ܥ֥ǤϲܤǤ롥ˤѸνȡֲڡפϡ褷ƱѸȤ̸ΤĸŪü˵٤ΤǤϤʤǤϤʤñ˼ҲŪΩĤ餳פʤΤǤ롥ΤȤϡ٤Ǥ֤ⷫҤ٤Ƥɬפ롥ȤΤϡѸǽοäΤ餳ǡܤǤϤȤ櫓Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥Ѹ줬ְΤפȤСϸŪˤǤϤʤҲŪˡְΤפȤˤʤ
Algeo and Pyles (224) ƱݤμĥѤ褦αѸѼϤ塤ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
What, then, it may be asked, is the English language? Is it the speech of London, of Boston, of New York, of Atlanta, of Melbourne, of Montreal, of Calcutta? Is it the English of the metropolitan daily newspaper, of the bureaucratic memo, of the contemporary poet, of religious ritual, of football sportscasts, of political harangues, of loving whispers? A possible answer might be, none of these, but rather the sum of them all, along with all other blendings and developments that have taken place wherever what is thought of as the English language is spoken by those who have learned it as their mother tongue or as an additional language. However, the most important variety happens to be the standard English written by British and American authors---and it should be clear by now that the importance of that language is due not to any inherent virtues it may possess, but wholly to its usefulness to people around the world, whatever their native language.
ѸϡʣʶޤʸˡʤꤷƤƳؤӤ䤹ȤͳȤƺѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤѸϡȯηϤηϤͥƤȤͳŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤʤѸϡŪˤ¾̵θ٤ơȤ櫓ͥƤ櫓ǤäƤ櫓Ǥʤ1ĤθǤ롥Ѹϡä˶ʹߤˤ̤ơ˳ȻƤˤꡤ¿οͤߥ˥ƻȤƺѤҲŪͭƤ顤ˤƱѸϡְΤפȤˤʤäƤΤǤ롥
μĥϰʲεǷ֤ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1])#1082. ʤѸȤʤä (1) ([2012-04-13-1])#1083. ʤѸȤʤä (2) ([2012-04-14-1])#1607. Ѹ춵Ū¦̡ ([2013-09-20-1])#1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1])#2487. νȤϡμҲŪϤΤȤǤ ([2016-02-17-1])
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
ߡ͡ʱѸѼ (world_englishes) ʬۤƤ롥ơθħäǤꡤߤΰۤʤ¿¿ͤǡֱѸפȤưˤ褦ȤƤۤɤɸŪʥꥹѸȥꥫѸɤ٤Ƥ⡤ˤäƤΰ㤤ˤΤʤΤƱꤹΤϡ䤹ʤʡ#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1])#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) ȡˡ
Tagliamonte ϡαѸѼ֤δطĤʤ碌ߥåϡꥹμνѼȤˤˤȼĥ (p. 3) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It is fascinating to consider why the many varieties of English around the world are so different. Part of the answer to this question is their varying local circumstances, the other languages that they have come into contact with and the unique cultures and ecologies in which they subsequently evolved. However, another is the historically embedded explanation that comes from tracing their roots back to their origins in the British Isles. Indeed, leading scholars have argued that the study of British dialects is critical to disentangling the history and development of varieties of English everywhere in the world . . . .
Tagliamonte ȤƤ뤳Ȥϡ㤨мΤ褦ʤȤꥹμήѼȥꥫμήѼ¤٤ƸߤθŪۤФѼˤμˤ褦ȤƤ⡤٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѤƥꥹ뤤ϥꥫήѼ⤤ĤޤƲ¤ӤˤμȤȤ˸ŪƱСߤѼӤĤߥåǽ롥㤨СߤΥɥαѸõƤ⸫ĤʤҥȤåȥɤαѸȤˤиĤ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
Tagliamonte ǽҤ٤ƤΤϡδ˾Ǥ롥δ˾äơˤӤˡȤ "comparative sociolinguistics" ƤƤΤΡӼҲءפˡĤӸ (comparative_linguistics) ΤijؽŪ̩뤳ȤϤۤԲǽȤäƤ褤1ĤŪƤȤƴޤѸαƺΤ褦ʼפФǤʤԥѸ졤쥪Ѹ졤AAVE ʤѼˤ뤤ꤲƤ
ܽκǸǡTagliamonte (213) ϱѸˤȤ뤤̤𤤾夲Ƥ롥
Dialects are a tremendous resource for understanding the grammatical mechanisms of linguistic change. Dialects are also the storehouse of the heart and soul of culture, history and identity. Delving deep into the nuts and bolts of language, deeper than words and phrases and expressions, down into the grammar, we discover a treasure trove. Beneath the anecdotes and nonce tales are hidden patterns and constraints that are a system unto themselves, reflecting the legacy of regional factions, social groups and human relationships. As language evolves through history, its inner mechanisms are evolving, but not in the same way in every place nor at the same rate in all circumstances --- it will always mirror its own ecology.
