Ϣ World Englishes ʱѸѼˤεƤ뤬ѤƤ͡ʱѸνѼȤϰ̤ѸǤбѸνˤۤʤʤ (dialect) ΤȤѼ (variety) ȸƤؤƤΤϡ¿ʤȤмDz¤ʼҲؤδȤ٤ΤǡؽŪʸʬ뤳ȤĤĻѤƤ뤬ƤξϡפΤۤʬ䤹ϻפäƤ롥
ǤϡWorld Englishes θϱѸΡء (dialectology) ȤߤƤ褤ΤȤȡ Yes No ȤȤؽѸξ "dialectology" ȤѸ⡤ˤäƼ깤ĤƤ롥"English dialectology" Ȥˤϡꥹ䥢ꥫνθؤΤŵŪǤꡤȤХɱѸ䥸ޥѸθؤ "English dialectology" ȤϸʤؽѤ⤢äƤʤȤ⤢Τ濴ѸȤäƤ褤
Τ褦ʼ깤ơϰˤäѰۤ͡ʱѸפΤȤ "dialect(s)" ȤߤʤΩСɱѸ䥸ޥѸơ1Ĥ "dialect" ˰㤤ʤ椹뤳Ȥ "English dialectology" ˹뤳Ȥˤʤߡɤ餽Τ褦ʸϴǤ롥ɱѸ䥸ޥѸθ "World Englishes" θȤƸڤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʸƤؤˡѸؤΡְǡפָ롤ȤäƤ褤⤷ʤENL Ѽ ESL Ѽ͡ǰۤʤΤȤȤ⡤Ϥ̤ο¤ޤǤ褦ˤפΤǡˤĤƤʾεϹƤ
嵭ƧޤĤĤϡŪ "English dialectology" ȡȤߤ٤Ƥ "World Englishes" θϡä᤹ܶ٤ȹͤƤ롥Υꥹ䥢ꥫǺʬƤ䡤ꥹˤƸűѸ줫鸽Ѹޤ¿ͤ¸ߤƤŪʽˤߤ˭٤ѰۤWorld Englishes ֤ˤߤ˭٤Ѱۤ٤ơˤƤ̤ˤƤäƤȤϻפʤǤ롥ŪʵϤǤСΰѤˤʤꥹ䥢ꥫαѸζʬۤѸȤ٤뤳Ȥϡֳʰ㤤פΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤݡѸ줬顤㤨Х֥ƥǰƬˤƤ⡤ŪѰۤϻפΤۤ˭äΤǤ롥
嵭λιͤȤ褽Ʊݤ Anderwald (265) θѤ롥
Perhaps most importantly, the recent dialectological and sociolinguistic study of non-standard varieties has shown the enormous breadth of variation that English in Britain and the United States already demonstrates. Whenever we find patterns in World Englishes that diverge from standard British or American English, it is of the utmost importance to take this internal variability into consideration. Bearing in mind Chambers's idea of vernacular universals, comparing constructions in Englishes worldwide with just the codified standard(s) is comparing apples with oranges, or, worse, with just one orange. We might find that what looks like an exotic feature of a variety of English in the southern, eastern or other hemisphere, is perhaps mirrored in an isolated dialect area in the Scottish Highlands, in a village in Ireland, or in an undocumented variety of the English Midlands. The call thus is for researchers of World Englishes to take note of the extensive dialectological work that is currently underway on varieties in non-standard 'homeland' varieties, to avoid this kind of mismatch, and ultimately misanalysis.
αѸ˸ˤ濴ŪʥơޤѸؤˤΤ츫ȤΥƤ褦ˤߤ븽 World Englishes ˴ؿƤΤϡΤ褦ͳǤ롥
Anderwald, Lieselotte. "World Englishes and Dialectology." Chapter 13 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 252--71.
Ϣ World Englishes Υϥɥ֥åɤ߿ʤƤ롥夲Τ "World Englishes, Code-Switching, and Convergence" ꤹϤѸ2 (bilingualism) 뤤¿ (multilingualism) δĶѤ뤳Ȥ¿̤θŪѡȥ2¿˸ѼԤɤ̤αѸѼѤƲä뵡¿ҲˤơʣλѤδоŪ2ĤΤȤ롥
1Ĥϡ̤2ĤθȤɤڤؤʤäʤ code-switching Ǥ롥ȤƸ³뤳Ȥˤäơʿ̤ȤƳ˻Ǥ2ĤθμΩݤ롥
̤2ĤθǤ롤뤤ϸߤ˶뤳ȤˤäƳȤȤƳ˻ȤȤ⤢줬 convergence ȸƤФΤǤ롥ǤϳƸμΩϾʤ롥
Τ褦 code-switching convergence ϡȤƱ褦ʼҲŪﲼΤΡȿФƤ롥ξԤΤ褦ʴطˤäȤϡޤǵŤʤäBullock et al. (218) ꡤˤĤƤսѤ褦
Bilingual speech comprises diverse types of language mixing phenomena, of which CS [= code-switching] is but one example. Another process that may arise in bilingual speech is convergence. CS is characterized by divergence; it is the alternation between linguistic systems that are kept distinct. In convergence, on the other hand, the perceived distance between the language systems is narrowed such that they become structurally more similar, sometimes to the extreme point that the boundaries between languages collapse. In such cases, it is quite possible that the structural constraints that once functioned to preserve the autonomy of the languages while a speaker code-stitches between them are gradually abandoned. As bilingual speakers perceive more overlap between languages, they may mix more liberally between them.
code-switching convergence ϤޤǿŪŪʤΤǤꡤºݾξԤζ̤ۣǤꡤϢ³ΤξüΤƤΤǤϡ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1]) ʤɤǤߤcode-switching ʤΤѤʤΤ̤ƤȤˤؤäƤ롥
Bullock, Barbara E., Lars Hinrichs, and Almeida Jacqueline Toribio. "World Englishes, Code-Switching, and Convergence." Chapter 11 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 211--31.
