뤬Lass ʤɤϤɤǤʤȤƤ롥
Ǥϡfunctionalism teleology ƱΤʤΤۤʤΤʤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ȥδ֤ǰոϰפƤʤLass Ʊ뤷Ƥ褦Croft ʤɤҤԤ "functional proper"Ԥ "systemic functional" Ȥƶ̤Ƥ롥"systemic functional" ϸ teleology 򼨤"functional proper" üԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ؤޤüԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ȤƤ "functional" ȤɽѰۤѲ򼨤ˤĤƤѤ¤ˤơüԤΤǤϤʤ˸ "functionalism" äƤ褤⤷ʤ줬°ؤΤüԤ°ؤΤ̤ƤȤפ

Teleological explanations of language change are sometimes considered the same as functional explanations . . . . Croft . . . distinguishes between 'systemic functional,' that is teleological, explanations, and 'functional proper,' which refer to intentional mechanisms. Keller . . . argues that 'functional' must not be confused with 'teleological,' and should be used in reference to speakers, rather than to language: '[t]he claim that speakers have goals is correct, while the claim that language has a goal is wrong' . . . . Thus, to the extent that individual variants may be said to be functional to the achievement of certain goals, they are more likely to generate language change through invisible hand processes: in this sense, explanations of language change may also be said to be functional. (Luraghi 365--66)


ΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡפʤȤϡָ줬ѲפȡüԤפȤǰ̤ƤȤǤ롥#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡζ̼Τˤ⤢꤬ޤޤƤ뤬ޤüԡʽġˤäƤθǤꡤѲǤ롥üԼΤθѲˤƤ teleology ֤ϤʤȤLuraghi (365) ۩

Croft . . . warns against the 'reification or hypostatization of languages . . . Languages don't change; people change language through their actions.' Indeed, it seems better to avoid assuming any immanent principles inherent in language, which seem to imply that language has an existence outside the speech community. This does not necessarily mean that language change does not proceed in a certain direction. Croft rejects the idea that 'drift,' as defined by Sapir . . ., may exist at all. Similarly, Lass . . . wonders how one can positively demonstrate that the unconscious selection assumed by Sapir on the side of speakers actually exists. From an opposite angle, Andersen . . . writes: 'One of the most remarkable facts about linguistic change is its determinate direction. Changes that we can observe in real time---for instance, as they are attested in the textual record---typically progress consistently in a single direction, sometimes over long periods of time.' Keller . . . suggests that, while no drift in the Sapirian sense can be assumed as 'the reason why a certain event happens,' i.e., it cannot be considered innate in language, invisible hand processes may result in a drift. In other words, the perspective is reversed in Keller's understanding of drift: a drift is not the pre-existing reason which leads the directionality of change, but rather the a posteriori observation of a change brought about by the unconsciously converging activity of speakers who conform to certain principles, such as the principle of economy and so on . . . .


Ϣ drift, functionalism, invisible_hand, unidirectionality γƵ⻲ͤˤ줿

Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.

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2014-09-23 Tue

#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) [grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][pragmatics][subjectification][invisible_hand][teleology][drift][reanalysis][iconicity][exaptation][terminology][toc]

ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ­롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥

(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.


ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭򴶤뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸ򽦤ФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼

1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)


ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ

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2014-09-22 Mon

#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) [grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][productivity][construction_grammar][analogy][reanalysis][ot][contact][history_of_linguistics][teleology][discourse_marker][invited_inference]

#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) κǸDzʤ󵯤ĤäˡʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤפȤΤäĴ٤ƤߤȡʸˡӸݤʤΤ뤤Ϥ켫ȤưϸʤΤȤϡºݡʸˡθԤδ֤Ǥ褯ƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äϴϢʸˡθưäˤΰΰȯŸȳˤĤơTraugott εҤ˰͵򤷤Ƴ⤷
ʸˡϡ30;ǯۤɤ򤫤Ƹؤ礭ʥɤȤĹƤ礭ͤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥߤ븫Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤष "the expansion of various kinds" Ȥߤ븫Ǥ롥ξԤȤˡ̣ȲѲʸˡѲΩĤĤⲿ餫ηǴؤäƤȤߤƤ롤ä˷ŪѲȤδطɤȤ館뤫ˤäΩ줬ʬƤ롥
Ūˤϡʸˡ "reduction and increased dependency" ȤߤƤ̣ɺ (semantic bleaching) Ȳθ (reduction) åȤˤʤäȤǡ"unidirectionality from more to less complex structure, from more to less lexical, contentful status" (Traugott 273) Ȥθĥ롥θ Givón "Today's morphology is yesterday's syntax." ΰ⤤ŵŪ˽󤵤Ƥ뤬˰̲ǡΤ褦ʰΥǥƤƤ롥ǤϡΧ (autonomy) 򼺤¾Ǥؤν° (dependency) ٹ礤ʤ顤ĤˤϾäƤޤȤʸˡΥ饤ե뤬ɽƤ롥