Tagliamonte, Sali A. Roots of English: Exploring the History of Dialects. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
ǯѸѼؤδؿ⤯ܥ֥Ǥ world_englishes new_englishes ȤΤȤǡ ͡Ѽ˿ƤϡBayley ˤ "Latino Varieties of English" ꤹʸʤȤϾҲˤ˽äơꥫˤƥꥫϰ̱Ȥλ¹ѤѸѼ "Latino English" ˤĤơñ˽Ҥ٤褦
ǿפǤϤʤ2004ǯλǡƹΥƥꥫϿ40,424,000ͤۤɤǤꡤˤΤ14%롥βȾϲǥڥѤ³ƤȤǤѸΤߤäľ20ǯۤɤδ֤¤ƤƤȤBayley (522) ˰ѤƤ Brodie et al. 2002ǯפˤС̱1ˤͤǤϼȤƥڥΤߤä礬72%ǰݤƤ뤬2Ǥ47%Ѹ졦ڥΥХǤꡤˤۤƱȤƱѸäȤ3ʹߤˤʤȡ1Ⱦž78%ȤƱѸѤȤ롥Ĥޤꡤƥꥫϥꥫͤ2ʹߤȤƱѸ褦ˤʤäƤꡤäѼαѸ줬 "Latino English(es)" ȸƤФΤǤ롥ѼϡڥȤͤѸǼ interlanguage Ȥϰۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
Latino English ˤʣѼ郎̤뤬Bayley ˤС̤ηŪϤۤɿʤǤʤȤ̡2Ĥμ礿ѼǤ "Chicano English" "Puerto Rican English" ȤƤ롥Chicano English ϡȤƥե˥ barrio ʥƥꥫϵサˤʹѼǤ롥Puerto Rican English ϼȤ New York City ޤ쳤ߤʹ롥Ѽ⡤ǯƥꥫϿꥫdz礷Ƥ뤿ᡤ嵭ϰʳǤʹ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥㤨СChicago, Georgia, North Carolina ʤɤǤϡƥꥫϿäǤ롥
ѼθŪħȤƤϡظȤƤΥڥθ̤ͿƤȹͤΤ뤬ƥꥫϱѸѼʿŪħ⸫졤ظ줫αƶɾϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤषPuerto Rican English ǤϡŪ be ˡϢ (copula) ηǡ3ñ -s ηǡ˴ؤơAAVE αƶȸƤ롥
塤¿¿ͤʥƥꥫϿ礷ưܿεƤͽۤ뤬ƥꥫϱѸѼγơϤɤΤ褦ȯŸɤ뤳ȤˤʤΤġХХȯãΤ뤤1Ĥ "pan-Latino English" ȸƤ٤褦Ѽ郎ȯã뤳ȤˤʤΤưꤿ
ϢȤơ#256. ƹ Hispanification ([2010-01-08-1])#1657. ꥫαѸѸ첽ư ([2013-11-09-1]) ȡ
Bayley, Robert. "Latino Varieties of English." Chapter 51 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 521--30.
#2559. αѸ ([2016-04-29-1]) ǡĤƾäƤѸѼҲ𤷤ϰθˤϡ180ǯۤɤĹϤʤΤΡʣǤ롥 (134--35) ˤСǻѤƤ͡ʸѼΤ־ȤСפȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡ־ȤСפŪϰʲΤ褦ꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
19ˤϤ餯־ԥѸפäƤꡤ줬ȤƤΡ־९쥪ѸפؤȯŸ19ˤϡܸä͡餬¤ưΡ֥ܸ͡פ줿ơ20ȾαѸܸ줬äԤθ (matrix language) Ȥ־פ줿Ȥ
Τ褦ɬʸŪդƤΤǤϤʤŪʾڵ˴Ť˼ҲŪʴ¬ΥʥꥪǤ롥㤨С1ʳȤƤΡ־ԥѸפԤʤƤȤĥˤĤƤϡ (134--35) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ޤϡѸظȤ־ԥѸפȤΤǤ롥19ˤ餯äƤǤȻפ뤳ȤФǤ뤬ºߤȤڵϤʤȤΤϡξ餹Сԥ̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƻȤƤȽǤΤϺǤǤϤ뤬ʸˡηϤξܺ٤Ǥ뤫Ǥ롥줬ߤ̤ʤ͡Ʊ˽ߡߥ˥ƥƤȤʬäƤΤǡ̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƥȯȹͤΤԼǤϤʤ̸ά͡
Ʊͤˡ־९쥪ѸפȯˤĤƤܺ٤ʬäƤʤξƤԥѸǥߥ˥äƤ¿äȤڵ뤿ᡤλҶ९쥪 (creoloid) ȹͤ뤳ȤϡʤĤȤľܤξڵ櫓ǤϤʤ
嵭ŪǺǸʳ־פˤĤƤ⡤٤꤬¿ĤƤ롥㤨СʤܸѼȱѸѼ郎2ʻ (bilingualism) 䥳ɥå (code-switching) ˤȤɤޤ餺¤ƺȤʤ˻äΤơʤκݤܸѼΤۤθȤʤäΤȤ˼ҲŪˤĤơ (148--55) ٤ͻԤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤʤ븦椬ɬפΤ褦Ǥ롥
(155) ϡʣʸ뤲ƤξָΰפȰŪˤʤ館Ƥ롥
˼ҲؼԤˤȤäƤϸˤǤ롥Ǥ椨ˡ줾λˤƼҲŪװͤߤ뤳ȤŪñǤ롥μҲŪװȤϡ㤨Сäͤͤ餤ǡïȲۤƤ褷ƤïȴؤäƤʤɤװǤ롥
Τ褦Ϥ褯ȸƤФ롥Τ˳ŪΩƤ뤷Τ餽Ǥäꡤοʹ֤ߤ˵ڤܤƶθܿٹ礤ǻ
ϡڡˤΤ褦ʰŪʸҲǿɴǯ褦ѲϾΤ褦ʸǤϿǯ٤ǵ롥ϸѲΡְפǤ롥
˥롡¾ܿ˼Ҳءξס˼Ҳ١ʹ ԡë ̦ ջҡˡˡ罤ۡ2015ǯ134--55ǡ
ϡѸ̾ Bonin Islands ȤͤǤʤäȤ顤ܸΡ̵͡ʤ֤ˤˡפͳ褹Ȥ⤬롥¤ϡˤǺǤΤƤʤѸüԤζƱΤ롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ꡤBonin Islands ι (18) Ƥߤ褦
