hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 ڡ / page 4 (5)

conjugation - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-30 01:44

2015-01-10 Sat

#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won [verb][conjugation][inflection][vowel][oe][homorganic_lengthening][sobokunagimon]

ѸԵ§Ѥ򼨤ư졤ä˸촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤʬư¿ϡŪʶѲưͳ褹롥űѸǤϸѸ¿ư줬Ѳư°ƤꡤȾޤǤ˼Ѳʵ§ѡˤذܹԤ뤫뤤ѸȤʤäưΤ붯ܹԤˤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤε򻲾Ȥ줿
ơѸˤޤʤ館ѲưϡѤλˤäɸ drink--drank--drunk Τ褦ABC win--won--won Τ褦ABBʤɡĤμ˶ʬ뤬϶ѸʸɸѸˤƳΩΤȹͤƤ褤#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤϤޤʬ첻ɤ򼨤ΤʤʤäߤǤޤɸѼǤϰۤʤ첻Ѥ줿ꤹ롥
drink win γѥפΰ㤤Ѹ˸ɤεϡűѸζѲưˤ1ʡñפȤˤ2ʡʣפȤˤ2ब̤Ƥ¤ˤ롥#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡưϼοȿ;Τ˱2ĤΰۤʤäƤdrink ǤС -- 1 -- 2 -- ʬνˡdrincan -- dranc -- druncon -- druncen Τ褦˳Ѥwin ˤĤƤ winnan -- wann -- wunnon -- wunnen ȳѤʤѼ׷ (principal parts) ȸƤ֡ˡȤѸʸ塤ηΤδάĬήȼưβ2η֤̤뵡򸺤餷ƤäĤƤ12Τ줫ͥȤʤͣβȤƵǽƤȤˤʤäβʾʣǤꡤѸޤǤ˷֤夻㤷ɤ򼨤Ŀͺư¿ädrink Ϥޤ1 dranc ͳ褹֤ɸѸβȤ夹뤳Ȥˤʤꡤwin ˤĤƤϤޤ2 wunnan η֡ʸ won ֤ /wʌn/ ȯˤͳ褹֤Ѥ줿ȤȤǤ롥
12Τ줬Ѥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ŤװǤʤdrincan winnan °붯Ѳ3¾ưˤĤĴ٤Ƥߤȡdrinkcan Τ褦˸1Ѥ줿Τˤ hringan, scrincan, sincan, singan, springan, swimmanwinnan Τ褦2Τ줿Τˤ clingan, spinnan, stingan, wringan 롥ɸѼǤϲ̤첻ķ֤Ѥ륱⾯ʤʤ㤨Сsing βɸѼǤ sang ɸѼ sung Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤspin βɸѼǤ spun ʳѼǤ span ⤢ꤦ롤ʴꡤp. 76ˡ
ʤbindan, findan, grindan, windan ⶯Ѳ3ưǡ2Ѥ줿פǤ (ex. bound, found, ground, wound) 첻ϡѸƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˤĹʤꡤ˸첻 (gvs) ˤ2첻 /aʊ/ Ĥ˻äƤǡwinnan ΥפȤϾۤʤ벻Ūаޤéä

ͺرѸˡ3ǡ̿2013ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-06-22 Sun

#1882. move prove ˤĤƸ줿첻Ȥαƶ [french][loan_word][vowel][spelling][conjugation][paradigm][analogy]

ѸˤϡѸ move prove Ф <meven> <preven> Τ褦˸촴첻 <e> θֻŪ˹ԤƤ줬 <o> ˼ä뤳ȤˤʤΤطʤ򾯡õäƤߤ
move prove ϥե󥹼ѸǤꡤե󥹸ǤϤ줾 mouvoir prouver б롥prouver ľˡߤο;Ѳ̤Ƹ촴첻Ѥʤmouvoir Ͽ;Τ˱첻 <eu> ȸ첻 <ou> δ֤Ѱۤ롥ƱѰۤ򼨤 mourir, vouloir ȤȤ˳ɽǤ褦

 mouvoir ưmourir ʻ̡vouloir ˾
1st sg.je meusje meursje veux
2nd sg.tu meustu meurstu veux
3rd sg.il meutil meurtil veut
1st pl.nous mouvonsnous mouronsnous voulons
2nd pl.vous mouvezvous mourezvous voulez
3rd pl.ils meuventils meurentils veulent


ʣ12;ΤǤϸ첻 <ou> 졤¾ο;ΤǤ첻 <eu> Ƥ뤳Ȥ狼롥ե󥹸ˤǤϡ촴˶ʤˤŪʸ첻ݤ졤촴˶ˤ첻롥Ѹؤϡ2ˤĤƸԤ첻촴Ѥ졤Ѹ̤ͥȤʤä褦Ǥ롥Ϣơpeople popular θ촴첻ʻˤоȤ줿
θ첻򼨤֤¤ǹԤƤꡤ줬Ѹʹߤ˰̲뤳ȤˤʤäβϼƤ褦ܤ餫ˤʤΤǤΩ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ѸǤ첻򼨤֤ѤȤʤäƵפĤƤ첻ȸ첻Ѱۤ󤯱ƶڤܤƤǽΤ븽ݤ1Ĥ롥prove βʬȤƵ§Ū proved Ե§Ū proven 뤬Ԥ16ƬˤФϤĤƤ첻򼨤 preve ȴؤ꤬뤫⤷ʤΤ褳ưγѤϡѸ餷§ŪʼѲˤäȤԵ§ʶѲˤʳѤ򼨤 cleave -- clove -- cloven weave -- wove -- woven ˤꡤ preve ФƲʬ proven 줿Ȥ롥䤬ǽȤʤСϸ preve cleave weave Ʊ첻򼨤Ǥȹͤ졤첻Ѱ۷ʬγ׿ proven ߽ФäȤʤäȤȤǤ롥
ߡʬ proven ä˥ꥫѸ䥹åȥɱѸǹȤƤꡤȤ櫓ư֤ιʸ¾ѼؤѤȤäƤȤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-20-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-30 Fri

#1859. Ѹ3ʣ -s (5) [verb][conjugation][emode][paradigm][analogy][3pp][shakespeare][nptr][causation]

ϡޤǤˤ 3pp γƵDz٤äƤ³ǤƤ褦ˡưľˡˤ3ʣ -s εˤĤƤϡ쳰ŪƶȡŪ3ñ -s ȤΩƤ롥Ū򾧤ԤȤơSmith 롥Smith Shakespeare First Folio оݤȤơ3ʣ -s 100ĤߤĤSmith ϡʬۤ򼨤ʤαƶ򶯤ꤷŪװΤߤǽʬǤǤμݤʸη褯ޤȤޤäƤ (375--76)

   I. That, as an historical explanation of the construction discussed, the recourse to the theory of Northumbrian borrowing is both insufficient and unnecessary.
   II. That these s-predicates are nothing more than the ordinary third singulars of the present indicative, which, by preponderance of usage, have caused a partial displacement of the distinctively plural forms, the same operation of analogy finding abundant illustrations in the popular speech of to-day.
   III. That, in Shakespeare's time, the number and corresponding influence of the third singulars were far greater than now, inasmuch as compound subjects could be followed by singular predicates.
   IV. That other apparent anomalies of concord to be found in Shakespeare's syntax,---anomalies that elude the reach of any theory that postulates borrowing,---may also be adequately explained on the principle of the DOMINANT THIRD SINGULAR.