discourse > syntax > morphology > morphphonemics > zero


θϡ1990ǯȾаʹߡ¿Ƚˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäǤϤʤޤӸݤȤߤ븫ΨŪʷˤʤȤ븫Ф졤ȤȤˡæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ָò (lexicalisation) ʤɤΩǰŦ褦ˤʤäȿΰĤȤæʸˡȤϲòȤϲȤɵ椵褦ˤʤꡤʸˡȤޤΥեɤϳ礷Ƥä
ʸˡΤ⤦1Ĥθϡreduction ǤϤʤष expansion ǤȤΤʸˡܤ줿ϡƤޤˤäɽ줿ꡤˡʡʤɤ˴ؤΤäܤܤ³ɸʤɤܤȡʸˡȤϤष¤ŪʳĥǤŬϰϤγǤϤʤȤפƤ롥㤨Сؼ줬괧ؤʸˡ뤳Ȥˤꡤͭ̾ˤ³褦ˤʤꡤŬϰϤ̤Ȥʤäʸˡ̣ΰ̲ݲǤ뤳ȤͤСŬϰϤȤϼǤ롥 (productivity) γȸƤ褤ܸΡ֤Ȥǡפξɽɸؤȯãʤɤ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥª줺ष autonomy ͭƤȤͤ롥ˤơʸˡϸѲ (pragmaticalisation) βȤӤĤ褦ˤʤä
ʸˡ2ĤθҲ𤷤ǯǤʸˡϿäơʤȯŸȳ뤲Ƥ롥㤨С1990ǯιʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) оˤꡤʸˡθǤ̣ȷ֤Υڥ󥰤ռʬϤܤ褦ˤʤä㤨Сñפ A lot of fans is for sale. ʣפ A lot of fans are for sale. ؤѲ A lot of our problems are psychological. Τ褦ɽƤΤߤȡʸˡȤȤΰʬϤȤ狼롥ۤˡgive an answer make a promise ʤɤΡַڤư괧ܹ԰̾פʣ⡤ʸʸˡʸˡδ뤳ȤǤ
ʸˡΰˤĤƤˤʤäƤ̤ϡȤͶƳ (invited inference) ŦƤ롥ޤ (analogy) ʬ (reanalysis) Τ褦ʸŤǰФƤ⡤ʸˡΰ⡤ưŤᥫ˥Ȥ顤ƲλߤʤƤƤ롥ȤΤϡʸˡȤϰʬϤǤȤͤ졤ʬϤȤϴ¸ι¤ȤȤ٤ʤƤʤΤȹͤ뤫ǡΥǥȤʸˡꤹȡŬ (Optimality Theory) ˤʬϤȤƤ롥ܿʬϡʸˡμѤȤⰷ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʸˡΰϸ¤ʤȤäƤƤ롥

Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Grammaticalization." Chapter 15 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 271--85.

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2014-09-19 Fri

#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ [drift][grammaticalisation][generative_grammar][syntax][auxiliary_verb][teleology][language_change][unidirectionality][causation][diachrony]

Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤ򼨤ȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥

Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)


So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)


Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ

Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.

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2014-01-19 Sun

#1728. Jespersen θ [language_change][teleology][evolution][unidirectionality][drift][history_of_linguistics][artificial_language][language_myth]

ѸˤμȤDZѸ줬ФƤѲ⤹ȡָϤɤɤѲƤƤפȤȿ򼨤ȤΤۤ¿ϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) (2) ˵󤲤ָѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤפƱΤǤꡤѤȤǤƤ֤٤Τ⤷ʤεǤҤ٤ȤꡤѲϿǤǤʤȤΤθؼԤθǤ롥ȤĤƤϡ̾ʸؼԤΤʤˤ⡤ѤȾԤǥޡαѸؼ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) ⤽1ͤǤ롥