ŪˤХɱѸ䥤ɱѸΤ褦 "indigenised Englishes" ϡظȱѸȤθܿӸ (language_shift) η̤ȤѼǤꡤѸȤΰŪʴطݤƤȤ롥ʥ Saramaccan Τ褦 "English creoles" ϡѸȤθܿȤƤ뤬ǤѸȤľܤΰŪʴطΤʤѼȤ (cf. #463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]))
嵭 indigenised Englishes English creoles 椵ݤνλǤ롥פ˥쥪ܿ㳰ŪʥȤȤ館ΩɽŪԤȤ Thomason and Kaufman Ƥ
ǯǤ indigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤ϡθĥ褦ܼΰ㤤ǤϤʤ٤ˤʤΤǤϤʤȤäƤƤ롥Τ褦ʸѤ Winford (196) ˼褦
This recognition has led to a growing rapport between the study of the New Englishes and the study of English-lexicon creoles in the last couple of decades. It has given impetus to an earlier tradition of research concerned with the relationship between the two types of contact Englishes, which dates back to the 1980s . . . . The links between the two fields have more recently been reaffirmed in the work of scholars . . . . It is now generally acknowledged that the creation of the New Englishes shares a great deal in common with creole formation, with regard to both the socio-historical circumstances and the processes of change that were involved. The challenge facing us is to show how these two dimensions of language shift---the socio-historical and the linguistic---interact in the emergence of contact varieties. On the one hand, the diversity of outcomes that resulted from the spread of English to various colonies provides support for Thomason and Kaufman's claim that 'it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact' (1988: 35). At the same time, the emergence and evolution of contact Englishes supports the view that different outcomes are also constrained by the same principles and processes of change that operate in shift situations generally. All of this suggests that the division between 'indigenized English' and 'creoles' is essentially an artificial one, since we find diversity within each group and significant overlap between the two.
Winford ˤȤäƤϡindigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤٤ǤꡤѤκǸˤ̤ꡤŪʶʬˤʤ褦Winford Ϥ1θ塤Schneider "Dynamic Model" ȤƵ³ƤΥǥˤĤƤϡ#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) ȡ
Winford, Donald. "World Englishes and Creoles." Chapter 10 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 194--210.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#4507. World Englishes ؤ2ĤΥץ ([2021-08-29-1]) "angloversals" ȤѸ˿줿Ѹ world_englishes νѼϤȡŪŪطϴǤˤؤ餺ۤʤѼ֤ǻ褦ʸħǧ뤳Ȥ롥̣ǤϡֱѸפǤΤ顤̹बĤ뤳ȼΤϤۤԻĤǤϤʤȻפ뤫⤷ʤɸѸǤǧʤħŪʴطʽѼ֤˹ǧȤȤǤСˤϲȴʤͳΤǤϤʤȵΤǤ롥äħ "Angloversals" ȸƤǤȤȤ餷"universals" ⤸äƤƾߥǥ̾Τ̩ʰ̣ǤΡספȤ¿Ѽ˸ַפȤƤ٤Ǥ뤳ȤϡǰΤ˻ŦƤ
ơѸäΤ Mair Ǥ롥褦ѸȤơChambers κä "vernacular universals" ȤΤ⤢롥դѸаޤˤĤơSiemund and Davydova (135) Ȥ褦
Another line of research departs from the observation that World Englishes (or varieties of English) frequently exhibit identical, or at least similar, non-standard morpho-syntactic phenomena, with common ancestors of these phenomena being difficult to reconstruct in the historical dialects of the British Isles. Such observation have led to the coinage of the label 'angloversals' (Mair 2003). Another notion used with a similar extension is 'vernacular universals' (Chambers 2001, 2003, 2004).
Chambers defines vernacular universals as 'a small number of phonological and grammatical processes [that] recur in vernaculars wherever they are spoken' and views them as inherent features of unmonitored speech coming about as a result of the workings of the human language faculty (Chambers 2004: 128--29).
Ǥϡ"angloversals" ȤơŪˤϤɤΤ褦ʸħȤƵƤΤSiemund and Davydova (135--36) ꡤĤƤߤ褦
Ե§ưοʿ
̵ɸñ
ư
¿
Ϣ (copula) ξά
ñ̾ʣɸηǡ
yes/no ʸˤ֤ηǡ
̤Ȥ I ǤϤʤ me Ѥ뷹
줬ƻƱȤʤ븽
ɽ魯Τ never ư֤븽
괧β
ϡ̤L2Ѹˤ褯ħƱǤȸäƤ⡤ۤɳƤʤ̸ŪѸνѼˤƸƤΡ줬 "angloversals" ʤΤ
Siemund, Peter and Julia Davydova. "World Englishes and the Study of Typology and Universals." Chapter 7 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 123--46.
Mair, Christian. "Kreolismen and verbales Identitätsmanagement im geschriebenen jamaikanischen Englisch." Zwischen Ausgrenzung und Hybridisierung. Ed. E. Vogel, A. Napp and W. Lutterer. Würzburg: Ergon, 2003.
Chambers, J. K. "Vernacular Universals." ICLaVE 1: Proceedings of the First International Confrerence on Language Variation in Europe. Ed. J. M. Fontana, L. McNally, M. T. Turell, and E. Vallduvi. Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 2001.
Chambers, J. K. Sociolinguistic Theory: Linguistic Variation and its Social Implications. Oxford, UK/Malden, US: Blackwell.
Chambers, J. K. "Dynamic Typology and Vernacular Universals." Dialectology Meets Typology: Dialect Grammar from a Cross-Linguistic Perspective. Ed. B. Kortmann. Berlin/New York: Gruyter, 2004.