פˡSmith ϡˤ⸽ߤˤ⸫3ñ -s ζŪкͥʤ줬3ʣΰؿȤϼǤ⤤Ƥ롥
Smith εˤ꤬¿1ˡShakespeare ΤߤäƽѸɽ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȡ2ˡƶˤ NPTR Northern Present Tense Rule; #1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) 򻲾) äƤ˽ʬդʧ鷺ˡƱӽƤ뤳ȡʤNPTR ˴ϢڼΤ p. 366 εˤˡ3ˡSmith ˸¤ʤƶȤΩƤꡤξԤȤͭȤ븫βǽӽƤ뤳ȡ
12ˤĤƤϡSmith 100ǯʾθŤǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥Τ褦ŦǤΤϡθ带椬ʤǤڵȤ⤤롥3ˤĤƤϡʤθƤʤƶˤϤ줾ζߤȼߤ뤬ξԤͻ¤ǤʤȤͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) εǤߤ褦 McIntosh θ NPTR Ūȵڤ򼨺뤷 Smith λŦ붦ŪǸŪװ⤽ȤϤ롥װ궯ѤƤ뤫ȤܤζϤ줫Τߤ󤹤뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤΩȤƤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) 褦ˡ3ʣ -s ˤĤƤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ

Smith, C. Alphonso. "Shakespeare's Present Indicative S-Endings with Plural Subjects: A Study in the Grammar of the First Folio." Publications of the Modern Language Association 11 (1896): 363--76.
McIntosh, Angus. "Present Indicative Plural Forms in the Later Middle English of the North Midlands." Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davis. Ed. Douglas Gray and E. G. Stanley. Oxford: OUP, 1983. 235--44.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-29 Thu

#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) [verb][conjugation][degemination][inflection][phonetics][analogy][sobokunagimon]

#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) ε­äεǤϡѲưθ촴 rhyme ιִˤ첻û첻ˡܻ /d, t/ פǤ {-ed} դȡűѸ줫Ѹˤη̡߷ʬ٤ƱȤʤäƤޤä
ºݤΤȤ嵭βˤˤϼ㴳οʤĤ롥ꤵƤ벻ΤæŻҲ (degemination) ѸǤβȤȤ館ˤƤ⡤ΩϢ첻æŻҲȤϸűѸʳΤȹͤʤФʤʤȤε󤷤Ѹˤ̵ѲѤư췲Τ٤ƤεűѸˤޤ̤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 hit (< OE hyttan), knit (< OE cnyttan), shut (< OE scyttan), set (< OE settan), wed (< OE weddian) ʤɤϸűѸ̤뤳ȤǤƤ⡤cast, cost, cut, fit, hurt, put, split, spread ʤɤϽФѸʹߤμѸ줢뤤¤Ǥ롥ޤ bid, burst, let, shed, slit ʤɤ϶ѲưǤ˼ѲΤΥߥ󥰤Ⱦ嵭ꤵ벻Υߥ󥰤ȤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫ʬʤűѸμѲư˳μ¤ˤ̤뤳ȤΤǤʤưˤĤƤ⡤set shut ξƱͤˡˤŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤΤ
षΤ褦ưϡ촴 rhyme ̤ƤȤǡŪˡʡ̵ѲѤư set shut ȶŪ˴ϢŤ졤 (analogy) ˤä̵ѲѤѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤѸˤˤƶѲư ѲưȤήʶܹԡˤϰŪǤꡤѤκǤȤƤФиڤ뤬̤μѲư ̵ѲưȤѤή⡤ŪǤϤ졤Τ褦¸ߤȹͤΤǤϤʤ̵ѲѤưξʤȤϡʲѲη̤ȤƤǤϤʤŪѤη̤Ȥªɬפ褦˻פ롥Τ褦˹ͤƤȤˡJespersen (28) ƱݤεҤ򸫤Ĥ "this group" ȤϸűѸ˵̵ѲѤư췲ؤ

Even verbs originally strong or reduplicative, or of foreign origin, have been drawn into this group: bid, burst, slit; let, shed; cost.


ưζܹԤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) γƵ򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-28 Wed

#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθư [verb][conjugation][emode][language_change][causation][suffix][inflection][phonotactics][3sp]

#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵ򤬤ꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ - Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤

In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.


"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-27 Tue

#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ [pronunciation][verb][conjugation][emode][spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][suffix][inflection][3sp]

ε#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ǻȤ Kytö (115) ϡ17ɾԤľܰѤʤ顤17Ⱦˤ -eth ֤줿޸Ǥ -s ȤȯƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Contemporary commentators' statements, and verse rhymes, indicate that the -S and -TH endings were pronounced identically from the early 17th century on. Richard Hodges (1643) listed different spellings given for the same pronunciation: for example, clause, claweth, claws; Hodges also pointed out in 1649 that "howesoever wee write them thus, leadeth it, maketh it, noteth it, we say lead's it, make's it, note's it" (cited in Jespersen, 1942: 19--20).


Kytö (132 fn. 10) ǤϡHodges θǤǤȯҲ𤵤Ƥ롥

In the third (and final) edition of his guide (1653: 63--64), Hodges elaborated on his statement: "howsoever wee write many words as if they were two syllables, yet wee doo commonly pronounce them as if they were but one, as for example, these three words, leadeth, noteth, taketh, we doo commonly pronounce them thus, leads, notes, takes, and so all other words of this kind."