. . . in all those instances in which we are able to examine the history of any language for a sufficient length of time, we find that languages have a progressive tendency. But if languages progress towards greater perfection, it is not in a bee-line, nor are all the changes we witness to be considered steps in the right direction. The only thing I maintain is that the sum total of these changes, when we compare a remote period with the present time, shows a surplus of progressive over retrogressive or indifferent changes, so that the structure of modern languages is nearer perfection than that of ancient languages, if we take them as wholes instead of picking out at random some one or other more or less significant detail. And of course it must not be imagined that progress has been achieved through deliberate acts of men conscious that they were improving their mother-tongue. On the contrary, many a step in advance has at first been a slip or even a blunder, and, as in other fields of human activity, good results have only been won after a good deal of bungling and 'muddling along.' (326)


. . . we cannot be blind to the fact that modern languages as wholes are more practical than ancient ones, and that the latter present so many more anomalies and irregularities than our present-day languages that we may feel inclined, if not to apply to them Shakespeare's line, "Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms," yet to think that the development has been from something nearer chaos to something nearer kosmos. (366)


Jespersen ɤΤ褦ˤƸѤĤ˻äΤࡼʥ (84--85) ϡJespersen 1928ǯ Novial ȤФطʤʬϤΤ褦ɾƤNovial ˤĤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи͹ ([2011-12-11-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

बؤɤ夤ΤϤۤοͤξ⤤äߤΤǤꡤޤΤʤˤäȤŤ顤äȤ⿼򤪤ƤΰĤΤǤäȤΤϡθΨ֤ηкӤƤߤФ褤ȤͤǤ롥ˤĤŤΤϡʿŪˤϡǤդΰˤĤƤߤƤ⤢ȤˤĤƤߤƤ⡤鸫ȡθѲ¤Ԥθ¤꾡äƤΤȤͤǤ롽ϡäȤŪ˳ǧƤȾΤ뤽Τ褦ʡֿפȤƼΤ褦ʤΤ󤷤Ƥ롥ʤŪȤñ㲽뤳ȡɽǽͤû̡ʬŪĤޤŪ¤ȯãμͳʥˤ֤ε§ζŪʿ̴ˤǤ롥ʡظο⡤ä˱Ѹȹ礷ơ١ˡޥƥͤߤȤ˸ƤȤäȤΤˤϤԤΤʤˤ桼ȥԥָΤ뤷Ȥ⸫ʤħ¤ȿФˡɥĤʸˡˤäƹƤäФȤƤϤäѤ襤äΤȹͤƸȡ¤˶ŪǼ襤ȤΤϡδʲϤޤäƤ˻ĺ˰֤ƤꡤˤϤĤͤ˷֤ȹ¤ѻˤǤ롤Ȥäʡָθס


ĤޤꡤJespersen ϡʤƾʤ餺ߤˤϤäƤָѲϴʾ֤δǤפȤѤйơѤǤФȤȤˤʤ롥ػŪˤ Jespersen ɾǤϤʤ
ˤҤ٤褦ˡJespersen ήθѤϡߤθؤǤϰŪ˼ƤʤˤĤơ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ڤӡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ

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2013-07-24 Wed

#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? [language_change][causation][invisible_hand][teleology][drift][functionalism]

֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩ󤬰ۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) 󤬼Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 󤬼롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ͹ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦

the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)


ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤ򸫤ȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥

As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.


Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥ򤯤ȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥󤬷Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ

Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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2013-02-28 Thu

#1403. drift Ū Ritt λ [drift][teleology][unidirectionality][causation][language_change][functionalism]

ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǽ夲ʸǡRitt ˸ؾνפǤ drift ήˤˤޤȤĤᤤȤƤ롥drift ϡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) Ǥ夲Τ褦󼨤뤳ȤǤ롥üԸĿͤϼοδ֤ĶƸѲ³褦ȤưŤʤɤäƤʤϤʤΤˡʤĶƤȤפʤѲΤ줽ΤΤüԤĶۤȤ̿äƤ뤫Τ褦ʿ񤤤򸫤ΤϤʤ Ritt (215) ΤȤФǼȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

[S]ince individual speakers are normally not aware of the long-term histories of their languages and have no reason to be interested in them at all, it is difficult to see why they should be motivated to adjust their behaviour in communication or language acquisition to make the development of their language conform to any long-term trend.