Ϣ World Englishes ˴ؤ夲Ƥ롥ŪʬǤȤϤʬǤΥѥѤˤϾʤȤǯۤɤμӤ롥ϡ1960ǯʹߡˤƽѤƤȤƱѼ˾Ƥ100줫ʤ륳ѥ "The Brown family of corpora" äȤäƤ褤 (cf. #428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1]))
"Brown family" ϡʤ緿ץȤˤ⥤ԥ졼Ϳ#517. ICE 7ϰѼ拾ѥ ([2010-09-26-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 International Corpus of English Ǥ롥1990ǯ Sydney Greenbaum ײȯɽư衤ꥹѸȥꥫѸϤߤޤǤ˥ʥѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤Ѹ졤ɱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ޥѸ졤˥塼ɱѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤եԥѸ졤ݡѸ졤Ѹʤ͡ʱѸѼ100쵬ϤΥѥԻƤʰΤΤϥɲǽˡߤӲǽʷǥǥƤꡤICECUP ȤեȥѰդƤ롥ܥ֥ ice ε⻲ȡ
³ơ2013ǯˤʬˤǯκ̤Ǥ GloWbE (= Corpus of Global Web-Based English) 饤줿#4169. GloWbE --- Corpus of Global Web-Based English ([2020-09-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤ20αѸѼ礷19줫ʤѸѼ拾ѥǤ롥ߡΥѥѸ˴ؤ븦Ǥ褯ѤƤ롥
Τ褦 World Englishes 륳ѥԻȻѤ¥ʤƤ塤̤ǤϤɤΤ褦ŸͽۤMair (118--19) ϺŸʤ뤤ϴ˾ˤȤ3Ƥ롥
(1) ѼˤνʳΥѥԻԤ
(2) Ѽμ֤ˤĤƥ־ΥǡѤ뤳ȤޤޤͭѤȤʤäƤ
(3) Ѽ¿ˤĤƥޥʾǻѤƤΤ֤Ǥʾ塤αѸΥΥ롦ѥȤȤߤǤϤʤѸޤޥ롦ѥȤĤԻƤ٤Ǥ
Ȥ櫓 (3) ϡŪʡֱѸءפؤǤΤ褦ʼԤˤȤäƤϡåʡܤڤ褦̤Ǥ⤢롥World Englishes ϡǤ˱ѸؤȤϤ߽Ф"sociolinguistics of globalisation" (Mair 119) Ȥ٤ɸؤƧ߽ФƤ뤳Ȥ롥ơֱѸˡפθ⡤Ѹθʾ塤ưϢươޤޤ줿ΤˤʤäƤΤ
Mair, Christian. "World Englishes and Corpora." Chapter 6 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 103--22.
ε#4506. World Englishes Ū3 ([2021-08-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ (world_englishes) θϥѥʤɤѤƵ®ȯŸƤƤ롥Fong (88) ˤ복ȤȡĬήȤƤϡѸ¿ (typology) ˤ礭2Ĥ褦
(1) 1Ĥ͡ʱѸ˶̤ "angloversals" õǤ롥ENL ESL αѸѼ٤Ƥ⡤ӤƼѤƤ뤫Τ褦˸Ѥħǧ롥 "angloversals" ȾΤѸѼζõߤʤƤַѾפȤ̻Ū¦̤Ϥ뤬η̤ȤƤŻ뤹붦ŪʻȤäƤ褤
(2) ⤦1Ĥϡɤ餫ȤȱѸνѼ֤Ƕ̤¦̤㤹¦̤뤳ȤǧᡤʤΤ褦ʶΤ˼ҲŪʥƥȤ˴ŤŤ褦ȤǤ롥羧Ԥ Mufwene (2001) θȤСѸŪȯŸܿħҲкŪʴĶַָϡפҴʤΤǤȤȤˤʤ롥
Fong ϡѸ츦ؤФȤơΤ褦2Ĥη褬뤳ȤäȾҲ𤷤Ƥ뤬쥤ǥŪˤϡ2Ĥ˰ۤʤ٥륯ȥäƤΤȻפ롥Ԥ⼫餬ɤλΩĤФƤɬפ褦˻פ롥
Fong, Vivienne. "World Englishes and Syntactic and Semantic Theory." Chapter 5 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 84--102.
Mufwene, S. S. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Mair (116) ˤȡѸ (world_englishes) θԤ褽դƤ礿ȥɤ3ĤȤ
1. Accent divides, whereas grammar unites (with the lexicon being somewhere in between)
2. There is divergence in speech, but convergence in writing.
3. Variation is suppressed in public and formal discourse, but pervasive in informal settings.
Τ褦˸ȡľŪˤ⤽̤ʤΤȻפ졤äϤʤǻŦƤѸηϡѸ쥳ѥʤɤˤҴŪǼ¾ŪʸˤäƤ褽դȤפǤ롥绨ĤˤСäդŵŪʥեޥʱѸѤˤƤϡѼ֤礭ʰ㤤ߤ뤬դŵŪʥեޥʱѸѤǤϡɸؤλظߤȤȤ
3ϡ츫褽褦ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˤפ뤫⤷ʤΤ˸ߤ˽ŤʤʬΤ¤Ǥ롥ơϸ§Ȥưۤʤ뼴ΩäλŦȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥդ1ܤϡȯʸˡʸäˤȤ˴ؤѥ˴ŤƤ롥2ܤäդդȤΤ˴ط롥3ܤϡҲŪʥåƥüŪˤХեޥ뤫եޥ뤫ȤѤطʤܤƤ롥
äդȤСƤեޥǤꡤʤȯκۤ˴ؿեޥäդλѤϳؽѹֱʤɤ̤˴ѻ뤷Ǥȯ٤ŪΩʤʤʸˡäͿƤΤǤ롥ޤդȤХեޥȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿åȤäΥץȤΤ褦ɬ⤽ǤϤʤդλѤϤǤ⤢뤷ȯѰۤȿǤɸŪʥڥѤߤ롥
3ĤΥѥϡߤ˽Ťʤ뤬ŪˤΩΤȤƤΤŬڤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Mair, Christian. "World Englishes and Corpora." Chapter 6 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 103--22.