17ˤϰŪ <-eth> /-s/ ȤȯƤȤϡ/θ/ /s/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤǤȤĤޤƤ䤿ˤȤäƤϡ츫ۤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤϡäդǤѲԤ񤭸դǤѲɤĤƤʤȤѲΤդ줿1Ĥˤʤ˽񤭸դäդ˹碌 <-s> ֤褦ˤʤäֻȯɤĤˤ¿ʤȤֺäȤȤǤ롥ܸɽ줫ʤŤ鸽夫ʤŤؤȲޤǤƻΤ٤С<-eth> <-s> ؤֻѲϤष®äȸۤɤǤ롥
ʤJespersen (20) ˤȡĶ٤ư hath, doth, saith ˤĤƤϡ<-th> 18ȾФޤ̤˸줿Ȥ
ɽʸȯȤЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ȡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) ε򻲾Ȥ줿

Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Hodges, Richard. A Special Help to Orthographie; Or, the True Writing of English. London: Printed for Richard Cotes, 1643.
Hodges, Richard. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That Ever was Hitherto Publisht. London: Printed by Wm. Du-gard, 1649.
Hodges, Richard. Most Plain Directions for True-Writing: In Particular for Such English Words as are Alike in Sound, and Unlike Both in Their Signification and Writing. London: Printed by W. D. for Rich. Hodges., 1653. (Reprinted in R. C. Alston, ed. English Linguistics 1500--1800. nr 118. Menston: Scholar Press, 1968; Microfiche ed. 1991)
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-26 Mon

#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s [colonial_lag][ame_bre][verb][conjugation][bible][shakespeare][suffix][inflection][3sp][schedule_of_language_change][lexical_diffusion][speed_of_change]

ư3ʣˤĤơ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1])#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ǰäƤ3ñˤˤĤƤϤޤ夲Ƥʤäͽۤ褦ˡ3ñΤۤʤǤꡤȤ櫓󥰥ɤǸűѸ -th 򼨤ΤѸ -s 褦ˤʤäаޤˤĤƤϡ¿ФƤ롥
ѸξΤˤФа礤˽ФΤϡ1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]ˤǤŪ -th ݤƤ뤬Ʊ Shakespeare Ǥ -th -s ߤƤȤȤΤȤϡ17ޤǤ˸ǤϤǤ -th -s ؤѲٿʤǤݼŪν񤭸դˤϤ줬ȿǤʤäΤȲᤵƤ롥
ơ礦Ʊ˱Ѹ줬ΦذܿϤƤǤϡλǤ˻ϤޤäƤ -th -s ѲΤθΥ塼ϡꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǰۤʤäϤäΤKytö ϡ16--17ΥꥹѸ쥳ѥȡ17ΥꥫѸ쥳ѥѤơ䤤ؤ᤿͡ʸŪҲŪʥѥ᡼ꤷӤƤ뤬Ūˤ1Ĥηǧ줿17ξߤ¤ꡤ-s ؤѲϥꥫѸΤۤꥹѸ®˿ʤǤΤǤ롥Kytö (120) ˤɽ򼨤

British EnglishAmerican English
 -S-THTotal -S-THTotal
1500--157015 (3%)446461-   
1570--1640101 (18%)4595601620--1670339 (51%)322661
1640--1710445 (76%)1405851670--1720642 (82%)138780


η̤ơKytö (132) ϡ3ñ -th -s Ѳ˴ؤ¤ꡤꥫѸ colonial_lag ϤߤʤȷŤƤ롥

Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of colonial lag, the subsequent rate of change was more rapid in the colonies. By and large, the colonists' writings seem to reflect the spoken language of the period more faithfully than do the writings of their contemporaries in Britain. In this respect, speaker innovation, rather than conservative tendencies, guided the development.


˽񤤤 colonial_lag γƵǤ褦ˡܤˤäƥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸʤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѽ⤢̣ǤݼŪǤꡤ̣Ǥϳ׿ŪǤ롥 Kytö η϶ä٤ΤǤϤʤꥹܹˤƸ夹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤѲꥫϤäˤɤΤ褦˿ʹԤ򼨺1ĤλȤưյ롥

Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-25 Sun

#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. [verb][conjugation][degemination][inflection][phonetics][sobokunagimon]

Ѹˤϡset -- set -- set, put -- put -- put, let -- let -- let ʤ̵ѲѤư줬Ĥ¸ߤ롥ޤ Quirk et al. (3.17) ˵󤲤Ƥ̵ѲѤưΰߤƤߤ褦ɽ "R" "regular" ɽ魯

V/V-edCOMMENTS
betBrE also R: betted
bid'make an offer (to by)' etc. (But in the sense of 'say a greeting' or 'give an order', the forms bid ? bad(e) ? bidden may also be used in rather archaic style: 'Do as you are bid(den).') Also OUTBID, UNDERBID.
burstAlso nonstandard BUST, with alternative R V-ed form busted
castAlso BROADCAST, FORECAST, MISCAST, OVERCAST, RECAST, TELECAST (sometimes also R)
costCOST = 'estimate the cost of' is R
cut 
fitR <in BrE>
hit 
hurt 
knitUsually R: knitted
let 
put /ʊ/But PUT(T) /pʌt/ in golf is R: putted
quitAlso R: quitted
ridAlso R: ridded
setAlso BESET, RESET, UPSET, OFFSET, INSET
shedAlso R <rare> = 'put in a shed'
shit<Not in polite use>; V-ed1 sometimes shat
shredUsually R: shreaded
shut 
slit 
split 
spread /e/ 
sweat /e/Also R: sweated
thrust 
wedAlso R: wedded
wetAlso R: wetted


嵭ưθ촴˶̤Τϡˤ첻 /d, t/ ǽ뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ줪ѸǤϡΤ褦ʲƤưϡѲβʬ {-ed} ղäȤϢ첻æ촴ȹ蘆äƽŻҲ /-dd-, -tt-/ 򼨤ȤѸޤǤæŻҲ (degemination) Ȳʬθ촴⡤ȸߤθ촴Ʊ /d, t/ ǽ֤ؤȼ̤̤Ȥơ̵ѲѤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤäknitted, quitted, wedded ʤɤΤ褦ˡ˵§߽Ф줿Τ⤢Τǡ嵭βư줬̵ѲѤǤ뤳Ȥɬ׾ǤϤäƤ⽽ʬǤϤʤʹڡ켣p. 204--05ˡ
ʤ촴ĥ첻ưˤĤƤϡ̤βͿdream / dreamt, leap / leapt, read / read, speed / sped ʤɤγѤ줿 Ϣơ#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-23 Fri

#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR [nptr][verb][conjugation][inflection][me_dialect][contact][suffix][paradigm][3pp][3sp]

ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥

Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.


McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3Υѥ򼨤ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)

i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb

North: i)sg.pl.
1st person -es
2nd person 
3rd person-es


ii) personal pronoun subject in contact with verb

North: ii)sg.pl.
1st person -e, -ø (-en)
2nd person 
3rd person-es


(2) Midland

Midlandsg.pl.
1st person -en, -e (-ø)
2nd person 
3rd person-eth


(3) South

Southsg.pl.
1st person -eth
2nd person 
3rd person-eth


ơ⤷ΤζնΤϰǤϡNPTR θѥ (1) Ȥθʤѥ (2) Ȥͻ礷褦ʡѥ (1.5) ȤǤ⤤٤Τǧ뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥϡѥ (1) ˽äŪ NPTR ѤƤΤֲŪˤϥѥ (1) Ū -es ǤϤʤѥ (2) Ū -eth ѤƤΤǤ롥McIntosh (238) ˤꡤ֥ѥ (1.5)פ򼨤

(1.5) (1) (2) ζն "NE Leicestershire, Rutland, N. Northamptonshire, the extreme north of Huntingdonshire, and parts of N. Ely and NW Norfolk" (McIntosh 236)

i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb

North/Midland: i)sg.pl.
1st person -eth
2nd person 
3rd person-eth


ii) personal pronoun subject in contact with verb

North/Midland: ii)sg.pl.
1st person -en (-e, -ø)
2nd person 
3rd person-eth


פˡϰǤϡֲŪŪħ򼨤ȤŪʥ٥ǤμѤȹͤ٤dialect mixture ȹͤ٤ŪˤҲŪˤⶽ̣򤽤븽ݤǤ롥

McIntosh, Angus. "Present Indicative Plural Forms in the Later Middle English of the North Midlands." Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davis. Ed. Douglas Gray and E. G. Stanley. Oxford: OUP, 1983. 235--44.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-09 Mon

#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) [verb][conjugation][emode][number][agreement][analogy][3pp]

#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1]) ˰³ƤꡥWyld (340) ϡѸˤ3ʣ -s αƶȤƤǤϤʤ3ñ -s ȼĥƤ롥

Present Plurals in -s.

   This form of the Pres. Indic. Pl., which survives to the present time as a vulgarism, is by no means very rare in the second half of the sixteenth century among writers of all classes, and was evidently in good colloquial usage well into the eighteenth century. I do not think that many students of English would be inclined to put down the present-day vulgarism to North country or Scotch influence, since it occurs very commonly among uneducated speakers in London and the South, whose speech, whatever may be its merits or defects, is at least untouched by Northern dialect. The explanation of this peculiarity is surely analogy with the Singular. The tendency is to reduce Sing. and Pl. to a common form, so that certain sections of the people inflect all Persons of both Sing. and Pl. with -s after the pattern of the 3rd Pres. Sing., while others drop the suffix even in the 3rd Sing., after the model of the uninflected 1st Pers. Sing. and the Pl. of all Persons.
   But if this simple explanation of the present-day Pl. in -s be accepted, why should we reject it to explain the same form at an earlier date?
   It would seem that the present-day vulgarism is the lineal traditional descendant of what was formerly an accepted form. The -s Plurals do not appear until the -s forms of the 3rd Sing. are already in use. They become more frequent in proportion as these become more and more firmly established in colloquial usage, though, in the written records which we possess they are never anything like so widespread as the Singular -s forms. Those who persist in regarding the sixteenth-century Plurals in -s as evidence of Northern influence on the English of the South must explain how and by what means that influence was exerted. The view would have had more to recommend it, had the forms first appeared after James VI of Scotland became King of England. In that case they might have been set down as a fashionable Court trick. But these Plurals are far older than the advent of James to the throne of this country.


ٻ礿ϡ(1) 3ʣ -s ϡ3ñ -s Ѥ褦ˤʤޤǤϸƤʤȡ(2) ɤΤ褦˱ƶͿΤǤʤȡ2Ǥ롥öŪǤꡤŪȤϤʤꤨʤΤΡΤ褦˻פ롥
1ĵˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥Wyld Ĥϡ1515ǯʸǡ"the noble folk of the land shotes at hym." ȤʸڤȤΥƥȤˤ3ñ -s ϸ줺3ʣˤ -ith 褯ȤȤ顤Wyld Ȥε󤲤Ƥ (1) Ȥ礷ʤ褦˻פ뤬ɤʤΤˤ衤ΩѸ3ñ3ʣζ޸ӸƤ뤳Ȥɬפ

Wyld, Henry Cecil. A History of Modern Colloquial English. 2nd ed. London: Fisher Unwin, 1921.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-05-26-1] [2014-05-21-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-08-20 Tue

#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) [verb][conjugation][emode][number][agreement][analogy][3pp]

[2013-03-10-1], [2013-03-20-1]˰³ɸꡥƶ⤫3ñ⤫ǸʬƤ롥Ѹ򰷤äϤǡFennell (143) ϸԤٻơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In the written language the third person plural had no separate ending because of the loss of the -en and -e endings in Middle English. The third person singular ending -s was therefore frequently used also as an ending in the third person plural: troubled minds that wakes; whose own dealings teaches them suspect the deeds of others. The spread of the -s ending in the plural is unlikely to be due to the influence of the northern dialect in the South, but was rather due to analogy with the singular, since a certain number of southern plurals had ended in -e)th like the singular in colloquial use. Plural forms ending in -(e)th occur as late as the eighteenth century.


Strang (146) ƶٻƤ롥

The function of the ending, whatever form it took, also wavered in the early part of II [1770--1570]. By northern custom the inflection marked in the present all forms of the verb except first person, and under northern influence Standard used the inflection for about a century up to c. 1640 with occasional plural as well as singular value.


¤αѸ˲ Strang ε̣Τϡ2λŦˤƤǤ롥1ܤϡѸƱˡŤ be äƿ are Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤαƶ椨ǤȤ¤ȴϢʤ顤3ñʣ -s ˤĤƵƤ뤳Ȥare ʤμѤȤΤǤС3ʣ -s μѤǤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤ2ܤϡ̾ưοΰפ˴ؤ붦Ū̻Ūʻ顤3ʣ -s ͳǤϤʤ줬ƵǤͳ򼨺ƤǤ롥ΰʸ³սǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The tendency did not establish itself, and we might guess that its collapse is related to the climax, at the same time, of the regularisation of noun plurality in -s. Though the two developments seem to belong to very different parts of the grammar, they are interrelated in syntax. Before the middle of II there was established the present fairly remarkable type of patterning, in which, for the vast majority of S-V concords, number is signalled once and once only, by -s (/s/, /z/, /ɪz/), final in the noun for plural, and in the verb for singular. This is the culmination of a long movement of generalisation, in which signs of number contrast have first been relatively regularised for components of the NP, then for the NP as a whole, and finally for S-V as a unit.