ФRitt (215) ϸüԤˤĤƤ3Ĥ򤹤뤳ȤDzǤȽҤ٤롥

First, . . . the case can be made that even though whole language systems do not represent historical objects, their constituents do, because they are transmitted faithfully enough among speakers and thereby establish populations and lineages of constituent types which persist in time. Secondly, when speakers make choices among different variants of a linguistic constituent, they are not completely free. Instead their choice is always limited (a) by universal constraints on human physiology and (b) by socio-historical contingencies such as the relative prestige of different constituent variants. Since it would be against the self-interests of individual speakers to resist them, their choices can be expected to reflect physiological and social constraints more or less automatically. Thirdly, a speaker never chooses among isolated pairs of constituent variants. Instead constituent choice always occurs in the context of actual discourse, where any constituent of a linguistic system is always used and expressed in combination with others.


ƶä٤ȤˡüԤϾ嵭˴ŤưˤơŪҲŪʵȤƵǽƤˤʤȤ򤬼 (215--16)

In such interactions between constituents the role of speakers will be restricted to responding --- unconsciously and more or less automatically --- to physiological and social constraints on their communicative behaviour. In other words, speakers will not figure as autonomous, active and whimsical agents of change, but merely provide the mechanics through which linguistic constituents interact with each other.


ΥǥˤСüԤϡġθܤߤȤΩƤƤͥåȥΤʤư롤ŪӼҲŪʵǽͿ줿޼ȤȤˤʤ롥üԤѲμΤǤϤʤ޲ǤȤϡ controversial

Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-03-1]

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2013-02-07 Thu

#1382. ָѲϤѲǤ [language_change][teleology][drift][unidirectionality]

ѲɤΤ褦ˤȤ館뤫ȤˤĤƤϡѲγƵǰäƤ̾ʸʱѸ˳ؼ David Crystal (2) θѲѤΤƤߤ褦

[L]anguage is changing around you in thousands of tiny different ways. Some sounds are slowly shifting; some words are changing their senses; some grammatical constructions are being used with greater or less frequency; new styles and varieties are constantly being formed and shaped. And everything is happening at different speeds and moving in different directions. The language is in a constant state of multidimensional flux. There is no predictable direction for the changes that are taking place. They are just that: changes. Not changes for the better; nor changes for the worse; just changes, sometimes going one way, sometimes another.


Ѹˤܸˤ衤νִ֤ˤ⡤¿θܤۤʤ®٤ǰۤʤѲƤ롥"multidimensional flux" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥ޤѲŪŪ줿 (teleology) ϤʤȤˤ⻿롥ŪˤϤäƤ˰㤤ʤŪ˰ݤ³뤳ȤϤʤʴϢ unidirectionality γƵ򻲾ȡˡŪȤϤäƤ⡤drift ȤƸڤ²ˤޤοΤ褦ˡǯȤĹˤ錄ְŪʡ⤢ˤϤ롥Τ褦˲餫ˤ衤줬ɤǤȤǤȤʹѤޤǤϤʤȤȤǧƤ褤Crystal Τ褦ˡ"just changes" ʤΤ
#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ӡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ǤƱ褦ʵ򤷤ΤǡȤ

Crystal, David. "Swimming with the Tide in a Sea of Language Change." IATEFL Issues 149 (1999): 2--4.

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2012-12-27 Thu

#1340. Strang αѸˤ̵Ū [historiography][teleology]

ε#1339. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡʾ岼ȿžǡˡ ([2012-12-26-1]) ӡ#253. Ѹ˵ҤĤˡ ([2010-01-05-1]) ǡStrang ˤѸˤ̾ȤǺѤƤ̹ŪҡפˤĤƴñ˿줿丫ˤСˤ򸽺ߤ̤äƵҤˡΰĤȤơָŪʻ˴Ť񿴤򤯤פȤǤŦܲ Strang μĥʹƤߤ褦ĹStrang (20--21) Ѥ롥

The principle of chronological sequence once adopted still leaves a choice --- to move forward from the earliest records to the present day, or back from the present day to the earliest records. Most historians have preferred to move towards the present day. Yet this is an enterprise in which it is doubtfully wise to 'Begin at the beginning and go on till you come to the end: then stop.' The most important reasons for this are clear in the very formulation of the King's directive to the White Rabbit, in the implication that there is a beginning and an end. Something begins, of course; the documentation of the language. But, however carefully one hedges the early chapters about, it is difficult to avoid giving the impression that there is a beginning to the English language. At every point in history, each generation has been initiated into the language-community of its seniors; the form of the language is different every time, but process and situation are the same, wherever we make an incision into history. The English language does not have a beginning in the sense commonly understood --- a sense tied to the false belief that some languages are older than others. / At the other terminal it is almost impossible to free oneself from the teleological force of words like 'end'. The chronological narrative comes to an end because we do not know how to continue it beyond the present day; but the story is always 'to be continued'. Knowing this perfectly well, one is yet liable to bias the narrative in such a way as to subordinate the question 'How was it in such a period'? to the question 'How does the past explain the present?' Both are important question, but the first is more centrally historical. / In addition, the adoption of reverse chronological order imposes on us the discipline of asking the same questions of every period; this is salutary even where it does no more than force us to acknowledge our ignorance.