ε#4504. ƥ褷ȱѸιԤ ([2021-08-26-1]) ˰³פȤƤξԤɤäƤˤ٤뤳ȤˤѸ̤ꤦȤǤȤˤĤơ
ƥȱѸᤰ˼ҲŪʾˤĤơפĤޤޤ˥֥쥹ȤƤߤ
Ρ
äդȤƤ͡ʡʤФиߤ̤ʤ˸ѼʬդȤƤ1ĤɸŪѼˤ褽«Ƥ
ŪɸѼ norm-producing ̤ʶȤˤƥޥϳơϤĤ˻äƱƹȤΡ֡ѸפŪȤʤĤĤ
ƥ¿ΤҤ衼åѤˤäƥեȤƵǽѸ¾ΤҤˤäƥեȤƵǽƤ롥
Ρ
ƥϻǤѲʤѸϸθǤѲ³
ƥεϤŪŪѸεϤϲŪήưŪ
ƥϽդäդγ֤꤬礭ԤŪѤͤϤʤʥŪˡѸˤĤƤϡɸѸüԤ˴ؤ¤ǤϤ뤬դäդγ֤ŪԤ˶ᤤѼŪѤͤ⤤Ū
ƥŪ˥衼åѤΤߤĤƤѸʤäƤ
ƥˤʹüԤʤäѸˤüԤ
ƥϳؽѡ濴Ȥ¤줿ʸŪ٤ι⤤ʬˤƼȤƽդȤѤ줿ѸʬˤƤΤˤƤѤ
ƥεϤΤϻѼԿΰǤҲŪ˹⤤ؤο͡ѸεϤΤ⡤18Ȥ¤ꡤѼԿΰǤҲŪ˹⤤ؤο͡ǤꡤǤϻƤȤ뤬21αѸεϤäƤΤϤ餯ĤƤȰۤʤΤǤϤʤ̤αѸѼԤŪ˵˴ͿƤΤǤϡ
ۤʤΤǡΤȤʤϤäȵ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨СؤäƤüԿʤɤӤС23ۤʤ̹ФˤϹ٤Ūʻͤɬפǡñˤϥǥ⤫ФʤǤ礦
Ѹ̤ͤǡѸˤϤۤΩʤȻפäƤޤʹ֤θ̤ͤǡѸˤΩĤȻפäѸˤθ³Ƥޤ
Ĥƥ衼åѤǤϥե (lingua_franca) Ȥƥƥ줬Ĺ餯ɲڤؤä䤬ƳϤ͡ʥޥʬƤ˿ह˻ä˾λ¤ϡѸ̤ͤɬȤݥȤǤ롥Ѹϸǥեô˻äǽѸѼ (World Englishes) ؤʬƤΤ¤⤢ꡤῴϤݻǤΤȵ롥ԤϥƥƱפɤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤȤͽۤΩơ̤ԤϥƥȱѸǤŪۤʤñˤӤǤʤȤߤ롥
ξӤ˴Ť硤ʤ顤Ū¤ΤˤĤǤȤפǤ롥Ȥ櫓ƥ˴ؤơ礭ʸޤäƤΤǤϤʤƥ줬ޥʬɽ硤ȤƤΤϡƥ줬ˤϰäȤȤǤ롥Ȥäդ˴ؤ¤ꡤƥϥޥʬϤѤƤΤǤꡤ̣Ǥϡ֥ޥؤʬפϾ˵äƤȤˤʤ롥ƥ줬ǤȤΤϡޤǽդ˴ؤʤΤǤ롥McArthur (9--10) ϡ"The Latin fallacy" Ȥ1ǤθФդ¥Ƥ롥
Between a thousand and two thousand years ago the language of the Romans was certainly central in the development of the entities we now call 'the Romance languages'. In some important sense, Latin drifted among the Lusitani into 'Portuguese', among the Dacians into 'Romanian', among the Gauls and Franks into 'French', and so on. It is certainly seductive, therefore, to wonder whether American English might become simply 'American', and be, as Burchfield has suggested, an entirely distinct language in a century's time from British English.
There is only one problem. The language used as a communicative bond among the citizens of the Roman Empire was not the Latin recorded in the scrolls and codices of the time. The masses used 'popular' (or 'vulgar') Latin, and were apparently extremely diverse in their use of it, intermingled with a wide range of other vernaculars. The Romance languages derive, not from the gracious tongue of such literati as Cicero and Virgil, but from the multifarious usages of a population most of whom were illiterati.
'Classical' Latin had quite a different history from the people's Latin. It did not break up at all, but as a language standardized by manuscript evolved in a fairly stately fashion into the ecclesiastical and technical medium of the Middle Ages, sometimes known as 'Neo-Latin'. As Walter Ong has pointed out in Orality and Literacy (1982), this 'Learned Latin' survived as a monolith through sheer necessity, because Europe was 'a morass of hundreds of languages and dialects, most of them never written to this day'. Learned Latin derived its power and authority from not being an ordinary language. 'Devoid of baby talk' and 'a first language to none of its users', it was 'pronounced across Europe in often mutually unintelligible ways but always written the same way' (my italics).
The Latin analogy as a basis for predicting one possible future for English is not therefore very useful, if the assumption is that once upon a time Latin was a mighty monolith that cracked because people did not take proper care of it. That is fallacious. Interestingly enough, however, a Latin analogy might serve us quite well if we develop the idea of a people's Latin that was never at any time particularly homogeneous, together with a text-bound learned Latin that became and remained something of a monolith because European society needed it that way.
ѤκǸˤ⤢̤ꡤΡ֥ƥ˴ؤɵפ˴٤ʤ褦դǡƥƥ褷ȱѸιԤӤƤߤȤξ괬˼ҲŪˤϤϤ궦褦˻פ롥Ѹ̤ͽۤ褦ȤݤԳǤ1ĤϡեȤƤαѸɤ줯餤Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥ߵ¸ߤƤ¤ꡤʤȤդˤƤϡƥ줬ä褦ˡ̸ŪݻƤΤǤϤʤ
McArthur, Tom. "The English Languages?" English Today 11 (1987): 9--11.