Bonin Islands Perhaps the least-known anglophone community in the world, these Japanese-owned islands (Japanese Ogasawara-gunto) are in the central Pacific Ocean, about 500 miles southeast of Japan. The population is about 2,000. The islands were discovered by the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543. They were then claimed by the USA in 1823 and by Britain in 1825. The originally uninhabited islands were first settled in 1830 by five seamen --- two Americans, one Englishman, one Dane and one Italian --- together with ten Hawaiians, five men and five women. This founding population was later joined by whalers, shipwrecked sailors and drifters of many different origins. The islands were annexed by Japan in 1876. The English is mainly American in origin and has many similarities with New England varieties.
硤硤3ˤޤྮˤʣǤ롥ȤȤ̵ͤϰǤꡤ1543ǯ˥ڥͥӥܥˤȯ줿ȤƤ롥ܿͤȤƤϡ˭ýȤ̿ҳ꤬1593ǯȯΤǽȹˤꤳȯԤ̾դ졤ߤ̾ΤȤʤ롥1675ǯܤϳޤ뤬ޤ1727ǯ˾²ˤ⼺ԤθгŪк鳫ȯĤϽФ줿¼Ūˤϼ¤ʤä
Ȥ뤦ˡ19Ⱦ˥ꥫˡꥹδˤ줾ơͭ1830ǯˤϥꥫͥܥ餬ϥ磻ϽͤϢưܽ°äƱѴ֤ʶĤ⡤ΰܤ1862ǯΤȤͭܤϤΤȤȬ̱ΰܽƤԤƤ롥θ塤ܤ1873ǯ˽ܳŪʷбĤ˾轻Υꥫͤܤ˵2Ǥβ礬ƤηϤȤʤꡤϥꥫ˻ܤä1968ǯܤִԤ줿
άˤ狼̤ꡤǤϡͭͲǽʳ顤ܸǤϤʤʤѼΡ˱Ѹ줬äƤȤ롥αѸѼԥ첽20ˤƤܸȺ¤ƥ쥪ȤʤäơΥǥƥƥȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäWikipedia: Bonin English ˤС20ˤǤ Bonin English ̤Ѥ줿Ȥäܸʤñ˲ʤǤƤȤΤȤǤ롥

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸοפˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦 * *
| country | significant UK contact | colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Botswana | 19th century | 1885 | 1966 | 1,640,000 | --38% | 630,000 |
| Lesotho | protectorate | 1966 | 1,800,000 | --28% | 500,000 | |
| Malawi | 1878 | 1891 | 1964 | 13,000,000 | --4% | 540,000 |
| Namibia | 1878 | 1920 (S. Afr.) | 1990 | 1,800,000 | --17% | > 300,000 |
| South Africa | 1795 | 1795 | 1910 | 47,850,000 | > 28% | 13,700,000 |
| Swaziland | 1894 | 1902 (UK) | 1968 | 1,140,000 | --4.4% | 50,000 |
| Zambia | 1888 | 1924 | 1953, 1964 | 13,000,000 | --15% | --2,000,000 |
| Zimbabwe | 1890 | 1923 | 1953, 1980 | 13,300,000 | --42% | 5,550,000 |
| Cameroon | 1914 | 1916 | 1960 | 18,500,000 | --42% | 7,700,000 |
| Gambia | 1661, 1816 | 1894 | 1965 | 1,700,000 | --2.3% | 40,000 |
| Ghana (formerly gold coast) | 1824, 1850 | 1874, 1902 | 1957 | 23,480,000 | --6% | 1,400,000 |
| Liberia | USA 1822 | none | 1847 | 3,750,000 | --83% | 3,100,000 |
| Nigeria | 1851 | 1884, 1900 | 1960 | 148,000,000 | --53% | 79,000,000 |
| Sierra Leone | 1787 | 1808 | 1961 | 5,800,000 | --83% | 4,900,000 |
| Kenya | 1886 | 1895, 1920 | 1963 | 39,000,000 | --9% | 2,700,000 |
| Tanzania | 1880s | 1890, 1920 | 1961 | 42,000,000 | --11% | 4,000,000 |
| Uganda | 1860s | 1888, 1890 | 1962 | 31,000,000 | --10% | 2,500,000 |
In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.