̾ʣ -s ư3ñ -s θŪ򡤿ŪȯããȤȤ館ƶϱԤ3ʣνиαƶ3ñ䤫Τ줫˵ˤ衤ϵǤ롥ʤǤ뤫Ȥ̤ˤؤäƤϤ뤬ν˷Ū꤬Ūꡤ̻ŪʼؤȹäƤ椯Τ򴶤롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-03-20 Wed

#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) [verb][conjugation][emode][corpus][ppceme][ppcbme][number][agreement][analogy][3pp]

#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ε³εǤϡPPCEME ˤ븡ǡ3ʣ -s 50ۤɼФȤǤȽҤ٤ʸ̮򸫤ʤȤȤ52㤬ǧ줿ʥǡΥƥȥեˡ
PPCEME ǤϡE1 (1500--1569), E2 (1570--1639), E3 (1640--1710) 3ʬƤ뤬ζʬȤ3ʣ -s 򼨤ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤʳƴΥѥ⼨ˡ

PeriodTokensWordcount
E1 (1500--1569)13567,795
E2 (1570--1639)18628,463
E3 (1640--1710)21541,595
Total521,737,853


Queen Elizabeth I's Boethius (E2), Thomas Middleton's A chaste maid in Cheapside (E2), Celia Fiennes's journeys (E3) ʤɤΥƥȤ˿ʾȤϤΤȤƾʤʤ⡤褽ʤʬۤƤȤϸ뤫⤷ʤʸįƤߤȡʲΤ褦˼ư֤ߤΤĤꡤѸΡthere is + ʣ̾פΤ褦ʹʸ۵롥

and after them comys mo harolds,
Here comes our Gossips now,
Now in goes the long Fingers that are wash't Some thrice a day in Vrin,


ơLass (166) 3ʣ -s ˤĤƴϢڤ򸫤ĤΤǡҲ𤷤ƤLass ϡ3ʣ -s εˤĤơñ٤л٤줿ΤΡŤȹͤƤ褦

The {-s} plural appears considerably later than the {-s} singular, and if it too is northern (as seems likely), it represents a later diffusion. The earliest example cited by Wyld ([History of Modern Colloquial English] 346) is from the State Papers of Henry VIII (1515): 'the noble folk of the land shotes at hym'. It is common throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as a minority alternant of zero, and persists sporadically into the eighteenth century.


1617̤ƹԤʤƤȤȤϡ嵭 PPCEME dzΤǧ줿ʤѸ򥫥С PPCMBE 18ʹߤξĴ٤Ƥߤȡ6󤬤äΤοȴǰξǾȤ԰פɤΤޤޤƤ[2012-06-14-1]ε#1144. Ѹˤ԰פפ򻲾ȡˡѸǤ3ʣ -s ϳ̵˶ᤤȹͤƤ褵


Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-03-10 Sun

#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s [verb][conjugation][emode][corpus][ppceme][number][agreement][analogy][3pp]

ɸˤĤ Baugh and Cable (247) ˿Ƥꡤܤ椤3ñʤ3ʣˤ -s ϡѸǤʤѸǤϡ#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) βϿޤǼ褦ˡľˡ3;ʣǤ -es ܤäѸɸѼˤ3ʣ -s ȤΤԻ׵ĤǤ롥ȤΤϡλʸؤʸȿǤɸѼǤϡѸ East Midland -e(n) ṳ̈ȤƤΥͽۤ뤷ºݤʬۤȤưŪ3ʣ -s ϳΤ Shakespeare Ǥ⻶롥
ˤĤơBaugh and Cable (247) ϼΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥

Their occurrence is also often attributed to the influence of the Northern dialect, but this explanation has been quite justly questioned, and it is suggested that they are due to analogy with the singular. While we are in some danger here of explaining ignotum per ignotius, we must admit that no better way of accounting for this peculiarity has been offered. And when we remember that a certain number of Southern plurals in -eth continued apparently in colloquial use, the alternation of -s with this -eth would be quite like the alternation of these endings in the singular. Only they were much less common. Plural forms in -s are occasionally found as late as the eighteenth century.


ǡ3ʣ -s αƶǤϤʤȤ Baugh and Cable θϡWyld, History of Modern Colloquial English, p. 340 θڤäƤ롥षλ3ñ -s -th θؤʣˤŪӲФ̤ȹͤƤ롥ʤGörlach (89) ϡ餭Τñ餭ΤᤫͤƤ롥
ͻˤäơϤȤ⤢졤Ѹˤ3ʣ -s ʤ -th ʤ꤬ŪˤɤΤ餤٤ǸΤǧƤɬפ롥ǡThe Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English (PPCEME) ˤꤶäȸƤߤ180ȤϤΥѥ3ʣ -s 50ۤɡ3ʣ -th 60ۤɤ󤬤äʷ̥ƥȥեϺ򥯥åˡǯʸ̮ʤɤξܺ٤ʬϤϤƤʤŵŪ򾯤󤲤Ƥ


and all your children prayes you for your daly blessing.
but the carving and battlements and towers looks well;
then go to the pot where your earning bagges hangs,
as our ioyes growes, We must remember still from whence it flowes,
Ther growes smale Raysons that we call reysons of Corans,


now here followeth the three Tables,
And yf there be no God, from whence cometh good thynges?
First I wold shewe that the instruccyons of this holy gospell perteyneth to the vniuersal chirche of chryst.
and so the armes goith a sundre to the by crekes.
And to this agreith the wordes of the Prophetes, as it is written.
Also high browes and thicke betokeneth hardnes:


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-01 Tue

#1345. read -- read -- read γ [verb][conjugation][phonetics][spelling][gvs][homonymic_clash][degemination][sobokunagimon]