󤹤СѸˤ̵Ū˵Ҥ3Ĥ롥

(1) Ѹ "beginning" ֻϤޤפʤȤ¤Ĵ뤳ȤǤ롥
(2) Ѹ "end" ֽסʤ뤤ϡŪסˤʤȤ¤Ĵ뤳ȤǤ롥
(3) ƱƻεҤˤƷ֤Ȥ;ʤߤλˤ桹θ³̵ΡˤפƤ롥

ϡ˵Ҥ1ĤˡǤȤʾůؤؤȰƧ߹̵ŪҤΤۤ "more centrally historical" ǤȤǧϡStrang (why õˤ⵭ҡhow õˤŻ뤷Ѹ˲ȤǤ뤳ȤʪäƤ롥αѸ˵ҤΤΤϹ¤ؤ˴ŤϩʤΤ̵ŪҤκѤˤäơä˴ѤɺäƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥

Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-10-07-1] [2016-02-01-1]

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2011-08-12 Fri

#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny [functionalism][language_change][systemic_regulation][phoneme][phonemicisation][minimal_pair][functional_load][teleology]

2֤εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ȡǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ǡSchendl 礤˽Фʤ顤ǽ (functionalism) Ĵǽ (systemic regulation) (therapeutic power) ǽô (functional load) ʤɤѸѤƤ˴ϢƼΤ褦ʼ䤬󤻤줿

Schendl (69)ΰѤˤĤƤҤȤļ򤵤Ƥ
'therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part'
ȤޤɤΤ褦㤬Τפ⤫Ӥޤ󡥼ϤΤƤޤԶѹդȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤȤƤⵤˤʤޤΤǸꤤޤ


Schendl ƱǶŪ󤲤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɼԤȤƤϳͤƤߤ뤷ʤ㤨вˤѲ¾㤨зˤ̤θѲϢŪ˰Ȥ褦ϱѸˤǤ¿뤬Ūˡ뼣Ū (therapeutic) Ѳ̤ΤȤǤ°Ȥʤ褦 (pathogenic) ѲϢȤΤϤäȡΤ˹ͤ줿
ʤ㤬פ⤫ФʤΤȹͤƤߤȡ"therapeutic" ȤѸ줬Ū˲ؤҴŪ˷᤬Ȥطʤ뤫ǤϤʤȻפä̤ѸǤϡּפܻؤǽɸϡ׾֤ηϤˤơפȤϤʤ֤ؤΤǽΩΩäŪȤƤϡȤ "a symmetrical, balanced, simple, economical system" ظƤȤߤʤȤǤʤηƻ Schendl ˸ˡηϤʣβηϤʣȤ߹碌ˤäͭΤǤꡤΰѲ벼ηϤδ鸫 therapeutic ȤƤ⡤̤βηϤδ鸫 pathogenic Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǤϡηΤδ餹ȡθѲϤɤ therapeutic ʤΤ뤤 pathogenic ʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤
ȤƻפĤΤϡεǤ夲 /θ/ /ð/ Ωȯ̤θ򤹤 /ð/ Dz (phonemicisation) ȤѲǤ롥űѸǤ,
[θ] [ð] 1Ĥβ (phoneme) 2Ĥΰ۲ (allomorphs) Ȥ֤Ťˤʤä˼ȤƵǽˤͭ [ð] Ԥʤ褦ˤʤ (ex. that, the, then, there, they, thou, though, with; cf. verners_law) thy vs. thigh Τ褦Ǿ (minimal pair) /θ/ /ð/ ̡βǤؤʬƤä
/ð/ βDzưŤǽŪʴȡҤ٤褦˼Τ褦ˤʤ롥Ѹ˳ (obstruent) Ǥ̵ͭΩ礭ʵǽô̤ôäƤꡤ໤ǤΩηǡ˳о»ʤ°פȹͤ롥/θ/ /ð/ βDzϤо򸺤ǺѤ°ּפƤȲᤵ롥ºݤˤ thy vs. thigh κǾФϾʤΤǡ̵ͭΩϤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩƤΤϡѸ첻ΤȤ̵ͭȤΩˤƵǽŪǤ롥ʾȤСεϤޤ therapeutic ʹͤɽƤȸ
ƱѲ (graphemics) Ω줫鸫ȡषηŪоƤȤͤ롥ˤơ1Ǥ1ʸбƤΤǤоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪǤ뤳ȤϵƤʤѸϤ˰̾⤤ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ơоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪʲǤȽǤδطɵ᤹褦ʸѲȤСϽδ therapeutic ѲȤȤǤȤҤ /ð/ βDz˹碌ƽηϤƱͤѲ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡ̤Ȥ <th> ȤŻ (digraph) ɽ蘆1ĤνǤ2Ĥΰۤʤ벻Ǥб뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäϡΩ줫餹ȡtherapeutic ǤϤʤष pathogenic Ѳȸ롥
ޤȤȡ/ð/ βDzȤѲϡδ therapeutic Ѳäδ pathogenic ѲäȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡ䤽¾򤹤٤ƹͤ碌ơѸȤηΤؤαƶȤǸȡѲϤϤƥץ饹äΤޥʥäΤƶμ̤ҴŪ˷¬뤳Ȥ񤷤ΤǡȽǤϤܤĤʤȤˤʤʤΰ̣Ǥϡǽô̤ȤϱƶҴŪ˷¬褦ȤĤߤθǤꡤˡ1ĤʤΤ⤷ʤˡ
ˤơäơּפȤäơ¡פȤ뤫Ϥ褯狼ʤưʪξǤ顤Ʒڤ¤ͽɡ̤ͽܼιͤ롥ʤߤˡѤƤ pathogenic ȯ¤ˤȤƻ therapeutic еȤƺصŪѤޤǤǡѸȤ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-03-13 Sun