"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥ꡤβPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
αѸˤĤƤϡʲε¾Ǽ夲Ƥ
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENL, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#273. αѸ ([2010-01-25-1])
#375. ENLESL οΨ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1])
#1593. եԥαѸ (2) ([2013-09-06-1])
Ѹ̤ꤦǡѸüԤ˴ؤפϽפʰ̣ġ͡ʸ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥ Gramley (313, 314) "Anglophone South Asian countries" "Anglophone Southeast Asian countries" ɽɥåΤ *
| country | significant UK contact | beginning of colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Bangladesh | 1690 | 1858 | 1947 | 162,000,000 | --2% | 3,500,000 |
| India | 1600 | 1858 | 1947 | --1.2 billion | > 20% | > 230,000,000 |
| Nepal | none | 25,000,000 | > 25% | 7,000,000 | ||
| Pakistan | 1857 | 1858 | 1947 | 164,000,000 | --11% | 18,000,000 |
| Sri Lanka | 1796 | 1802 | 1948 | 20,000,000 | --10% | 2,000,000 |
| Singapore | 1819 | 1867 | 1965 | 5,000,000 | --80% | --4,000,000 |
| Hong Kong | 1841 | 1842 | 1997 | 6,900,000 | --36% | 2,500,000 |
| Philippines | USA: 1898 | 1898 | 1946 | 97,000,000 | > 50% | 50,000,000 |
| Malaysia | 1786 | 1795 | 1957, 1963 | 27,000,000 | --27% | 7,400,000 |
ˤѸʤνѼˤʬۤª뤫ȤˤĤơmodel_of_englishes 濴Ȥơ¿εƤε#2402. polycentric language (2) ([2015-11-24-1]) ˤƾҲ𤷤 Clyne Ԥʸ Pluricentric Languages ΤʤˡѸä Leitner ˤʸä顤Leitner ήαѸѼǥҲ𤷤Leitner (225--26) ϡαѸѼʬहˤäơ4Ĥζ (tensions) ǰƬ֤Ƥ롥
Firstly, diffusion from the former (British or American) parent varieties. It emphasizes linguistic continuity and represents the substratum or "variety base", so to speak. The second, complementary tension is nativization, triggered largely by social, cultural, and environmental demands. A linguistic response is found by either language and dialect mixing and recasting the base input, i.e. the dialects of settlers, or, alternatively, by the resources of L1-languages. The third element is the independent creation of linguistic forms in learner and/or pidgin type situations. This may, but need not, lead to unsystematic differences between varieties of English. And, finally, the growing pressures from similar needs in all societies, which are reinforced by the possibilities of technology and communications (maritime trade, E-mail, FAX, TV, tourism etc.). They will lead to viable, but geographically non-contiguous socio-economic entities and communication networks. They are predominantly urban and demographically multiethnic.
üŪˤޤȤС(1) Ū˱ƶ礭ʱѼˤĤ(2) ϤǤȼѼȯã(3) ؽԡԥѸüԤˤ뿷Ѽβǽ(4) ̸Ȥƿ͡ζͭˡ˴ŤѸѡȤȤˤʤθˤĤܤ٤ϡä (2), (3), (4) ˤĤѼȯãȤư֤ѥȤȤ߹ޤƤ뤳ȡ "geographically non-contiguous", "predominantly urban and demographically multiethnic" Ȥ褦ˡŪ¦̤ĴƤ뤳ȤŪʡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) ˤ衤ŪǶΡ#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥ ([2010-01-24-1]) #1106. Modiano Ʊߥǥ (2) ([2012-05-07-1]) ˤ衤ΥǥϤϰȤƤ褦˻פ롥Leitner ǥϡ鼫ͳˤʤäƤǡŪŪΤ褦˻פ롥
4Ĥζ֤ǰƬ֤ʤ顤Leitner (226) ϡαѸѼ "three levels" 礭ΤǤϤʤƤ롥
The first one is the (new) core or Common Norm, which holds largely for all NL, SL, and FL varieties. Secondly, there are typological clusters of southern/northern and of British- and American-influenced NL, which partially shape SL varieties. And, finally, there are the individual "Englishes".