ε#4501. αѸѼˡ --- McArthur "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ ([2021-08-23-1]) ˰³Ʊ "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥǤϤ뤬 Görlach 1988ǯ1990ǯȯɽСǤ McArthur 1991ǯʸ (p. 20) ǿƤΤ

McArthur ΥǥȯۤѤʤ٤ŤƱߤƤΤħǤ롥¦鳰¦˸äơ"International English", "regional/national standards", "subregional ENL---ESL semi-standards", "dialects, ethnic E (creoles), semi-/non-standards" ȹäƤΤ˳¦ "pidgins (creoles), mixes, related languages" ΰ褬ߤƤ롥
褦 McArthur Υǥ˸줿Ƚϡ褽 Görlach ǥˤƤϤޤ롥㤨СƱߤκդ Tamil E Butler E ¤Ǥ뤬Τ褦ϰѼȼҲѼʤ˴ŤԥˤΤŬڤʤΤޤŪʴޤƤ餺Ūʥǥ˽ߤƤ뤭餤⤢롤
ѸѼ (model_of_englishes) ƤȤ館褦Ȥߤ¿ɡĹûꡤʣʸ¤줤ȤΤϻζȤǤ롥
Görlach, M. Studies in the History of the English Language. Heidelberg: Winter, 1990.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (1991): 12--21.
ѸѼˡȤŪ줿ǥ1Ĥ "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ뤬롥͡ʱѸѼ狼鹽ƱߤοޤؤΥϥ֤ȥݡ˸ΩƤХǥΥǥˤ⤤ĤΥС뤬McArthur 1987ǯʸ ("The English Languages?", 11) ΤƤߤ1991ǯʸ ("Models of English", 19) ˺ƷǤƤޤƸ롥

ΥǥˤĤơMcArthur ("The English Languages?", 11) ϼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
The purpose of the model is to highlight the broad three-part spectrum that ranges from the 'innumerable' popular Englishes through the various national and regional standards to the remarkably homogeneous but negotiable 'common core' of World Standard English.
McArthur ȤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡΥǥϤޤǤȤƤ줿ΤǤꡤ͡뤳Ȥͽۤ롥ºݡǤȽŪʥȤä뤳ȤǤ롥ġѼʬϤ̤ǹΤBBC English Norn Ʊ֤ƤΤϤΤǤϤʤޤ Australian English Tok Pisin ꡥܼŪ䤤Ȥơ⤽˿Ƥ "World Standard English" ȤΤϸ¤¸ߤΤ
οޤΤȤ World English ƤȤˤĤƤϡMcArthur ("The English Language", 10) ϡֵŪʻ¡פǤɾƤ롥
Within such a model, we can talk about a more or less 'monolithic' core, a text-linked World Standard negotiated among a variety of more or less established national standards. Beyond the minority area of the interlinked standards, however, are the innumerable non-standard forms --- the majority now as in Roman times, with all sorts of reasons for being unintelligible to each other. There is nothing new in this, and it is a state of affairs that is unlikely to change in the short or even the medium term. In the distinctness of Scots from Black English Vernacular, Cockney from Krio, and Texian from Taglish, we have all the age-old criteria for talking about mutually unintelligible languages. Nonetheless, all such largely oral forms share in the totality of World English, and can be shown to share in it, however bafflingly different they may be. This is a paradox, but it is also a fact.
McArthur, Tom. "The English Languages?" English Today 11 (1987): 9--11.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (1991): 12--21.
ҲŪʸ̮ǵ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹ (world_englishes) ȡȤƤκŬ (Optimality Theory; ot) 2ĤȤ߹碌ƹͤƤߤ뤳ȤʤɡޤǤʤäUffmann ޤˤΤ褦ͤƤ롥
"World Englishes and Phonological Theory" ȤȤˤϡ͡ʱѸѼβ٤ơŬˤŪ褦ȤΤȻפäɤ⤽櫓ǤϤʤ褦ˤɸȤƤϤΤ褦ʤȤͤƤΤ⤷ʤͤǤϡ Vernacular Liberian English (cf. #1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1])) ȤL2ѸѼβħL1ʤΥˤۤ줿Ȥͳ褹ȤΤˡŬѤƤ롥
ɷŪʸäܿ (contact) ȤƼҲŪȡηϤ˴ؤŪȤŬΥ𤷤ƷӤĤȤФ褤ʸξԤηӤĤɬ䤫줿櫓ǤϤʤޤǺβȤƼˤȤɤޤäƤϤ롥Ǥ⡤̤ȤƤͭ˾Uffmann (79--80) ϼΤ褦˸̤Ƥ롥
We also still do not have a clear idea of how the social factors in language contact interface with the formal properties of a grammar. With respect to creoles, Uffmann . . . suggests that there are three main processes at work whose relative weighting will depend on the exact nature of the contact situation: (a) transfer of substrate rankings, (b) levelling across substrates, which will be levelling to the unmarked (unless the marked option is shared by a majority of speakers), that is, choosing the ranking from the pool of grammars in which markedness constraints are ranked highest, and (c) acquisition of the superstrate grammar, as reranking via constraint demotion . . . . How does this proposal transfer to other contact varieties?
In this context, a particularly interesting model to look at could be the Dynamic Model of postcolonial Englishes proposed in Schneider (2007; this volume). It is interesting not only because it is the best developed framework to date to account for all postcolonial varieties, from settler varieties, via nativized varieties, to pidgins and creoles. Its special relevance lies in the fact that it links sociolinguistic and socio-historical conditions to identify construction and to linguistic effects. Why and how then do specific contact settings yield specific linguistic outcomes? How could this proposal tie in with Uffmann's model of constraint transfer, levelling to the unmarked and reranking (as acquisition)? This chapter cannot answer these questions. It can only serve as a call for more serious research in this field. Linking World Englishes to phonological theory and applying the models of phonological theorizing to varieties of English from around the world can be an exciting endeavour, and it is to be hoped that it can enrich our understanding of both the processes that lead to the emergence of new Englishes and of the fundamental principles that underlie phonological computation and processing.
ǤϡܿҲŪѥζ١ظαƶŪ¸ߡȤäؤüüޤǤʤŬΥȤ1Ĥ֤˼̤ƤȤ롥
ŬˤĤƤϡ#3848. "Optimality Theory" ([2019-11-09-1])#3867. Optimality Theory --- äʹΥˡθ줿 ([2019-11-28-1])#1581. Optimality Theory Ρϡס ([2013-08-25-1])#3910. Ŭ (Optimality Theory) Υɽɤ ([2020-01-10-1]) ȡ
ΰѤǻȤƤ Schneider "Dynamic Model" ˤĤƤϡε#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) ȡ
Uffmann, Christian. "World Englishes and Phonological Theory." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 63--83.
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1]) #4493. αѸѼˡ --- Mesthrie and Bhatt 12ס ([2021-08-15-1]) ѸѼˤĤ2ĤθҲ𤷤¾ˤ͡ʥǥ뤬ꡤmodel_of_englishes Ǽ夲ƤǯäȤŪʥǥȤСSchneider ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ "Dynamic Model" 2001ǯ夲Ƥǥǡ乭ĤĤ롥ΥǥιҤΤˡSchneider (47) ΰʲʸϤѤ롥
Essentially, the Dynamic Model claims that it is possible to identify a single, underlying, fundamentally uniform evolutionary process which can be observed, with modifications and adjustments to local circumstances, in the evolution of all postcolonial forms of English. The postulate of some sort of a uniformity behind all these processes may seem surprising and counterintuitive at first sight, given that the regions and historical contexts under investigation are immensely diverse, spread out across several centuries and also continents (and thus encompassing also a wide range of different input languages and language contact situations). It rests on the central idea that in a colonization process there are always two groups of people involved, the colonizers and the colonized, and the social dynamics between these two parties has tended to follow a similar trajectory in different countries, determined by fundamental human needs and modes of behaviour. Broadly, this can be characterized by a development from dominance and segregation towards mutual approximation and gradual, if reluctant, integration, followed by corresponding linguistic consequences.
ΥǥˤäƤϡطʤˤ뤤ĤǤˤĤƤɬפ롥Schneider (47--51) ꡤɤվȴФƤߤ褦
Ρ4ĤΡˡ˼Ҳؤ
1. Language contact theory
2. A "Feature pool" of linguistic choices
3. Accommodation
4. Identity
Ρ2ĤΥߥ˥̮
1. The "Settlers' strand"
2. The "Indigenous strand"
Ρ4ĤΡˡ˼ҲŪȸŪȯŸδط˴ؤǡ
1. The political history of a country
2. Identity re-writings of the groups involved
3. Sociolinguistic conditions of language contact
4. Linguistic developments and structural changes in the varieties concerned
Ρ5ĤŵŪʳ
1. Foundation
2. Exonormative stablization
3. Nativization
4. Endonormative stabilization
5. Differentiation
Schneider ΥǥŪŪǤꡤλˡ Keller θʤȤ롥塤ɤΤ褦˵ŸƤڤߤǤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
ε#4493. αѸѼˡ --- Mesthrie and Bhatt 12ס ([2021-08-15-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʬ (k) Jargon Englishes 1Ȥơ19 "South Seas Jargon" Ƥ롥ʿκפȲ᤹٤ѸѼ̤ΤΡˤǡ¾θƤ̾⤢褦ˤĤ McArthur λŵĴ٤Ƥߤ
PACIFIC JARGON ENGLISH, also South Seas English, South Seas Jargon, Jargon. A trade jargon used by 19c traders and whalers in the Pacific Ocean, the ancestor of Melanesian Pidgin English. The whalers first hunted in the eastern Pacific but by 1820 were calling regularly at ports in Melanesia and took on crew members from among the local population. The sailors communicated in Jargon, which began to stabilize on plantations throughout the Pacific area after 1860, wherever Islanders worked as indentured labourers.
19ΥͥǡΤϸǰͤߤΥߥ˥Τ˻ѤƤǤꡤʿϰΥץơǹ夹뤳Ȥˤʤԥ "Melanesian Pidgin English" εȤʤäѼǤ롥Ǥϡȯã "Melanesian Pidgin English" ȤϤʤΤƱ McArthur λŵꡥ
MELANESIAN PIDGIN ENGLISH, also Melanesian Pidgin. The name commonly given to three varieties of Pidgin spoken in the Melanesian states of Papua New Guinea (Tok Pisin), Solomon Islands (Pijin), and Vanuatu (Bislama). Although there is a degree of mutual intelligibility among them, the term is used by linguists to recognize a common historical development and is not recognized by speakers of these languages. The development of Melanesian Pidgin English has been significantly different in the three countries. This is due to differences in the substrate languages, the presence of European languages other than English, and differences in colonial policy. In Papua New Guinea, there was a period of German administration (1884--1914) before the British and Australians took over. The people of Vanuatu were in constant contact with the French government and planters during a century of colonial rule (1880--1980). However, Solomon Islanders have not been in contact with any European language other than English.
"Melanesian Pidgin English" 켫Τ⡤Ū˾ܤߤʣѼνΤȤ٤ΤȤƤϸߤˤ褯Ƥ뤷ƶط⤢ä褦Ǥ롥ѥץ˥塼˥ Tok Pisin, Solomon Pijin, Х̥Ĥ Bislama ߴطˤĤƤϡ#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1])#1689. ʿϰΥԥȥ쥪θá ([2013-12-11-1]) Ȥ줿
ΥͥιǤϳƥԥѸ줬 lingua_franca ȤƹѤƤ뤬ˤϤ150--200ǯۤɤʤȤȤˤʤ롥#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) ⤪⤷
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ε#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1]) ˰³αѸѼˡˤĤơ World Englishes ȤХܤ路 Mesthrie and Bhatt (3--10) ˤ12פؤʬҲ𤷤Ʊ͡Schneider (44) ͳƼ
(a) Metropolitan standards (i.e. the "respected mother state's" norm as opposed to colonial offspring, i.e. in our case British English and American English as national reference forms).