#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) [drift][synthesis_to_analysis][grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][teleology]

Ѳ drift ֥ɥեȡήήѲפˤĤơܥ֥οǼ夲Ƥ (see drift) Ѹ drift ϥޥɤ drift ѾƤꡤԤϰ² drift ѾƤ롥ѸˤȴϢƻŦǤ⸲ drift ϡanalysis synthesis ؤθ෿ѲˤĤƤϡMeillet 򻲾Ȥ[2011-02-12-1], [2011-02-13-1]ʤɤǼ夲
ʤ drift ȤΤΤĹ餯ƤƤ뤬ޤ̤Ǥ롥Ѳˤ drift ϥήǤϤʤήؤ⡤û֤ήǤϤʤˤ錄äƻ³ήǤ롥Ի׵ĤʤΤϡѲμΤǤüԤϡѤݤ˲θѲήʤɰռ⤷ƤʤϤˤ⤫餺θѲή򼡤طѤǤ椯ȤǤ롥Ѳ drift ȤϡüԤΰռĶȤǺѤƤߤϤʤΤ⤷ȤȡüԤΩͭΤȤȤˤʤ롥褬Τɬ
drift ȤѸϡꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) ǽ˻ȤäΤǤ롥"Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift." (150) ȸäƤꡤ줽켫ΤưϤȤʤäή߽ФƤ뤫Τ褦ʵҤǤ롥θͭФ Sapir Ȥ褷Ƥս꤬롥

Are we not giving language a power to change of its own accord over and above the involuntary tendency of individuals to vary the norm? And if this drift of language is not merely the familiar set of individual variations seen in vertical perspective, that is historically, instead of horizontally, that is in daily experience, what is it? (154)


Sapir ϡѲ켫ȤϤˤäƤǤϤʤüԤˤŪѰ̵ۤռŪˤäȤȤǧƤϤ롥

The drift of a language is constituted by the unconscious selection on the part of its speakers of those individual variations that are cumulative in some special direction. (155)


üԤʤ drift ʬ褦ʶˡޤǤظѲ䤷ʤƤ椯ΤϡѤ餺̤ΤΤޤޤǤ롥ɤΤȤSapir drift Ȥ mystical impressive ʸݤǤȤΤ褦Ǥ롥

Our very uncertainty as to the impending details of change makes the eventual consistency of their direction all the more impressive. (155)


դäСSapir ϱѸ줬ä¾줫Ѥ뷹 drift ǤȹͤƤ롥

I do not think it likely, however, that the borrowings in English have been as mechanical and external a process as they are generally represented to have been. There was something about the English drift as early as the period following the Norman Conquest that welcomed the new words. They were a compensation for something that was weakening within. (170)