üŪˤޤȤȡ(1) ɸѸȸƤӤѼ(2) ˡ١Ѽﷲ(3) ġѼȤȤˤʤ롥#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) ˶ᤤǥȤȤˤʤ뤬ظˡҤΤ褦ŪưŪȯۤ뤳ȤŦƤ
Leitner Gerhard. "English as a Pluricentric Language." Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Ed. Michael Clyne. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 179--237.
μפʱѸѼʬहߤϡȤƼҲŪʻ͡ˤʤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤model_of_englishes εǼ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥ŪʴʬȤƤϡTrudgill and Hannah ˤ벻˴ŤΤΤƤ롥ŪˤС礭 'English' type 'American' type 2ʬˡǤꡤľŪǿͤˤ䤹ξQŪ˸ʬबȤƤϡŪʸϤٻȤȤǤ롥 'American' type 'English' type 2ʬˡϡѶŪŪʻС绨Ĥˤäƥ 'northern' type 'southern' type 2ʬˡ뤳Ȥդ
Trudgill and Hannah (10) ϡŪܤ٤Ȥưʲ10ơѸѼ
Key
1. /ɑː/ rather than /æ/ in path etc.
2. absence of non-prevocalic /r/
3. close vowels for /æ/ and /ɛ/, monophthongization of /ai/ and /ɑu/
4. front [aː] for /ɑː/ in part etc.
5. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ as in cot and caught
6. /æ/ rather than /ɑː/ in can't etc.
7. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɑː/ as in bother and father
8. consistent voicing of intervocalic /t/
9. unrounded [ɑ] in pot
10. syllabic /r/ in bird
11. absence of contrast of /ʊ/ and /uː/ as in pull and pool
10 9 8 7 6 5 6 7 8 9 11 10 11 5 1 2
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | Northern | | | | |
| | | | | | Canada | | | | | Ireland | Scotland | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | `----------+----------' | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | `--------+---+---+---+--------------+--------------' | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | `----------, | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | USA | | | ,----------+---+------------------' |
| | | | | | | | | Republic | | |
| | | | `------------' | | | of | | ,------------------'
| | | | | | | Ireland | | |
| | | `--------------------' | | | | | England ,--------------------------------- 3
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | Wales | ,----------------------- 4
| | | | | | | | | South | Australia New
| | `----------------------------' | | | | | Africa | Zealand
| | | | | | | `----------------------- 4
| | | | | | |
| `------------------------------------+----------' | | `--------------------------------- 3
| | | |
`----------------------------------------+--------------' `--------------------------------------------- 2
|
`---------------------------------------------------------------- 1
We have attempted to portray the relationships between the pronunciations of the major non-Caribbean varieties in [this] Figure 1.1. This diagram is somewhat arbitrary and slightly misleading (there are, for example, accents of USEng which are close to RP than to mid-western US English), but it does show the two main types of pronunciation: an 'English' type (EngEng, WEng, SAfEng, AusEng, NZEng) and an 'American' type (USEng, CanEng), with IrEng falling somewhere between the two and ScotEng being somewhat by itself.
Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡIrish English 2ʬˤޤ뤳ȡŤˤ Scots English ȼϩԤäƤ뤳Ȥ϶̣
Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.
ʣΡ濴פĸϡɸ̤ polycentric language 뤤 pluricentric language ȸƤФ롥Trudgill (105) Ѹ켭ŵ顤Ѥ롥
A language in which autonomy is shared by two or more (usually very similar) superposed varieties. Examples include English (with American, English, Scottish, Australian and other standard forms); Portuguese (with Brazilian and European Portuguese standard variants); Serbo-Croat (with Serbian and Croatian variants) and Norwegian (with Bokmål and Nynorsk).
polycentric language ȤϡСơAusbau ʸפȸƤӤۤɤɸ碌ʣѼ۲˴ޤ1ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ㤨СꥹѸ (British English) ȥꥫѸ (American English) ϡ̤ŪаޤФƤС⤷ȳơꥹ (British) 䥢ꥫ (American) ȸƤФΩˤʤäƤ⤷ʤ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1])) ºݤˤϤʤ餺ˡޤǡ֥ꥹѼαѸפ֥ꥫѸפʤɤȸƾΤ褦ˤʤäƤ뤬ֱѸפȸƤФ۲ˤ롤Ūˤפ̤2ѼȤߤʤƤ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥Τ褦ʴѸȤߤȤѸ "polycentric language" Ǥȸ롥
"polycentric language" ȤѸ츯ϡѼ autonomy heteronomy (cf. #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1])) ˴ؤ뤿ᡤѼμҲŪʼ֤ؤΤѤȤϡѼҲŪˤª뤫Ȥɽ魯ΤǤϤʤΰѤǤϡSerbo-Croat 㤬Ƥ뤬ӥ (Serbian) ȥ (Croatian) ߤΩǤȤʼҲ˸ѤλˤȤäƤϡܥ (Serbo-Croat(ian)) "a polycentric language" ǤȤ⤤ϥʥɤĩȯŪʹ뤫⤷ʤ (cf. #1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]))
Ѹˤϡ̸ʬƤʬƤʤʤȤߤʤƤ˸Ѽ֤줿ɽ褦Ȥտޤ롥ָߤ˻Ƥ2פʤΤָߤ˻Ƥ2Ѽ۲ˤ1פʤΤѸˤ衤ܥݥȥˤ衤θѼ˴ؤƤ⡤"polycentric language" Ȥϼ֤Ȥϸ륿ߥΥǤϤʤǡJenkins (64) ȤäƤ褦 "pluricentric approach" ȤɽѤΤŬڤΤ褦˻פ
ε#2383. ݥȥȥ륾ե˥ ([2015-11-05-1]) (5) ǡ֥ݥȥΥ֥饸פ֥֥饸פȤ˸ڤСεϥݥȥ줬 "a polycentric language" ݤεȤȤˤʤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.
#2305. Ѹ25Ͽޡ ([2015-08-19-1]) 11ܤȤƵƤ Tristan da Cunha ˤĤդä롥Tristan da Cunha ϡեꥫꥫΦΤɤ餫Υ줿䳤θ硥եꥫ2400ꥫ3360ΥƤ롥6Ĥξ礫ʤꡤͭ Tristan da Cunha Gough Island 2ĤΤߤǤ롥ηϡ1506ǯ˥ݥȥͤγ Tristão da Cunha ˤäȯ줿17ʹߡ٤ˤ錄ä꽻λߤäԤΤ1816ǯΥꥹַˤΤǤ롥St. Helena ήˤ줿ʥݥ쥪ε߽Ф˻ߤ뤿ʼȤ롥1816ǯ˱ѹΤȤʻ礵줿1817ǯ˷űषʹߤϡ˻ĤäμԤȡˤ衼åѿͤɺήԤ̱ΤۤȤɤǤä1886ǯˤ97ͤȤ𤬤롥1938ǯˤ St. Helena ݸΤȤʤä2009ǯˤϰ̤ϲä졤ѹ St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ΰȤʤäƤ롥2015ǯߡ259ͤǤꡤΤۤȤȤѸȤ ENL ϰǤ롥

ʲϢ볰ĥäƤ
Website of the Tristan da Cunha Government and Tristan Association
Wikipedia ˤ Tristan da Cunha ε
BBC ˤ St Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha profiles
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
Edgar Allan Poe ˤ The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) Chapter 15 ˡTristan da Cunha ŪŪʾܤҤ롥
ʤSt. Helena ˤĤƤϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǤڤƤ롥
ʸ嵭2015/09/01(Tue) McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. "TRISTAN DA CUNHA" (1056) ι⻲ȡαѸѼϡHighland English ƱħͭȹͤƤ롥
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ʥ University of British Columbia dzŤ줿 SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference (The 9th Studies in the History of the English Language Conference) ˻äƤȯɽ1ĤˡDCHP-2 ץȤ˴ؤ𤬤äDCHP-2 ȤϡŪ§ˤäԤޤ줿ʥˡμ Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2ǤǤ롥Ǥ1967ǯ˽ǤƤꡤ2013ǯˤŻҲ줿Τ DCHP-1 Ȥƥ־ǸƤ롥DCHP-2 UBC ΤȤʤäԻʤƤꡤ˶ŤƤ褦ʤΤǡ餺뤳ȤˤʤȯɽǤϡԻ˴ؤ UBC γʬŪ DCHP-2 ΥǥƤ줿ʤʤ¤ƤΤ褦
ȯɽǤϡʶˡ̣ˡ Canadianism ǤȤȤä Canadianism ȤߤʤΤȤˤĤơˤƤ绨ĤˤСʥǻѤѸǤʤꥫѸ졤ꥹѸ졤¾αѸѼΥѥоݤȤѤʥѤѸŪ˻ѤФäƤΤ Canadianism ȤߤʤȤˤӤƤ롥줾οͤϥդDzĻ벽졤ʣѥѤĹ꤬¤˳褫Ƥ褦Τ褦ʥդưפ褦ˤʤСѸѼ֤¿ŪӤ¥ʤ
ŪŪ Canadianism ȤߤʤƤˤĤƤϡ嵭ˤβǤȤ櫓ȽŪʸƤä졤ˤäƤ Canadianism ȤߤʤȤϤǤʤȤ뤳Ȥ⤢ȤCanadianism Ȥǧꤵ줿ΤˤĤƤϡѥŵηǺܤϤŪطʤˤĤƤܤҤܤ롥
DCHP-2 СʥѸ츦ƤߤĤȤϴְ㤤ʤʥѸ˸¤餺Ѹμ䥳ѥԻޤޤ赤ŤƤСѼ֤Ӥ⤷䤹ʤꡤʱѸ츦ƻϤǤ롥21ŪʱѸؤη1Ĥ
ޤΥץȤϡѼȤϲȤܼŪƸƤ뤹ƤƤ褦ˤפ롥 Canadianism ȤϲŪǤΤ뤤ϤҤȤ˼ҲŪǥŪˤǤʤΤLilles Τ褦˥ʥѸֿáפȤߤԤ⤤СºߤȼĥԤ⤤롥ϡCanadianism ˸¤餺Americanism, Britishism ʤɡ֡ˡפؤ -ism Τ٤Ƥ˴ؤǤ롥Ѽ (variety) ͤˤĤƤϡ#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
äơʥѸˤȳפˤĤƤϡ#313. Canadian English ([2010-03-06-1])#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
Lilles, Jaan. "The Myth of Canadian English." English Today 62 (April 2000): 3--9, 17.
ե˵ŪʸǤȤ롥ϼϱѸˤ⤢뤬եˤϱѸ붯Ϥ롥⤷쵬ϼŪʸȤ뤫⤷ʤΥեεϼγΩȡȼο (language_myth) ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1077. Rivarol Υեͥº (1) ([2012-04-08-1])
#1078. Rivarol Υեͥº (2) ([2012-04-09-1])
#1079. Rivarol Υեͥº (3) ([2012-04-10-1])
Perret (70--71) ˽äƥե쵬ϼȯŸˤ⤹ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥15--16եϥƥäƥեθȤƽѤϥեɸಽή¥ʤ17ˤ Academie française Ω1635ǯ˵ڤӵŪʸˡ伭νǤ꼡18ΥեݲνפФȤʤä18γ̿ˤեϿȤΥܥ˻Ωƾ夲졤եʳθɸŪʥեѼˡŪӽ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤɸեм20ޤ³20ʹߤϡѸŨĬήǻ1994ǯ Toubon ˡǤϡѸɽθŪʻѤ¤褦Ȥаޤ롥ˤ La Francophonie ([2015-04-28-1], [2015-04-29-1]) 20ȾˤȯŸϡΤ褦ʱѸŨδ֤Ť뤳ȤǤեŪȻȼɸŪŪʥե줬θҤɬݻǤʤʤäƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ϰ褴Ȥι̱ŪեѼ (français nationaux) ¸ߴƤƤ롥 (World) Englishes (world_englishes) ΥեǤȤ
եεϼβȥե̿δطˤĤƤϡ4ϡ֥ե̿ȸפɤߤ䤹٤ࡥ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
ε#2073. θѼ˺ѤῴϤȱϡ ([2014-12-30-1]) ǰѤ (204) ϡȯŸؤήʤɤޤܤΤȤФѲֱǥפƤ롥ɸ졦̸줬ĺˤꡤʻɽΡˤ˾夫ƶڤܤƤ뤬ɽ̤Τ餳Dzߤ˺ѤƤưɤδطˤ⤢롥 *
弫ȤΤȤФѤۤʬ䤹 (202--03)
ĤƤθѲΥǥñǡĺɸ졦̸줬־夫ѲפȤڤǤȡȤ館ƤܤǸ褦ˡ̱դΤȤФǻȤϤ褦ʡֲѲפˤ롥ȤǤޤ˿졤äƤΤϡΤؤɤǤȤФȤꤷƤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ΤȤФ⡤դäȤФȤƤϡΤؤ롥٤¾αƶΤ㤦Τϡ˿ȡ®ȵڤ뤳ȤǤ롥äȤФϥƥӤޥǻȤ뤳Ȥ٤Τ
Ȥǡαǥϡ餷Ƥ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) ۵롥ޤ줿褦ˡܸȱѸνѼϤӤǤ롥ȡǥϡ⤷ȤΤޤαѸѼȤƤϳؤΤˤѤǤ뤫⤷ʤȤȯۤ⤫֡ǥγƽŬ˲ѤƱѸͤˤޤäƤߤ

Ѹˤܸζ̸Τ¸ߤʤθȤ⤤ WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) Ƥߤ (cf. wsse) ޤˤϡܤˤˤΤʤΤǡص塤ߺǤƶϤζȻפ American English ƤߤŪĺ WSSE αƶ϶⤷ʤΤؤΤ餳Ǥ٤礦ѸѼ郎ߤ˱ƶڤܤäƤ롥ˤäƤϡŪѼħΰꥫѸʤɤͭϤѼߡˤ쵤ȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤ夫ΰѤ⤸äɽȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ĤƤθѲΥǥñǡĺɸ졦̸WSSE ־夫ѲפȤڤѸѼǤȡȤ館ƤܤǸ褦ˡ̱դΤȤФǻȤϤ褦ʡֲѲפˤ롥ȤǤޤ˿ѸѼ졤äƤΤϡΤؤɤǤȤФȤꤷƤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ΤȤꥫѸ⡤դäȤФȤƤϡΤؤ롥٤¾ѼαƶΤ㤦ΤϡꥫѸ˿ȡ®ȵڤ뤳ȤǤ롥ꥫѸäȤФϥƥӤޥͥåǻȤ뤳Ȥ٤Τ
WSSE American English ĺ˿ȤȤ϶Ǥ롥ǥ˹פˤϡѸѼϤޤʣܸѸѼΤ褦Ӥ뤳Ȥˤꡤƶ褦˻פݥȤϡ(1) ɸಽȤŪʵῴϤȡȤʬŪʱϤȤȤƯƤ뤳ȡ(2) ŪѼ狼濴ŪѼظबήߡˤ®ɸŪѼळȤȤȤ
ͺܸ쥦å١ȽŹҴȿӡ1999ǯ
#2028. ܤȥɤˤξ ([2014-11-15-1]) εǡܸ䥤ꥹѸϡ̸첽ɸ첽Ȥ˲ĤĤⴰ˼뤳Ȥʤषʤ餿ޤĤäƤȤͽ¬Ҳ𤷤ȯŸܤˤƤؼԤǤС̤˼ǽʤɹͤʤܸؤͼԤǡֿפ (143) ƱͤǤ롥
ȤФϰ躹ΩˤĤơȰʸ塤ޤƥڤΰȰʸˤäʬͤ뤬Ϥä㤦櫓ǤʤΤ⺣⡤ƱʬȤĤưΤ˶̸첽Ȥưʸ塤ƥڰʸ礭ʤäȤäơϰ躹߽ФʬưȤ櫓ǤϤʤ̸첽ʤʤ顤߽ФƤ롥ȤФϤĤͤѤΤʤΤϰ躹Ϥʤʤʤΰ̣ǤϡǤӤ뤳ȤϤʤ
ϥꥹαѸѼˤƤϤޤΤȻפ롥˲СαѸѼˤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ⤷ʤرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ104ֱϤȵῴϡ ɸؤܻؤϤῴϤȸƤ֤ȤСѼؤʬϤϱϤȸƤ٤롥2ĤϤϰ츫ȿΤΡ¸ǽष¸Բȹͤ롥ؤΥ٥ȥ뤬ȤƱͤˡʬĬή⡤츫Ωʤ˿ʹԤƤ롥 (142) θ褦ˡϺʤΤ³ȼѲƤΡפǤꡤɸ첽ζήΤʤˤäƤ⡤ѼϤ䤹ȼ褦ʾˤϤʤʤȤϤˤꡤѼˤꡤῴϤȱϤΤ줫ܤ˸ͥȤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢ˤϤλ¤ꤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1])#1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1])#1521. ȷ ([2013-06-26-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͺܸ쥦å١ȽŹҴȿӡ1999ǯ
ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) äƤܤˤϤ褯ǺܤƤ뤬ˤѸιϿޤ롥ǽ Strevens ˤäƺ줿˲Ѥ줿Τ Crystal (70) ˸줿Crystal ǤΥȥ "A family tree representation (based on a model by Peter Strevens) of the way English has spread around the world, showing the influence of the two main branches of American and British English"
Crystal ϿޤΤޤޥ֥˷Ǻܤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǡϤȤ˺֤äȲǡפǤ롥ELF Ȥʸ̮ʤΤǡƤǤϤʤܤ濴ˤϿޤξ˱ѼŸƤߤ

ϿޤϡǤʤƤʱѸϰѼĤꥹѼȥꥫѼΤ줫̤餻Ƥꡤ̤ȤŪŸŪŸƱɽ뤳ȤƤ롥ѼαƶϤǤꡤǰޤȤƤˤ褯ǤƤȻפ
Ĥ English ؼȻʬ줷ƤͤϤ礦ɰ²η ( see [2009-06-17-1] ) ۵뤬[2010-05-03-1]εˤַȱƶɬ̤ǤʤפȤƱ۵롥ȤΤϡĤȥԥ˿ʬ줿ܤޤŪʡַפΤΡǤξԴ֤Ρֱƶסä˥ꥫѼ狼ΡֱƶפŪˤĤȥԥƤ뤫Ǥ롥[2010-04-21-1]εǿ줿Ѹ Americanization ϡϿޤǤФԥȤȤˤʤ
Strevens, P. "English as an International Language." The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. Ed. B. B. Kachru. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1992.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ʸ嵭2010/05/23(Sun)Strevens ΥꥸʥȤƵ Strevens νϸäƤޤϡʲΤΤǤޤʾǺƷǤƤ褦Ǥ
Strevens, Peter. Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford: Pergamon P, 1980.
Strevens, Peter. "English as an International Language: Directions in the 1990s." The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. 2nd ed. Ed. B. B. Kachru. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1992.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (October 1992). 12--21.
McArthur, Tom. The English Languages. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 94.
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