(b) Colonial standards (the standard forms of the former "dominions," i.e. Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, South African English, etc.).
(c) Regional dialects (of Britain and North America, less so elsewhere in settler colonies).
(d) Social dialects (by class, ethnicity, etc.; including, e.g. Broad, General and Cultivated varieties in Australia, African American Vernacular English, and others).
(e) Pidgin Englishes (originally rudimentary intermediate forms in contact, and nobody's native tongue; possibly elaborated in complexity, e.g. West African Pidgin Englishes).
(f) Creole Englishes (fully developed but highly structured, hence of questionable relatedness to the lexifier English; e.g. Jamaican Creole).
(g) English as a Second Language (ESL) (postcolonial countries where English plays a key role in government and education; e.g. Kenya, Sri Lanka).
(h) English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (English used for external and international purposes; e.g. China, Europe, Brazil).
(i) Immigrant Englishes (developed by migrants to an English-dominant country; e.g. Chicano English in the United States)).
(j) Language-shift Englishes (resulting from the replacement of an ancestral language by English; possibly, like Hiberno English, becoming a social dialect in the end).
(k) Jargon Englishes (unstable pre-pidgins without norms and with great individual variation, e.g. South Seas Jargon in the nineteenth century)
(l) Hybrid Englishes (mixed codes, prestigious among urban youths; e.g. "Hinglish" mixing Hindi and English).
Ѹʻѡˤˡϰ̡ǽ4ĤΥѥȤ߹碌ʬȤ롥ºݤ¸ߤʤˤȤѸѼ夷Ƥ봶롥ϳ餵ʬȤ櫓ǤϤʤʬǤϡʣΥƥˤޤäƽ°Ƥޤ褦ʱѸѼ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
Ѹ (World Englishes) ǥ벽ߤϡ͡ˤʤƤܥ֥ model_of_englishes γƵǾҲ𤷤Ƥ̤Ǥ롥Ūʿޤɽǥ뤬¿ʤǡҲ𤹤 Gupta ˤǥñʥꥹȤǤ롥αѸѼ5פʬषƤ롥Schneider (44) Gupta ǥξҲʬѤ롥
Gupta (1996) proposed five types of variety settings, based on whether English is embedded in multilingual nations and on how it originated in a given country (with "ancestral" indicating settler transmission, "scholastic" denoting contexts in which formal education was important, and "contact" characterizing more mixed and creolized varieties):
"Monolingual ancestral English" (e.g. United States, Australia, New Zealand).
"Monolingual contact variety" (e.g. Jamaica)
"Multilingual scholastic English" (e.g. India, Pakistan)
"Multilingual contact variety" countries (e.g. Singapore, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea).
"Multilingual ancestral English" (e.g. South Africa, Canada)
Ϳѥ2Ĥ1ܤ¿ѤΤʤǤαѸѤݤ2ܤϡαѸʻѡˤεüԤΰܽˤΤˤΤ캮ˤΤȤ߹碌ˤŪˤ6פѼ郎̤뤬ºݤˤ "Monolingual scholastic English" ΤϤʤ㤨СܤαѸ춵餬ȯŸܸüԤߤʱѸظؤʤС "Monolingual scholastic English" ʬव뤳ȤˤʤʤꤽˤʤäǤϤ뤬ˡ
绨ĤǤϤ뤬˼ҲŪʴˤ븫̤Τ褤ˡȤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Gupta, A. F. "Colonisation, Migration, and Functions of English." Englishes around the World. Vol. 1: General Studies, British Isles, North America. Studies in Honour of Manfred Görlach. Ed. by E. W. Schneider. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1997. 47--58.
ѸϡΥե (lingua_franca) Ȥʬۤ礵Ƥ롥ѸϤ̣ǤϡϤ뤫ΡΦꡤ֥ƥΥ̱²俷Φ轻̱Ϥ¿̱²θʬۤ̾ʬۤ礵Ƥˤġ
츫ȡ餱Τ餺פθΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤɬ⤽ǤϤʤ¾θȤζԤʬۤ̾ꡤȤԻѤȤʤ礹餢äߤ⤽Τ褦ʻ㤬ߤΤǤ롥ϡαѸʻˡˤΰճʻĤߤƤȤΤ Trudgill "English in Retreat" ꤹ (27--29) Ǥ롥
Ū˸ŤȤϤȡ12--15Υɤλ㤬롥Henry II ϡ1171ǯ˥Υޥǥɿΰ˱ѸüԤϤ䤬Ƹϲ˻ꡤѸ줬ŤȤϤʤäѸȤƤ˾ܳŪʬ۳˼ԤäȤcf. #1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#2361. ǯɽ ([2015-10-14-1])ˡ
ȸ˶Ť19ΤȤˤʤ뤬䤿ˤȤä˽פ --- ۤȤΤƤʤ --- Ѹ̤λ㤬롥ϤʤȾǤ롥ηϤȤ̵ͤä1543ǯ˥ڥͤˤȯ졤θ塤˲ƷϤο͡ˤʤߡ19ˤϱѸ١Ρ־ԥѸ (Bonin English) ŸƤ19ȾܤϤͭẖ̂ܤؤεʤ̡ܸ줬ͥȤʤꡤߤޤǤ˾ԥѸϤۤѤȤʤäƤ롥ܤϡ#2559. αѸ ([2016-04-29-1])#2596. ־ȤСפ ([2016-06-05-1])#3353. ִ50ǯ ([2018-07-02-1]) Ȥ줿
ߤλǤСʥΥ٥å롥ե줬ͥƱˤơѸ줬ΩƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤcf. #1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1])ˡͤε°ռ꤬ؤäƤꡤαѸפȤɤñʬۤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ褯Ƥ롥
ޤޤΤƤʤꥫΥֳߤˤ⡤ѸüԽĤǤʤŪҲŪΩƤ͡νޤϤߤƤ롥Υ롼Ĥ19ȾꥸޥʤɤꥫΦϰŸ͡ǡФȤƼҲŪϰ̤㤤ĤȤߤʤƤߤǤ⡤ϢƹθѸǤ륹ڥΤۤҿ⤯ϤǤϱѸѤΥåƥ뤬ĥƤ롥Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1])#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1])#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1])#1714. ƤαѸBluefields Puerto Limon ([2014-01-05-1])#1731. English as a Basal Language ([2014-01-22-1]) Ƥ
ۤˤ⡤19ȾФ˥ꥫԼԤȤʤä֥ͤ饸ƨ줿¹֥饸˱ѸüԽĤȤ餷Ƥ뤬ƱθѸǤݥȥ˲Ǥ롥ޤ1890ǯ˼ҲŪ桼ȥԥƥѥ饰˰ܽȥꥢͤλ¹餷Ƥ뤬Ԥδ֤ǤϤθǤ Guaraní ؤθؤʹǤ롥
Ѹϲˤ⸽ߤˤ餱Τ餺פä櫓ǤϤʤ
Trudgill, Peter. "The Spread of English." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 14--34.
ΤĤιϰˤϡѸüԤǤ뤬θѸ졤θ졤̸ʤɤȤƹѸѤƤ͡롥Τ褦ʹϰ ESL (English as a Second Language) ϰȸƤФƤ롥¤ ESL ϰϡ餯¿ɼԤפäƤʾˡ˹ʬۤƤ롥 Trudgill and Hannah (127--28) ˰͵ ESL ϰѤƤߤ
In the Americas, English is an important second language in Puerto Rico, and also has some second-language presence in Panama. In Europe, in addition to the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland where English is spoken natively, English has official status in Gibraltar and Malta and is also widely spoken as a second language in Cyprus. In Africa, there are large communities of native speakers of English in Liberia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya, but there are even larger communities in these countries of second-language speakers. Elsewhere in Africa, English has official status, and is therefore widely used as a second language lingua franca in Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zambia, Malawi and Uganda. It is also extremely widely used in education and for governmental purposes in Tanzania and Kenya.
In the Indian Ocean, Asian, and Pacific Ocean areas, English is an official language in Mauritius, the Seychelles, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Brunei, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Guam and elsewhere in American-administered Micronesia. It is also very widely used as a second language in Malaysia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Nepal and Nauru. (In India and Sri Lanka, there are also Eurasian native speakers of English.)
ϰ¿ǤϡɸѸǤϤʤ岽ȼαѸ (indigenised English) ȯŸƤߤȯŸ³Ƥ롥 "New Englishes" ȤΤ졤äƤѸ¿Ͳ˹Ƥ롥
θ̤ ESL ϰѼˤĤơܥ֥Ǽ夲ƤΤ¿Τǡesl εȤ櫓ʲε⤴Ȥ
#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1])
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#2469. αѸ ([2016-01-30-1])
#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1])
#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])
Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.
¿¿ͤ¸ߤѸѼɤΤ褦˥ǥ벽ƤȤ館뤫Ѹ (World Englishes) ˶ʬ뤫Ȥϡ¿ιͻƤܥ֥Ǥ model_of_englishes γƵǼ夲Ƥǥ뤽켫Τ¿¿ͤǤ롥
ǤΤƤΤϡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) ˤ Kachru ƱߥǥǤ롥ENL (English as a Native Language) αߤˤȤơμϤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ˼ EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ֤Ƥǥ줾 Inner Circle, Outer Circle, Expanding Circle ȤΤ롥
ΥǥϤȤƤʬ䤹̤ˤƤ뤬Ȥϰ¿Schreier (2117--19) ε˰͵ޤȤƤ
(1) 㤨եꥫ¹ŵŪ ESL ϰȤ뤬ƱοΤ ESL ŪʱѸѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤɤǤϤ뤬ѸüԤ⤤뤷뵡Τʤʤ̿͡ϱѸäʤESL EFL ȤäʬϡѸѤФ븽¤ˤ¸ߤʤͤʽȤƤޤäƤ롥
(2) Τɤ줯餤γο͡ѸäƤСESL ϰǤȸƤ٤ΤñʿǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥षѸѤμҲˤɤΤ餤礵Ƥ뤫ȤҲŪפʤΤǤϤʤҲΤɤؤѸ褯ѤɤؤޤѤʤΤιθɬפ
(3) Kachru ǥϡENL, ESL, EFL Ȥäʬƥꥫ뤫ѤǤȤΩäƤ뤬ϸ¤ȿǤƤʤ㤨ХɱѸϡߤǤ ENL ϰȤƤߤʤƤ뤬Ūˤϥɸ줫θؤФƤΤǤꡤβϴˤäƤ ESL ϰȸƤ֤Τդ路äޤ˥ϥꥹΩ她ҥŪʸȤƺѤ̤ȤƱѸ¸ߴΩ⾮ʤäƤ뤬ϥ˥ ESL ϰ褫 EFL ϰؤȰ֤ŤѤƤȤȤǤϤʤ
פˡKachru ǥϰμҲŪΰ䥫ƥꥫѤζʬȤƤ뤬ºݤˤϾϰͤǤϤʤʬ⤽ۤΤǤϤʤȤȤѤ⤹롤ȤȽäȥʥߥåǽ٤ǥ뤬ɬפ
ʥߥåإǥȤƤϡ㤨С#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1]) #1096. Modiano Ʊߥǥ ([2012-04-27-1]) ƤƤ롥ޤϢơ#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schreier, Daniel. "Second-Language Varieties: Second-Language Varieties of English." Chapter 134 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2106--20.
ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե줬Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])ˡ
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
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