ޤƤǤȤޤ̦ǯǤǯ hellog ꤤޤ
ǯǽεϡ󤻤줿μˤĤơread βȯʤ /rɛd/ ʤΤѸˤδɤΤ
ɸѸ read γѤϡֻѤȯǤ /riːd/ -- /rɛd/ -- /rɛd/ Ȥʤ롥ΤˡδԵ§ζˤߤΤ褦˸롥ŪˤߤС§Ūȸڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤΡȤäԵ§ζˤߤȤʤȯ˴ؤƤ㤬뤷ֻˤĤƤ⤢٤Ϳ롥
ȯֻ̡˹ͤƤޤϡȯ顥ư read θűѸ West-Saxon ˤ rǣdan Ǥꡤ촴ˤĹ첻ޤޤƤAnglian Kentish Ǥϡ첻 ē ɽ蘆⤤֤첻äˤűѸˤĹ첻ޤޤƤȤפǤ롥ơưϥޥĸʳǤ϶ѲVII°ƤűѸޤǤˤϼѲƤꡤWest-Saxon Ǥϲ rǣddeʬ gerǣd(e)d ڤƤ롥ǡ촴 d d ȤʣƤ뤳ȤݥȤǤ롥ȤΤϡѸˤơνŻҲľĹ첻ûȤѲǤ³æŻҲˡơѸǤϡ촴첻β /æ/, /ɛ/, /a/ ʤ첻δ֤ɤƤ줪Ӹ߷θ촴ǤĹ첻Ӳʬθ촴Ǥû첻Ȥʬۤ줿Ĺ첻ϸϤȤʤꡤɸѸ /iː/ ؤϢʤꡤû첻 /ɛ/ ؤϢʤä
첻бֻϤɤΤ褦ȯŸƤѸ˸줿 <ea> ֻϡȸ߷θ촴첻 /ɛː/ бƤȹͤ롥û첻Ȳʬθ촴첻ɽ魯֤ȤƤ <e> դ꤬Ǥդ路äΤ<red> Ǥϡ֡פɽ魯Ʊ֤۵ȾͤƤޤ줬ä餫̲뤳ȤϤʤä "homographic clash" ȤǤƤ֤٤ϡOED "read, v." θ츻ͿƤΤǤ롥

The present-day spelling of the past tense and past participle forms is analogous to the present tense; the spelling red for past tense and past participle is found only in isolated instances in the modern period and was perhaps avoided because it coincided with the standard spelling of RED adj.


"homographic clash" 1ĤβǽȤƤϹθ̤ͤƻ褦㤬Τޤ/ɛ/ = <ea> бΤΤ bread, dead, head, lead (n.), spread, stead, thread ʤɤ˸졤ɬ⵩ǤϤʤ
˽Ҥ٤Ƥ OED εҤ绨ĤˤޤȤ᤿ΤɸѸȯֻδط夯ޤǤˡʤ餫ˤ뤳ȡˤʣǤ롥MED ΰ֤ΰͤС䤳Ǥ
ʤlead (v.) read Ʊͤˤ򤿤ɤäֻȯ̩ܤʴطݤ³ɸѸǤ lead -- led -- led ؤ夤Ƥ롥ޤѸǤ eat spread ⸽߷Ĺ첻û첻ä (Dobson 503) ΤǡλޤǤȯȯã read ʿԤäȤˤʤ롥

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2012-11-04 Sun

#1287. ưζܹԤ [frequency][analogy][verb][conjugation][lexical_diffusion][statistics]

ε#1286. ֲѲΰۤʤ2ưŤ ([2012-11-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Hooper ʸǤϡĴ1ĤȤưζܹԡʶѲưμѲˤ夲ƤHooper εñǤ롥ܹԤˤʿ (analogical leveling) ŵǤꡤ٤㤤ư줫˰ܹԤ뤲ƤΤȤ
Hooper ĴоݤȤưϸűѸζѲI, II, IIIͳ褹ưΤߤǤꡤθѸˤپˤĤƤ Kučera and Francis ɽȤƤ롥ٷ׻ lemma ñ̤ǤֻΤߤȤФǤꡤdrive, ride ʤɤθʲɽ * դƤΡˤˤĤʻζ̤θƤʤӺʤΤޤǯʾˤ錄ѲˤƤȤˡѸˤ٤Τߤ򻲾ȤƤ褤ΤȤ[2012-09-21-1]ε#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡסˤˤĤƤڴŪǤ (99) ΤȤơ᤹Τ˻ͤޤǤˤȤâ񤭤ɬפʲ Hooper (100) ɽ򸫤䤹ѤΤǤ褦

Frequency of Leveled vs. Unleveled Old English Strong Verbs by Hooper

ΤˤΤ褦˸ȡܹԤФưΤȤ٤Ūˤä㤤Ȥ狼롥Ϣơkeep, *leave, *sleep *creep, *leap, weep ˤĤơ3줬ŪʲݻƤΤФơ3ˤϼŪ creeped, leaped, weeped ΰ۷ǧȤԤ٤Ϥ줾 531, 792, 132 ФƸԤϤ줾 37, 42, 31 Ȥ (Hooper 100) ͤޤǤˤȤϤäƤ⡤ȤƤ餫Τ褦˻פ롥
ưζܹԤϱѸˤˤƴŪǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1]) ʤɤǿƤƳȤ狼äƤʤȤ¿ξܺ٤ʸ椬ؤ롥

Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2012-11-03 Sat

#1286. ֲѲΰۤʤ븻 [phonetics][frequency][causation][neogrammarian][analogy][verb][conjugation][lexical_diffusion]

Ѳȸ٤ȤδطˤĤƤϡPhillips θҲ𤷤ʤ顤#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) #1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ˲ŪѲϹٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ᤯19ŦƤդ (analogy) δؤֲŪѲٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ⡤ۤƱ Herman Paul ˤäƻŦƤHooper 95)
Hooper ϡ1984ǯʸǡ٤Ȥ顤벻Ѳȹͤ븽Ѹˤ schwa-deletion memory ʤɤ2첻ˤˤʿȹͤưμѲĴ2Ω "phonetic change tends to affect frequent words first, while analogical leveling tends to affect infrequent words first" (101) ٻPhillips Ϥñ2ΩˤäƤǤʤΤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ뤬ΩνȯȤ뤳ȤϺǤ
Τ褦٤ȲѲδطˤäƤ褦˸ Hooper ¤ΤȤüԤϸپ˥ǤʤϤȹͤƤ (102)

I do not think the relative frequency of words is a part of native speaker competence, so I would not propose to make the rule sensitive to word frequency.