Ǹ "something" ȤϲʤΤ
ѲΰȤϡ30ǯδ֤ grammaticalisation θ椬ʤȤˤäƿ̿᤭ޤ줿grammaticalisation ϸѲ unidirectionality ˾ƤƤ뤫Ǥ롥Lightfoot ϡ˷㤷ۤ򾧤Ƥ롥⤷˰ drift Ȳꤹȡ̤˸ˤ˥ǤʤϤüԤˤθưϤ򵢤ȤϤǤʤȤȡϤʤΤmystery ʳΤʤˤΤǤʤǤϤʤ (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, p. 399)
Sapir 衤drift Ϥޤ˲򤫤Ƥʤ

Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. 2nd Vol. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.

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2010-10-18 Mon

#539. Ʊ۵ [homonymy][antonymy][semantic_change][homonymic_clash][teleology][systemic_regulation]

10ϱư䥤٥ȤηǤ롥Ūʥ٥Ȥή줿ꤹȡ椬ȤնǤϰ⥢ʥ󥹤Įˤޤ롥īϥƥΤפߤȤʤޤפή줿ǤͤùΤϡֹŷפֹŷפɤäʸ̮ȸŪȽǤºݤˤϸ뤳ȤϤʤƬΥʥ󥹤ˤŬʤϸʤȻפäĤƤϡֹŷפƥ󡤡ֹŷפ復ƥȲ̾ξǤϰۤʤäƤȯƱʤΤƱȿոȤ롥
ȤʬˡʤȽǥʥ󥹤ή줿ΤǤ롥ϰŷΤפߤȤʤޤפơ˿ʬˤϡĹˤ밭ŷΤפߤȤʤޤפȺƤѲɤɤʬ䤹ʤäƤǤϤʤ˶ää뤤ϸƤɤ߾夲ƤƲʤʬˤȻפäΤˤ衤Ǻפ˻äͽäˤ褯ʬåȤʤä
ơ¾˸򾷤䤹ƱδϸȤƤϡкߡפȡ׺ߡפפĤѴκݤդפϸ켭ŵ٤ˤȡ

ؤ󡾤кߡ̾ѡˤä¸ߤ뤳ȡԻˡ͸ס٤Ρ
ؤ󡾤׺ߡ̾ѡ椭錄ä¸ߤ뤳ȡܳϤˡ


ܸ񤷤ʤȻפ碌뤬Ʊ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ȸƤФ븽ݤϱѸˤ⸫롥Ѹˤ̾ϡqueen ֽ ( < OE cwēn ) quean ֤Фء ( < OE cwene ) Ǥ롥ξԤϷŪˤ̣Ūˤ̤ƤѸ첻ͻ礷̡Ū˶̤Ĥʤʤạ̈ŪˤȿոȤͤ򾷤ǽ⤤ɡԤ18ȾФ˿ष
gate ( < OE geat ) gait ƻ ( < ME gate < ON gata ) ƱͤǡȿոȤޤǤϸʤʸ̮ˤäƤϸ򾷤ǽʬˤڥʤΤǡԤΡƻϩפθϿषξˤ gait Ȥ켫ΤäƤޤȤϤʤ⤭פȤò뤳ȤˤäĤä
ܸǤѸǤƱ۵줬¸㤬ǧȤϤ¿Ϥʤ٤λ֤Ϥ뤬ǽŪ˥ڥΤɤ餫ޤǸѲʤȤȤ¿Ʊ۵ͤβѲθưϤȹͤ뵡ǽŪʸ ( functionalism ) ϡŪŪ ( teleological ) Ǥ񤵤뤳ȤϤ뤬ΡֹŷפΥʥ󥹤ʹƤȡ⤢ʤƱդʤ롥
ֹŷפ򤱤褦ˤʤäƤ椯ȤܸɽϤϼ岽ȹͤ⤢Сߥ˥βȤߤ⤢ˡʤȤäƤϱѸˤȤǤʤΤ˾λ㤫ȽǤȡĹܤǸСʤȤäդˤơֹŷפֹŷפΤɤ餫ѤʤʤäƤ椯ǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ

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2010-07-19 Mon

#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤ [language_change][teleology][drift]

[2010-07-03-1]εǡѲ켫ΤϿǤǤʤܤѤäƤ椯ȤȰʳβΤǤʤȤȤ򼨺ѸˤʤɤθˤȡѲ˰礭ή졤ɺή ( drift ) 褦˸뤳ȤϳΤϰηǤꡤŪŪ ( teleological ) ̣ŪǤϤʤˤĤƤϡĹ浭٤Ƭǡ֤椯Ϥή䤨ơ⡤Ȥοˤ餺ߤ֤ϡľäķӤơפȤɤޤꤿʤ
Vendryes ̾κǸʲΰ⡤ѲޤäȤꤷƤ롥ϸߤμҲŪʽװȲθŪʰ仺Ȥݤ蘆뤳Ȥˤäơή褦ѲƤΤȤ̵Ѥɤ߼롥϶ݿ

We can now see how the hypothesis of progress in language must be understood. Progress in the absolute sense is impossible, just as it is in morality or politics. It is simply that different states exist, succeeding each other, each dominated by certain general laws imposed by the equilibrium of the forces with which they are confronted. So is it with language. In the history of languages a certain relative progress can be observed. Languages may be adapted in a greater or lesser degree to certain states of civilization. Progress consists in the best possible adaptation of a language to the needs of the people using it. But, however real this progress may be, it is never definitive. The characteristics of a language are maintained just so long as the people speaking it preserve the same habits of thought; and they are liable to modification and degeneration, or to complete disappearance. It is quite wrong to think of language as an ideal entity evolving independently of men and pursuing its own ends. Language does not exist apart from the people who think and speak it; its roots go deep into the consciousness of each one of us; thence it is that it draws the sustenance enabling it to blossom in speech. But personal consciousness is only one of the elements of the collective consciousness whose laws are imposed upon every individual. The evolution of language thus constitutes only one aspect of the evolution of society: we should not see in it anything in the nature of direct advance toward a definite goal. The task of the philologist comes to an end when he has recognized in language the play of social forces and the influence of history. (359)


Vendryes, J. Language: A Linguistic Introduction to History. Trans. Paul Radin. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925.

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2010-07-03 Sat

#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ [language_change][evolution][teleology][language_myth][language_equality]

Aitchison (6--7) ˤȡѲФ͡٤ϻʬ롥

(1) Ѳϴʾ֤δǤ
(2) ѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤ
(3) ѲϿǤǤʤ

Ѳ򰷤̻ؤǤ (3) QǤ롥Ѳñ˸θɽƤǤꡤǤǤʤñ㲽ǤʣǤʤ¦̤ñ㲽äƤ褦˸Ƥ¾¦̤ǤʣäƤΤǤꡤȤƤθΨϤۤѤʤ ( see [2010-02-14-1] )
(1) (2) ΰոϤޤ˿͸դƤ롥(1) Ԥϡ줬ĤƤŪʾ֤֤ƤƤꡤ˵äƤѲϤ褽Ǥȹͤ롥ܤǤ⡤Ԥθդ졤ʸФпʹʤɤˤΤܤ뤬 (1) ιͤȴطƤ롥ꥹǤϡShakespeare ɽʸͤ줿16Ⱦ Elizabeth īդ꤬ѸβǤꡤʹߤۤλѤäƤƤΤȤͤäȤߤʤΤϿ͡ξʤΤ⤷ʤ
˱ѸˤĤơBrinton and Arnovick ϡ(1) ιͤޤ˹ԤϤäƤΤϼΤ褦ͳ뤫ǤȽҤ٤Ƥ (20--21)

Ťֶۤ΢֤Сؤò
ʸؤƴʳαƶӽѸ Americanisation ؤδʤɡ
ҲŪиʤ¤λ롤ܳȯؤƴʤɡ
ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤι٤˶ŪʸΤۤͥƤȤռä˱Ѹ϶ŪǤʤظѲ뤲ƤƤΤǡ
񤭸դνŻʽ񤭸դäդ٤ƤޤѲʤΤǡͥƤȤȯۤˤĤʤ

(2) ˤĤƤϡ19ӸؼԤƤʲŪʸѤȿǤƤ롥ʪñ㤫ʣؤȿʲƤ褦ˡब̤ʸؿʲƤ褦ˡ⸶ϤΨŪʷ֤鸽θΨŪʷ֤ؤȿʲƤȤȯۤǤ롥αѸˤ֤ƤΥꥢڡѡǤ⡤Ѹˤˤޤñ㲽βʤɤؤơֱѸϸΨŪˡȤ䤹˿ʲƤȤ狼äפȤ괶ʤʤʲŪʸѤ̢䤷Ƥڵ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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