Ǥ٤ȲѲοʹԽشط뤳Ȥǧ³ΤǤСξԤϡüԤθǽϤǤϤʤ챿ѤΤʤˤȤȤˤʤΤHooper ϻҶθ򸫤Ĥ褦ȤƤ褦
٤ȲѲν˴ؤΤŪʰյϡʷ֡˲Ѳˤϸΰۤʤʣμब뤳Ȥˤ롥ѲνۤʤȤȤϡ餯ѲΥᥫ˥बۤʤȤȤǤꡤѲθۤʤȤȤǤϤʤȤСѲν狼СѲưŤ狼뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϤΤ褦ʸΰۤʤѲˡֽ벻ѲפŪʷֲѲפȤ٥ŽդƤϤ٤ʬबɬפHooper (103) ηƤ

. . . if it turned out that vowel shifts and some other phonetic changes affect infrequent forms before frequent forms, then we would have an interesting indication that phonetic changes arise from different sources, and furthermore, if my hypotheses are correct, a way of determining which types of changes are traceable to which source. Thus it appears that lexical diffusion, studied in terms of word frequency, may turn up some interesting evidence concerning the source of morpho-phonological change. (103)


Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-06-04-1] [2012-11-04-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2012-09-13 Thu

#1235. Why "visit-ed"? [verb][preterite][conjugation][inflection][phonology]

[2011-08-06-1]ε#831. Why "an apple"?פǡƱݤŪʻ̻ŪʻȤǤ180ٰۤʤäƸ󼨤ȤơѸˤʬ -ed ȯ夲褦ηǤˤϡľβĶ˱3Ĥȯ롥visited minded Τ褦 [t] [d] Ԥˤ [ɪd] ȤƼ¸졤looked watched Τ褦 [t] ʳ̵Ԥˤ [t] ȤʤꡤʳǤ played moved Τ褦 [d] Ȥʤ롥Ū˹ŪʴꤹΤǤСηǤ /d/ ȤƤԤ촴β˽ä [ɪ] (epenthesis) 줿ꡤ[t] ؤ̵ȹͤΤǤ롥Ԥ [td] [dd] ȤϢ³򤱤뤿ȹͤФ褤ԤνƱȹͤФ褤
ĤǤˡ3ñ -s ˤĤƤ⸫ƤηǤľβĶ˱3Ĥȯб롥[s, z, ʒ, ʃ, ʧ, ʤ] ԤˤϡϢ³򤱤뤿첻줿 [ɪz] ȤƼ¸ʤξ硤ֻ <es> Ȥʤˡ嵭˴ޤޤʳ̵Ԥˤ [s] ȤʤꡤʳǤ [z] Ȥʤ롥ˤ /z/ ꤷƤ첻뤤̵ˤä [ɪz] 뤤 [z] ¸ȹͤƤФ褤⡤αѸǤϹƤŪʵ§ (rule) Ǥ롥
̻ŪʴϡϤޤäդ˸롥ֻ <ed> <es> ̤ꡤηǤϡʤȤѸޤǤ첻ݤäƤꡤΩƤ첻μ줿ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡDobson Sections 310--11 򻲾ȡˡĤޤꡤľβĶˤ餺 [əd] [əz] Ǽ¸ƤΤǤ롥Ȥ첻üϤޤäĶˤƤϡ첻üΤߤƯθѤϤʤä̤ΤĶˤƤϡ촴ܿȤˤԤ̵ơޤ̤ΤĶˤƤϡ첻üΤΤ˻ߤ졤첻ݤ줿ŪȤȡȤƤǤδ /əd/ /əz/ ǤꡤĶ˱ [d], [t], [əd] 뤤 [z], [s], [əz] ¸줿ȹͤۤºݤβѲ¨§Τ褦˸롥ʬϤϰ̤˸αѸǤϺѤƤʤ
a an ξƱͤˡɤʬϤƤ뤫ȤȤϡƽפǤϤʤƱݤۤʤ٤įƤǤꡤΤΤͥϤʤηк붦Ūʻ餹д /d/ ꤬ͭǤꡤʪ̻Ūʻ餹д /ɪd/ ꤬ͭԤȤȡѸȶѸʹߤȤǡȤ§180ѤäȤˤʤꡤ rule inversion ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʾ塤Kastovsky (132--33) εۤƼɮ

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Morphological Restructuring: The Case of Old English and Middle English Verbs." Historical Linguistics 1995: Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995. Vol. 2. Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard M. Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000. 131--47.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-12-19 Mon

#966. borne of [spelling][verb][conjugation][passive]

Graddol ɤǤơѸ̤ͽ¬˴ϢϤǡΤ褦ʱʸ˽Ф路

Futurologists inhabit a frontierland between historical facts and guesses about the future. Most of the practical techniques of strategic planning used by large corporations employ some kind of mix of empirical evidence together with the insight and judgement borne of practical experience. (16)


ϡֻǼ borne θˡǤ롥ѸεʸˡǤϡư bear βʬϡˡˤä born borne 2̤롥Fowler (113) ˤȡȤʬϰʲ̤Ǥ롥

born(e). The pa.pple of bear in all senses except that of birth is borne (I have borne with this too long; he was borne along by the wind); borne is also used, when the reference is to birth, (a) in the active (has borne no children), and (b) in the passive when by follows (of all the children borne by her only one survived). The pa.pple in the sense of birth, when used passively without by, or adjectivally, is born (he was born blind; a born fool; of all the children born to them; melancholy born of solitude; she was born in 1950).


ưβʬŪ variation õȡborn, borne ΤۤƱ bore ⤢ꤨOED "bear, v.1" 44 ˤȡ17Ⱦˤϡ3ԤΤ borne ˤ餺ͥäƱȾˤ torn, worn ʤɤȤΤᤫ born ˤ餺ͥȤʤꡤ bore ۷Ȥ٤Ƥ18Ⱦˤϡbore Ѥ졤borne 褹Ȥưꡤߤˤޤ³ˡλȤʬΩ
Ѹˤ㤷۷֤ιطʤȡǽŪ Fowler μ褦ʵϤΩطʤˤĤƤ̤Ĵborne born ξΤȯζ̤ϤʤޤֻΤߤǤ뤳ȤʸˡȤʤ館ƤͳʤΤ⤷ʤ
ơ borne of ʸ̮ΰ̣ϡּºݤηиޤ줿ƶϤȽϡפȼ뤬ޤ줿פȤѤƤΤǤ born ΤۤŬڤʤϤǤϤʤȤ䤬⤫֡Fowler OED εҤˤ⤢̤ꡤפȤʪŪ԰٤˾Ƥˤ borne ŬڤȤʤ뤳ȤϤ狼äξˤϡ³ŵŪֻϹ԰ټԤɽ魯 by Ǥꡤɽ魯 of Ϥɤˤ⿨Ƥʤof ǽƤʾ塤׹԰٤Ū˥᡼Ƥ뤳ȤϳΤǡ椨 born ǤϤʤ borne ФƤȹͤ줽ȼ򻲾ȤƤŪʤäΤǾǼʤä
ʤФ BNCWeb borne of 򸡺Ƥߤ顤10郎ҥåȡŬάǥ󥳡󥹥饤򼨤

(1) . . . with a set of expectations borne of years of reading about the Masters . . .
(2) . . . a legacy of bigotry borne of his wish to improve his family's social standing.
(3) . . . with an indifference borne of familiarity.
(4) . . . through instinct borne of experience.
(5) It was a confidence borne of a quarter-of-a century of growing medical ascendancy . . .
(6) With skill borne of long practice . . .
(7) by fears borne of self-selected memories and infused by a false jingoism . . .
(8) It was partially borne of English desperation . . .
(9) . . . ignorance through lack of education, and idleness borne of enforced unemployment . . .
(10) I have also come away with lasting friendships, borne of total trust, respect and deep affection.


borne of ˽ľ̾ˤϷ뤳Ȥ狼롥ԡǰľݡƤʤɡ˿Ѥɽ魯̾ȶƤ褦󥳡󥹥饤󤫤ͯФƤ borne of ΰ̣ϡ?פ⤦Ƨ߹ǡ?ˤä߰Ƥ줿סˤϡ?΢դ줿פȤޤɤ߹٤ǤϤʤϾʤ櫓ؽԼˤҤȤ1ԤդäˡǤ롥

Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm

Referrer (Inside): [2013-01-06-1] [2012-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-11-15 Tue

#932. neutralization ϰ۷֤ν̸ˤ׸ [oe][old_norse][inflection][conjugation][paradigm][contact][language_change][analogy]

[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפ[2011-11-14-1]ε#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κۡפǡťΥɸȤθܿ˵űѸζηϤδñˤĤƼ夲ƤO'Neil neutralization ȸƤ֡αѸκˤĤƤϡξüԤˤ޸ѶŪڤȤȤ¦̤Ĵ뤳Ȥ¿Ωʤ¦̡allomorphy ν̸Ȥ¦̤⸫ƨƤϤʤʤ
εǼѥоɽ򸫤С޸κۤڤȤۤƱθ촴ˤ̤ȤüԤάͭǤ뤳Ȥʬ뤬촴ΤΤƱɬݤǤʤ롥ѥΥåȤˤäƤϡ촴۷ (allomorph) ȤƸ뤳Ȥ롥Ǥϡdrīfan βˤƤϡñ13; (drāf) ā θ촴첻򼨤ñ2;Τʣ (drifedrifon) i θ촴첻򼨤
¾ˤ⡤ñ23;ΤζޤˤƸ촴첻 i-mutation 򼨤űѸưϾʤʤOE lūcan "to lock" θ߷γɽ򼨤ȡʲΤ褦˸촴첻Ѱۤ (O'Neil 262)

 Old English
Inflūcan 'lock'
Pres. Sing. 1.lūce
2.lȳc(e)st
3.lȳc(e)ð
Plur.lūcað


ȤѸŵŪʥѥǤϡñ23;Τθ촴¾ΥåȤƱ촴褦ˤʤäƤ롥Τ allomorphy ν̸Ǥꡤ̤ȤơѤθ촴߷Υѥ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäưŤΤʤ allormophy 򤳤Τ褦˽̸뤳Ȥϡߤ˰ջ̤ޤȤƤűѸťΥɸüԤˤȤäƤϹŪ˷ޤ줿ʾˤ餬̸ѶŪ˷ޤ줿Ȥͤ뤳ȤǤ롥

I think it clear that working from quite similar, often identical, underlying forms but with different sets and intersecting sets of endings associated with them and bewildering allomorphies as a result of the conditions established by the endings, the basic underlying sameness of Old English and Old Norse had become somewhat distorted and thus a superficial barrier to communication between speakers of the two languages had arisen. It is not surprising then that the inflections of the languages were rapidly and radically neutralized, for they were the source of nearly all difficulty. (O'Neil 262--63)


allormophy ν̸ϡܿˤ neutralization βȤƤǤʤŪ (analogy) ñ㲽 (simplification) βȤƤª뤳ȤǤ롥ºݤˤϡΤߤѤƤȹͤΤǤϤʤξԤ˺ѤƤȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
allomorphy ν̸ϡѥ levelling ʿʿˤɤؤ뤳ȤǽѸˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-03-1]ε#555. 2 analogyפ򻲾ȡ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-11-14 Mon

#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κ [oe][old_norse][inflection][conjugation][paradigm][contact][language_change]

[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפǤϡűѸθηϤťΥɸȤܿˤñƤäO'Neil ѸѤ neutralization ȸƤβϡűѸȸťΥɸȤδ֤ǡб촴ϤۤƱǤˤ⤫餺б޸Ϸ㤷ۤʤäƤˡԤѶŪڤȤ줿ȤȤä
ǤϡŪˤɤΤ褦ξζηϤ򾷤ΤäΤƤߤ褦ʲϡŵŪʶѲư졤Ѳư졤Ѳ̾졤Ѳ̾ (o-stem) ζޤоɽǤ (O'Neil 257--59)

Strong Verb

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Infdrīfan 'drive'drífã
Pres. Sing. 1.drīfedríf
2.drīfestdrífR
3.drīfeðdrífR
Plur. 1.drīfaðdrífom
2.drīfaðdrífeð
3.drīfaðdrífã
Past Sing. 1. and 3.drāfdreif
2.drifedreift
Plur. 1.drifondrifom
2.drifondrifoð
3.drifondrifð
Pres. pple.drīfendedrífande
Past pple.drifendrifenn

Weak Verb

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Inftellan 'count'teljã
Pres. Sing. 1.telletel
2.telesttelR
3.telðtelR
Plur. 1.tellaðteljom
2.tellaðteleð
3.tellaðteljã
Past Sing. 1taldetalda
2.taldesttalder
3.taldetalde
Plur. 1.taldontǫldom
2.taldontǫldoð
3.taldontǫldõ
Pres. pple.tellendeteljande
Past ppl.etaldtal(e)ð

Weak Noun

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Sing. Nom.guma 'man'gume
Obliquegumangumã
Plur. Nom.gumangumaR
Acc.gumangumã
Gen.gumenagum(n)a
Dat.gumumgumon

Strong Noun (Feminine ō-stems)

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Sing. Nom.bōt 'remedy'bót
Acc.bōtebót
Gen.bōtebótaR
Dat.bōtebót
Plur. Nom.bōtabótaR
Acc.bōtabótaR
Gen.bōtenabóta
Dat.bōtumbótom


촴ϤۤƱǤꡤ鷺˰ۤʤȤƤ¤פεϰϤǤ롥Ȥб޸٤ȡΤۤΩġб륹åȤ˰ۤʤѤƤȤȤϤ뤳Ȥʤ顤ŪƱθۤʤ륹åȤѤƤȤΤ⺮򾷤˽ʬä㤨СűѸ drīfeð ϸ3;ñƱθťΥɸ drífeð ϸ2;ʣǤ롥
Τ褦˶ɽ٤ȡξüԤκ𿶤꤬Ū˸ƤΤǤϤʤ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-17-1] [2011-11-15-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow