2֤ε ([2020-03-23-1], [2020-03-24-1]) ˰³ɸεˤĤƵޤƥʸˡѸ modus ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡȻפȤޤOED mode, n. θ츻˼Τ褦ʸڤޤ
In grammar (see sense 2), classical Latin modus is used (by Quintilian, 1st cent. a.d.) for grammatical 'voice' (active or passive; Hellenistic Greek ĦάȦŦҦς ), post-classical Latin modus (by 4th-5th-cent. grammarians) for 'mood' (Hellenistic Greek ἔæʦ˦ɦҦς ). Compare Middle French, French mode grammatical 'mood' (feminine 1550, masculine 1611).
Ĥޤꡤmodus ϸŵΥƥǤŪʡˡפΰ̣ѤƤΤΡŵƥǤϤष̤ưʸˡƥǤ֡ (voice) ΰ̣ѤƤȤȤˤʤޤʸˡƥɽ魯Ѹ췲ƱƤ뤫Τ褦˸ޤϤɤФ褤Ǥ礦
¤ voice ȤѸ켫Τˤ褦ʻ𤬤ޤ#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤơvoice ϸŪʡ֡פΰ̣Ѥˡ̤ưʸˡƥǤֿ;Ρ (person) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ̾ʸˡƥǤֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ˥ƥѸƤߤޤȡ֡פɽ路Ѹ1Ĥ genus ޤθϸ gender ȯŸ̾ʸˡƥǤ (gender) ̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ʾ夫鸫ƤΤϡդѸ췲κƱŪˤϤäȤȤǤͤƤߤСߤǤư̾ʸˡƥɽ魯ѸƤߤȡˡ (mood) (aspect) (voice) (gender) (case) ʤɡ鸫Ǥϰ̣ȽȤޤʤΤ褦ѸܸǤѸǤˤƤƤΤʤΤ¿Ȥ˵դޤŪʬ䤹Τϻ (tense)(number); (person) 餤ǤϤʤǤ礦
Ѹ mood/mode, aspect, voice, gender, case ܸΡˡסס֡ססֳʡפʤɤϡաʤȯݡˤΡˡס¦̡סּ٤̣롤̣ŪˤϤʤ¤ʷ̾ȤäƤ褯kind, type, classּסַספʤɤȸƤ褤ʪǤȤȤϡϤޤصŪʬ̾ˤ˲餫ѶŪʰ̣ǽ餫ɤ߹ޤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤǽޤ
ޤȤޤ礦2֤εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤƤޤβϡѸεȤ餤ɬƤޤmode ϸ츻ȤƤϡˡ٤̣̾ˤϤѶŪʰ̣ϤۤɴޤޤƤʤäȹͤ뤫ǤҤ٤ȤϤޤѸεȤεǤäơդǤˤ衤䤿ˡֵʬפ֥⡼ɡפȤѶŪʰ̣ɤ߹Dzᤷ褦Ȥ뤳ȼΤ꤬櫓ǤϤޤºݤΤȤŪˤСˡסֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȤϤʤոƤΤǤϤʤȡ伫ȤפäƤޤ
ε ([2020-03-23-1]) ˰³ˡ (mood) ˤĤƤǤεϡmood mode Ϥˡפΰ̣Ѥ졤ˡȤϡֵʬפǤ֥⡼ɡפǤ⤢뤫餽Ԥȹͤ줽˻פޤºݤˤϡξñϸ츻ۤʤޤmood mode ˤ̤פȤϽҤ٤ޤ츻ƱȤϸޤǤˤϾ𤬤ޤ
mode ͤޤ礦ñϥƥ modus ̤ޤƥǤ "manner, mode, way, method; rule, rhythm, beat, measure, size; bound, limit" ʤ͡ʰ̣ɽ路ޤ̤аĸ *med- (to take appropriate measures) ˤɤĤϡּʡˡʤ֤ˡפۤɤä褦ǤΥƥñϤθե mode Ȥʤꡤ줬Ѹ mode ȤƼѤƤޤѸǤ1400ǯ˲ѸȤơ֥ǥʤΰפΰ̣ǽФޤ1450ǯˤϸؤΡˡפΰ̣ǤѤ졤ѸȤ夷ޤν OED ˤȰʲ̤Ǥmoode ȤֻѤƤ뤳ȤդƤ
mode, n.
. . . .
2.
a. Grammar. = mood n.2 1.
Now chiefly with reference to languages in which mood is not marked by the use of inflectional forms.
c1450 in D. Thomson Middle Eng. Grammatical Texts (1984) 38 A verbe..is declined wyth moode and tyme wtoute case, as 'I love the for I am loued of the' ... How many thyngys falleth to a verbe? Seuene, videlicet moode, coniugacion, gendyr, noumbre, figure, tyme, and person. How many moodes bu ther? V... Indicatyf, imperatyf, optatyf, coniunctyf, and infinityf.
mood θ츻ҤȤƤߤޤ礦ߡֵʬࡼɡפ̣뤳αñϼѸǤϤʤűѸǤűѸ mōd ʿʬࡼɡˤѽиȤäƤ褯#1148. űѸ˭ʸϡ ([2012-06-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦˿ʣιǤȤѤƤޤ̤аĸ *mē- (certain qualities of mind) ˤɤĤ mode ȤϵۤˤƤ뤳ȤʬȻפޤ
ơ mood Ѹǡˡפΰ̣Ѥ줿ΤϡOED ˤ1450ǯΤȤǡʲ̤Ǥ
mood, n.2
. . . .
1. Grammar.
a. A form or set of forms of a verb in an inflected language, serving to indicate whether the verb expresses fact, command, wish, conditionality, etc.; the quality of a verb as represented or distinguished by a particular mood. Cf. aspect n. 9b, tense n. 2a.
The principal moods are known as indicative (expressing fact), imperative (command), interrogative (question), optative (wish), and subjunctive (conditionality).
c1450 in D. Thomson Middle Eng. Grammatical Texts (1984) 38 A verbe..is declined wyth moode and tyme wtoute case.
ŤǤ礦c1450νФʸ˵ mode ΤΤƱǤĤޤꡤƥͳ mode ȱѸ mood ־ʰֻ moode ħŪˤˤäơʸˡѸȤƱѸǻȤФΥߥǡ㺮ˤʤäƤޤä褦ʤΤǤOED ϼ¤ΤȤֿפ mood, n.1 ȡˡפ mood, n.2 ̸ФȤΩƤƤΤǤԤθ츻 "Originally a variant of mode n., perhaps reinforced by association with mood n.1." Ȥ褦ˡɤϤ㺮ȲᤷƤޤ̣Ūˤϡֵʬס֥⡼ɡդȤơξñ줬ӤĤȹͤޤäơˡפֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȲ᤹븫ϡθ츻ŪƱͿƤΤΡΤȤ1450ǯˤ櫓Ǥͳ郎Ȥ⤤뤷ʤȤ⤤̯ʻǤ͡εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤ֤ʤʤޤǤƤϤΤΡ¤ϼäդ褦ʲפȽҤ٤ΤϡΤ褦طʤäǤ
ǤϡɸεФϲʤΤǤ礦ܤäơƥʸˡѸȤƤ modus ɤΤ褦ʰ̣礤ǻȤƤΤʬСˡ (mood, mode) οˤĤʤꤽǤεǡ
ؤǤϡˡ (mood) ȸƤФưʸˡƥ (category) פȤʤޤ¾ưʸˡƥȤƤϻ (tense) (aspect) (voice) ޤŪ˴طȤǤ̾ʸˡƥǤ (number) ; (person) ⤢ޤΥƥƯơưη֤ޤȤΤħǤκѤϡưγ (conjugation)뤤ϤŪˤưζ (inflection) ȸƤФƤޤ
ĸˡȤƤϡ#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ľˡ (indicative mood)³ˡ (subjunctive mood)̿ˡ (imperative mood)ˡ (optative mood) 4郎̤ƤޤäȸޥɤǤϺǽ3˽̸˸űѸޤǤˤϺǽ2ؤȽƤޤʸˤ̿ˡΰˤĤƤϡ#3620. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (1) ([2019-03-26-1])#3621. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (2) ([2019-03-27-1]) ȡˡˡűѸʹߡ³ˡϿΰӤéꡤޤǤŪʲɽ魯ɽƤϤޤѤʤʤäƤޤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤αʸˡǤŪʡ³ˡפȤƤ³⡤ֲˡפȾΤΤŪȤʤäƤޤʤ뤤ϡֽˡפȤƤ̾ʸˡȤ⤤ޤˡ
ơѸˡȤƤϡľˡ (indicative mood) Ȳˡ (subjunctive mood) 2ζ̤ߤ뤳ȤˤʤޤΩܼϲǤ礦̤ˤϡǽŪ˥ǥեȤľˡФơˡüԤ̿Ф벿餫οŪ٤ɲ줿ΤȤޤ餫οŪ٤ȤΤۣʸǤ˿줿ǤʤСŪʲפŵǤIf I were a bird, I would fly to you. ˤ벾ˡ were ϡüԤֻĻǤפȤŪʲοŪ٤äƤ뤳ȤޤäƤߤСۥɤäƤ뤳ȤɸǤ
Ʊͤˡˡ߷ go Ѥ I suggest that she go alone. ȤʸˤƤ⡤üԤƬΤʤǴ˾ȤƤˤʤͤǤפȤ̿ꡤޤäƤʤ줫μ¤˵뤫ɤ狼ʤ̿Ǥ뤳Ȥư֤ˤäƼƤޤۤɥѥȤ϶ʤΤΡۥɤɸǤ
ˡפȤѸֿŪ١פȤⲿȤפ碌֤ɽǤѸȤƤ mood Ǥ顤üԤΡֵʬפǤȤȤ館Τ⤢٤ͭʲǤĤޤꡤˡȤüԤ̿ɤΤ褦ʡֵʬפǽҤ٤ƤΤʤƤϡŪʵʬסˤɸΤǤ롤ȤǤ뤤 mood mode ֥⡼ɡ֡פˤ̤ºݤξñȤѸȤƤˡΰ̣ѤޤΤǡüԤΡ֥⡼ɡפȸƤ褵Ǥˡϡۥ⡼ɤɸΤȤȤǤ
ˡˤĤƤϾ嵭Τ褦ʡֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤ礭ְ㤤ϤʤȻפޤβϡѸˤ֤äƤߤȡʤʤޤǤƤϤΤΡ¤ϼäդ褦ʲȤȤʬäƤޤˤĤƤεǡ
set, put, cut त̵ѲѤưˤĤơ#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) εǼ夲ƤǤϡưοѸβˤ˾Ȥ餻СϤΤͿ뤳Ȥߤ
촴 t d ñǤ롤ȤΤưζ̹ŪˤϡξƤ¤ˤơۤưƱ̵ͤѲѤƤȤäȤСfast, fret, lift, start, waft ʤɤǤ롥Jespersen (36) Ƹ褦
4.42. The influence of analogy has increased the number of invariable verbs. Especially verbs ending in -t tend in this direction. The tendency perhaps culminated in early ModE, when several words now regular had unchanged forms, sometimes side by side with forms in -ed:
fast. Sh Cymb IV. 2.347 I fast and pray'd for their intelligense. || fret. More U 75 fret prt. || lift (from ON). AV John 8.7 hee lift vp himselfe | ib 8.10 when Iesus had lift vp himselfe (in AV also regular forms) | Mi PL 1. 193 With Head up-lift above the wave | Bunyan P 19 lift ptc. || start. AV Tobit 2.4 I start [prt] vp. || waft. Sh Merch. V. 1.11 Stood Dido .. and waft her Loue To come again to Carthage | John II. 1.73 a brauer choice of dauntlesse spirits Then now the English bottomes haue waft o're.
Jespersen Τ褦ˡŪˡ뤤ϲѲˤäǤ륿פ̵ѲưȤϡޤ set ʤɴ¸Ū̵Ѳư˿ȯ줿 (analogy) η̤Ȥ̵ѲưȤߤ٤Ǥ2Ū̵ѲưȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤϸޤǤˤɸѸ줫ϾäȤϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ餬ΥǥȤʤäơʤƤǽ⤢뤫Ĥޤꡤ촴 -t ǽ뤬θΤ褦ñǤʤХޥͳǤʤΤˤ顤Ʊݤĥܤ뤫ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡεǤꤢ -ate ưʤɤǤʡ#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) ȡˡ
Ʊ Jespersen (36--37) ꡤλݤ˴ؤսѤ褦
4.43. It was thus not at all unusual in earlier English for a ptc in -t to be = the inf. The analogy of these cases was extended even to a series of words of Romantic origin, namely such as go back to Latin passive participle, e. g. complete, content, select, and separate. These words were originally adopted as participles but later came to be used also as infinitives; in older English they were frequently used in both functions (as well as in the preterit), often with an alternative ptc. in -ed; . . . A contributory cause of their use as verbal stems may have been such Latin agent-nouns as corruptor and editor; as -or is identical in sound with -er in agent-nouns, the infinitives corrupt and edit may have been arrived at merely through subtraction of the ending -or . . . . Finally, the fact that we have very often an adj = a vb, e. g. dry, empty, etc . . ., may also have contributed to the creation of infs out of these old ptcs (adjectives).
ѤθȾǡΥǥ뤬ۤˤ2Ĥ˿ƤΤפǤ롥corruptor, editor פε (back_formation) dry, empty פư졦ƻѤñ¸ߤǤ롥#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ɸ bend -- bent -- bent, lend -- lent -- lent, rend -- rent -- rent, wend -- went -- went ʤɤȤȤ˸ -nd -- -nt -- -nt Ȥʤ륿פԵ§ưʤʬˤ̵ -t ΤϡŪˤɬ餫ˤƤʤfeel -- felt -- felt, keep -- kept -- kept ʤɡʬȤ -t ¾ư줫 (analogy) ˤΤ⤫뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ۤϤ櫓Ǥʤ
Ūˤϡsend βʬ sent ȤʤͳϤʤűѸˤơsendan βŵŪ sende Ǥ sent(en) ˤȯŸʤƱͤˡʬ (ge)send(ed) ǤꡤϤ sent ˤϤʤʤΤäơ -t ϲη̤Ȥߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ겿ʤηֲˤäƤ⤿餵줿ȤȤˤʤ롥
º -t ʬΤϡ13ˤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥űѸǤ3ñ sendeþ (contraction) sent Ȥʤ륱ˤˤäϤޤ3ñǤꡤǤʬǤʤJespersen (33--34) ϰʲΤ褦ˡѤ줿3ñη֤ʬˤžѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ˾öŪͿƤ롥줷ȸ虜ʤ褦˻פ롥ΤȤȤۤʤ
In the send--sent group OE suppressed the d of the stem before the ending: sendan, sende, gesend(ed). I have often thought that the ME innovation sent(e) may originally have stood for sendd with a long, emphatic d to distinguish it from the prs form. This explanation, however, does not account for felt, meant, left, etc.
There is a remarkably full treatment of Origin and Extension of the Voiceless Preterit and the Past Participle Inflections of the English Irregular Weak Verb Conjugation by Albert H. Marckwardt in Essays and Studies in English and Comparative Literature by Members of the English Department of the Univ. of Michigan (Ann Arbor 1935). He traces the beginning of these t-forms back to the eleventh century and then follows their chronological and geographical spreading from century to century up to the year 1400, thus just the period where the subject-matter of my own work begins. There is accordingly no occasion here to deal with details in Marckwardt's exposition, but only to mention that according to him the first germ of these 't'-forms lay in stems in -nd, -ld and -rd. The third person sg of the present of such a verb as OE sendan was often shortened into sent from sendeþ. On the analogy of such very frequently occurring syncopated presents the t was transferred to the prt and ptc. It must be admitted that this assumption is more convincing than the analogy adduced by previous scholars, but it is rather difficult to explain why the t-forms spread, e.g., to such verbs as leave : left. From the point of view of Modern English Grammar, however, we must be content to leave this question open: we must take forms as we find them in the period with which we are concerned.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
[ | ѥڡ ]
ɸϡѸ˷ˤƤŪʹͤǤ롥ѸǡԵ§פȾΤŪʸݤ¿ϡĤƤϡֵ§פ1äȤȤǤ롥Феդޤʤǡֺε§ϺԵ§פȤȤ¿§ (regular) Ե§ (irregular) ȤϡŪˤϸߤʬۤˤ餫˶̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ΤŪȤϤ뤬ŪˤХݥؤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤŪʶ̤Ǥ롥
θ§Ҥ٤ƤΤ Fortson (69--70) ΰѤǤ롥Ӹ (comparative_linguistics) κƷ (reconstruction) μˡȤδϢǡŪʰ⤤ȤʤäƤ롥
A guiding principle in historical morphology is that one should reconstruct morphology based on the irregular and exceptional forms, for these are most likely to be archaic and to preserve older patterns. Regular or predictable forms (like the Eng. 3rd singular present takes or the past tense thawed) are generated using the productive morphological rules of the language, and have no claim to being old; but irregular forms (like Eng. is, sang) must be memorized, generation after generation, and have a much greater chance of harking back to an earlier stage of a language's history. (The forms is and sang, in fact, directly continue forms in PIE itself.
ѸˤԵ§ʸݤǧ֤ĤƤϤष§ŪäΤ⤷ʤפ䤦ƤߤȤ褤ƤŪˤϤ̤Ǥ롥դˡʤϲεͯʤ§Ūʸݤ˻פڤƤߤƤۤˤäƤϡϤĤƤԵ§ʸݤɤ櫓ˤβǰ̲褦ˤʤä⤷ʤȡ˸Ūȯۤζ˰դ롥θ§ϱѸˤ⡤ܸˤ⡤¾Τɤθˤ褯ƤϤޤ롥
ֺԵ§Ϻε§פϡˤȤޤʤǤ줿ˤĤơѸˤ鼡ȡ
Ե§פ̾ʣ (ex. feet, geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women) (cf. #3638.رѸ춵٤Ϣ2֤ʤԵ§ʣΤס ([2019-04-13-1]))
Ե§פưγ (ex. sing -- sang -- sung) (cf. #3670.رѸ춵٤Ϣ3֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤס ([2019-05-15-1]))
3ñ -s (cf. ѸϢ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ)
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
ε#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1]) ơϸˤ (tense) Ȥʸˡ (grammatical category) ˤĤƹͤƤߤ롥
ؿѸؼŵ٤ˤСtense ȤϡưˤŪطʸˡƤŪˤϡδطüԤäƤ濴ȤΰߤȤơ̤ʬפȤ롥
ˤͤݤ1դƤΤϡεǤҤ٤褦ˡ¤ˤֻפȸƤȤƤΡֻפȤϡɬ⤭줤б櫓ǤϤʤȤȤŪˤϡֲפѤƤʤ顤̣ŪˤϡָߡפؤƤ What was your name? ʤɤ㤬뤷εդδطΩŪ (historic_present) ʤˡΤƤ롥Τ褦ʥϥˤߤȻȤбطϡ礦ɸűѸ stān (= stone) ŪˤǤǤʤȤ٤ʸˡ̾ȤȤˤʤäƤ롤ʸˡ (grammatical gender) θݤ˻Ƥ롥ȸƤϡɬб櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ롥ޤɽ塤Ƥ֤ζܡȤиߤȲߤ̤ȤζܤɬϤäȶ̤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤˤդפ롥
ʬˡˤ͡ʤΤ뤬Ѹλ˴ؤƤСŪʴΩ (preterite tense) ȸpresent tense) ʤ뤤(non-preterite tense) 2Ȥߤ븫Ť餢롥¾ΥޥʤΤưηѲˤäɸǤΤϡȤ sing ʸ߷뤤ˤФ sang ʲˤʤ츫ȡ̤פǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ will/shall sing ưηѲˤΤǤϤʤ顤̤ǧʤȤΩ
̣ŪʴΩĤΤǤСsing, sang Ф will/shall sing ȼλؤƤΤ顤1ĤȤǧ٤Ȥͤ⤢롥ĤޤꡤѸλϡΩˤä2Ȥ3Ȥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѸλˤĤʤΤϡưΤȤϡФн˻ɸ櫓ǤϤʤ (aspect) ˡ (mood) Ȥä¾ʸˡƤεǽ碌ɸ뤳Ȥơεǽߤ߹äƤꡤ줤ʬ뤳ȤǤʤȤ𤬤롥
ѸλϡʸˡʤɤŪʬϤƤƤʤ̤ȤäƤ褤ҤȤĽפŪȤơ#2747. Reichenbach λ ([2016-11-03-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ε ([2019-05-27-1]) ˰³ư lie ¾ư lay ˤĤơɸѸˤơξԤκƱ֡ŪȤäƤۤ뤵褦ˤʤäΤϡʸˡȤ18θ塤19ʹߤΤȤ18ˤΤ褦ʼʸˡȤɽ꤬ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ǥ롥
Lowth (56) ϡ#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡľܤˤ2ĤưκƱˤĤƸڤƤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])ˡΤ褦 Pope ΡָѡĤġ餫ɼԤմƤ롥
This Neuter Verb is frequently confounded with the Verb Active to lay, [that is, to put or place;] which is Regular, and in the Past Time and Participle layed or laid.
"For him, thro' hostile camps I bent my way,
For him, thus prostrate at thy feet I lay;
Large gifts proportion'd to thy wrath I bear." Pope, Iliad xxiv. 622.
Here lay is evidently used for the present time, instead of lie.
Lowth ξưκѤ˥ФȤϱѸ˾褯ΤƤ뤬ճȻŦƤʤȤ롥ΰѤʬ̤ꡤξưμ¾ζ̤ȻλȤʬˤĤƤմƤ뤬layed laid δ֤ηֻ֡ɤˤĤƤä뤷ƤͻҤϤʤȤ
Ϣ Lowth ϼư lie Τ˽о줵Ƥսǡ"Lie,lay,lien, or lain" ȳѤƤ롥ʬɤ줬Ф꤫lien ȤɸŪˤϺ˴֤Τۤष˵ƤΤäLowth ɤդ˲𤷤ƤͻҤϤޤäʤʸˡܻؤȤͣפǤȤʤСlie Lowth εϤˤ⼫Ƶ˴٤äƤ褦ˤߤ롥
ȽǤˡʸˡ Lowth ܻؤȤϡͣפǤϤʤäȤȤ館٤18εʸˡȤϡФи褦ˤۤɥä櫓ǤϤʤʴƤƤΤǤ롥ʸˡȤɤΤ褦ɾƤ뤤ѤƤȤΤۤäȽפʤΤ⤷ʤ
ºݡǯ18εʸˡȤˤĤƺɾεƤƤ롥#3035. Lowth ϤޤǤиƤʤä ([2017-08-18-1])#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
ư lie ʲˤ¾ư lay ʲˤζ̤Ĥ٤ȤʸˡդϡܤμѸ쳦Ǥͭ̾Ǥʡ#124. Ѹʸˡε ([2009-08-29-1]) ȡˡư lie -- lay -- lain ȳѤ¾ư lay -- laid -- laid ȳѤ롥ԤΤβȸԤθƱˤʤΤǡΤɬǤ롥⤳ŵƤѸؽԤ1ͤѸѤˤƤμѤ뵡˷äޤ줿Ȥϡޤʤ
ѸǤξԤκƱФ˶Ȥʬʤȡ̵ܡפȤΥåƥŽۤɤʤΤǡȴʤʤȤְ㤨Ƥʸ̮λ٤ˤۤȤɸʤȻפ뤬äƤޤä饢ȤȤNGɤФƤޤäƤΤǤ롥¾ˤäȸͶڥ¿ϤΤ褦ˤơΥڥФƤ褦˻פ롥ζ̤Ѹ춦ƱΤˤƶܤ̵ͭʬȥޥȤʤäƤΤlie lay ΥڥϡʹߡΤ褦ʸΤФƤˡɽȤäƤ褤
ߤǤȥޥȤƺѤȤȤϡǤ⺮ƱԤפ䤿ʤȤȤǤ롥Ūˤ17, 18ˤ⺮ѤӤǤꡤä˳ʤȤߤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäˤƵϼĬޤˤĤơ٤ѤȤƤȤаޤ롥
Fowler (445) ˡФ lay and lie ȤܤΩƤƤΤǡѤƤ
Verbs. In intransitive uses, coinciding with or resembling those of lie, except in certain nautical expressions, lay 'is only dialectal or an illiterate substitute for lie' (OED). Its identity of form with the past tense of lie no doubt largely accounts for the confusion. In the 17c. and 18c. the alternation of lay and lie seems not to have been regarded as a solecism. Nowadays confusion of the two is taken to be certain evidence of imperfect education or is accepted in regional speech as being a deep-rooted survival from an earlier period. . . .
The paradigm is merciless, admitting no exceptions in standard English. Incorrect uses: She layed hands on people and everybody layed hands on each other and everybody spoke in tongues---T. Parks, 1985 (read laid); Laying back some distance from the road . . . it was built in 1770 in the Italian style---Fulham Times, 1987 (read lying); Where's the glory in . . . leaving people out with their medals all brushed up laying under the rubble, dying for the glory of the revolution?--New Musical Express, 1988 (read lying); We are going to lay under the stars by the sea---Sun, 1990 (read lie); They may have lost the last fight [sc. the final of a ruby tournament], but how narrow it was, and they can still be proud of all the battle honours that will lay for ever in their cathedral in Twickenham--(sport column in) Observer, 1991 (read lie).
ξưκƱ˥֡ŪǤ뤫ϡ"The paradigm is merciless, admitting no exceptions in standard English." Ȥ1ʸˤä䤫˼Ƥ롥˻ޤǡΡָѡפפ䤿ʤ褦
Υ֡ϻϤΤϡRobert Lowth (1710--87) ϤȤ18εϼʸˡȤȤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1])ˡ餬ϻϤȤƤ⡤줬ѤƤʤСפȤϤʤʤѤǤ͡ƺѤǤ͡ΤΥ֡ݻƤΤǤ롥ε#3681. βͤŤμΤüԤǤ ([2019-05-26-1]) #3672. ȥꥢ50ɥ뻥 responsibility Υڥߥ (2) ([2019-05-17-1]) ε˽С⤽1ͤ⤷ʤʤ⤽1ͤ⤷ʤ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
رѸ춵٤6ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱܵѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ3ܤȤʤ֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤפǺܤƤޤɤ

ŪñۤԵ§ʿȤΤϡˤߤŪǤϱѸưβʬˤĤƤ⤤ޤ¿ưϵ§Ūʸ -ed դƲʬޤŪʾưϡbuy -- bought -- bought, cut -- cut -- cut, go -- went -- gone, sing -- sang -- sung, write -- wrote -- written ʤɤΤ褦˸̤˰ŵʤФʤʤԵ§ѲޤϢܵǤϡԵ§ưѤˤɤޤơԵ§ư¿Ūˤϡֵ§ưǤꡤεդޤʤꡤȤä٤¤餫ˤʤޤ
ưԵ§ѲˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤϢƤޤΤǡʲȤ
#3339. ѸδŪԵ§ư ([2018-06-18-1])
#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])
#527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1])
#528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])
#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1])
#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])
#3345. ѲưƳγ̿Ǥ ([2018-06-24-1])
#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1])
#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1])
#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])
#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1])
#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1])
#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1])
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])
#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1])
#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1])
#3490. dreamt dreamed ء ([2018-11-16-1])
#439. come -- came -- come ʤΤ welcome -- welcomed -- welcomed ʤΤϤʤ ([2010-07-10-1])
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])
ϢܤΥХåʥСȤơ1֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ2֤ʤԵ§ʣΤΰ⤴
δ졡ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ3ʤԵ§ưѤΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ6桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ51362--63ǡ
ε ([2019-02-05-1]) ³ain't ˤĤơϤε˴ؤ뤤ĤҲ𤷤褦
Ҥ٤褦 ain't ϡam not, isn't, aren't ΤѤȤƤѤ뤳Ȥ顤Τ줫˵ĤȹͤΤɸŪ3ĤΤ줫ȯãȲꤹ硤n Ҳξü˴ؤȡ1첻 /eɪ/ ˴ؤ褷ʤФʤʤ줬ʤʤ
1;ñ I б ain't ˴ؤƤϡCrystal (35) ϡŪ amn't, amna, amnae, ammot, am't ʤɤλҲæˤΤȤߤƤ롥
. . . from the sixteenth century on, we see forms dropping the m appear---first an't, then ain't, again with many regional variants such as een't in Suffolk, yunt in Worcestershire, yent in Berkshire, ant in New England, and ent in African-American usage.
ˡOED be, v. Ƥߤȡ츻2.1˾ܤҤ롥ˤȡain't ϡamn't ȯãȤǽ⤢뤬aren't ⡤ isn't ƱͤȯãȤƤ롥
The forms an't and ain't, when functioning as 1st singular, perhaps represent a contraction of am with the negative particle rather than levelling from the 2nd singular and plural (i.e. corresponding to aren't with simplification of final consonant group; compare discussion of ain't below and see discussions in E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500-1700 (ed. 2, 1968) II. §238, W. N. Francis in Focus on: Eng. & Wales (1985) 141-151; a third possible source (for ain't) is by compensatory lengthening after loss of s from isn't; compare discussion of en't at Forms 2c(iv)ζ). However, if so, an't and ain't were subsequently reanalysed as equivalent to are not, and the spelling aren't superseded an't in standard English, leading to avoidance not only of I aren't but also of aren't I by some speakers of current English. A similar problem arises with the early modern English form wan't, which when used for the singular, may represent either a contraction of was with not or show levelling of a variant of weren't. Compare also the concurrent development of similar contracted forms shan't (contracted form of SHALL v.) and han't, hain't, ain't (contracted forms of HAVE v.).
;ΤȤ˾ʬȯãõȤȤɬפ⤷ʤޤҲϡξˤæפդ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ첻ˤĤƤѶŪʥȤϤʤǤȤñ˰۷ǤȤΤ褦ǺѤޤƤ礬¿褦Ϥꡤain't ŪǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
be ư1֤Ȥ ain't 롥ɸŪȤߤʤ뤬ǤϤФѤ롥am not, aren't, isn't Τˤ뤿ᡤȿθʤ̣ǡ̴Τ褦ʡ be ưη֤Ǥ롥 be ưˤȤɤޤ餺have not, has not ɸŪʰ۷ȤƤѤ졤¤˼ϰϤͱѸ졤 AAVE Ǥϡdon't, doesn't, didn't ѤȤʤꡤǽ be ưȤƤ ain't äʤ롥
ain't ɸŪȤƤꡤλѤϵŪΩ줫뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ϶ܤ͡δ֤ǤѤ졤Ȥ櫓1;ñε am I not? ȤƤ ain't I ϵƤٹ礤⤤ (ex. I'm going too, ain't I?) ޤ100ǯۤˤϡήǤ̤ѤƤݤ Crystal (35) ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Today, ain't is considered non-standard, but it's widespread throughout the English-speaking world---probably used far more often than the standard equivalent---and a century ago it was actually acceptable upper-class speech, turning up frequently in the novels of the period. Here's the lawyer Mr Wharton arguing with his sister-in-law over his daughter's future, in Anthony Trollope's The Prime Minister (1875): 'I ain't thinking of her marrying'. And towards the end of the novel the Duke of Omnium himself asks someone: 'I hope you ain't cold'.
ain't 18Ⱦ깭ѤƤ뤬εˤĤƤϽ⤢롥Ūˡ˴ؤƤ⡤̻Ūȯã˴ؤƤ¿̥ŪʥȥԥåǤ롥Ϣ American Heritage Dictionary Notes ꡤain't ȡ
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ
#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ
there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.
Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.
쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ε#3490. dreamt dreamed ء ([2018-11-16-1]) ȴϢơɸˤĤơξˡκĴ٤椬褦ΤʺϤʤ褦Ǥ롥ˡκȤƺȤ뤳Ȥ¿ꥫѸǤ dreamed ޤ졤ꥹѸǤξȤѤȤʾp. 422ˡ
Fowler's (231) ˤ "Dreamed, esp. as the pa.t. form, tends to be used for emphasis and in poetry." ȤꡤѰˤ뺹뤳ȤƤ롥
Ѹξ MED ƤߤȡȤơֵ§Ūʡ drēmed(e ȡԵ§Ūʡ drempte ξѤƤȤ狼뤬ʬȤƤϵ§εܤʤʤԵ§˸治ź (epenthesis) p äƤ뤳Ȥ (cf. #739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]))
ѸǶ̣ΤϡShakespeare ǤξѤƤ뤬AV ˤ dreamt ϤʤȤ¤ʡرѸ츻ŵ١ˡAV Shakespeare ٤ʸŪǸʸˡ褯ݻƤȤΤǡ dreamed ΤۤȤФäΤ⤷ʤդˤСdreamt άŪˤˤϤդ路ʤȹͤ줿Τ⤷ʤ
ʤ1775ǯ Johnson μǤ "preter. dreamed, or dreamt" Ȥꡤdreamed ɮƬ˵Ƥ뤳Ȥ˿Ƥ
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Is it 'Dreamed' or 'Dreamt'? ꤹ Merriam-Webster θˡɤdream βʤӲʬˤ dreamt dreamed ؤȵ§Ƥḽˤ˾ƤƤ롥
إꥢࡦ֥ѱѼŵ٤ޤतĤμǤϡdreamed ֻΤȤ /ˈdrɛmt, ˈdriːmd/ 2ĤȯܤƤ롥ϡư dream βʬȤ dreamt/dreamed ξ֤زǽǤ뤳ȤȿǤʻѡѤȤ dreamt ֤ä /ˈdriːmd/ ȯݤεҤϤʤdreamt ȯû첻ˤĤƤϡ#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û ([2015-08-04-1]) ȡ
θˡˤϡ19ȾˤϤǤ dreamed ͥȤʤäƤȤεҤäΤǡΤ٤Ѹ쥳ѥ CLMET3.0 ʸƤߤʸ̤Υƥȥեˡ٤פ̤ϼ̤ꡥ
| Period (subcorpus size) | dreamt | dreamed |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 (10,480,431 words) | 55 | 54 |
| 1780--1850 (11,285,587) | 75 | 137 |
| 1850--1920 (12,620,207) | 71 | 242 |
ưΡֶܹԡפβϡѸηˤˤƥ㡼Ǥ롥ˤĤơ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
礭Ĭή˵դ餦ʵήʤּ嶯ܹԡפλ⤷ФлŦƤꥹѸ dive -- dived (-- dived) Ф륢ꥫѸ dive -- dove (-- dived) 㤬褯ΤƤ뤬ŪˤϤ¾롥
ȤСWełna (425) ˤСѸ˼嶯ܹԤʤʬˤƶѲԵ§˷Ѥ³ƤΤȤơΤ褦㤬ȤѸθǵˡ
| INFINITIVE | PAST | PAST PARTICIPLE |
|---|---|---|
| chide | chidde, chōde | chidden |
| ring | ringde, rongen (PL) | runge |
| sawe | sawed, sew | sawid, sown |
| sew | sowed | sewed, sowen |
| shew, show | showed | showed, showen |
| stycke | stiked, stacke | sticked, stōken |
| weer | wēred, wōre | wēred, worn |
ޥɤκǤΩäħ1ĤˡѲư¸ߤ롥#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1]) ǿ줿褦˻ (dental suffix) դȤǡȤñ˲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤä˴ŤδߤȡˤäƸűѸޤॲޥϡ (inflecting languages) æ (agglutinating language) 뤤ϸΩ (isolating language) ؤȰŤȤˤʤ (cf. #522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1])) ΰ̣ǤϡѲưƳϡ緶ˤСγ̿ŪפäȤ롥von Mengden (287) βʹƤߤ褦
It is remarkable that in a strongly inflecting language like Old English (in contrast to both agglutinating and to analytic), there is a suffix (-d-) which is an unambiguous marker of the tense value past. The fact that this suffix -d- is the only morphological marker in all the paradigms of Old English with a truly distinctive one-to-one relation between form and value may indicate that this morpheme is rather young.
֤ȵǽƩ٤ι⤤11δطˤȤȤϡѸܸΤ褦ʥפθˤƤȡˤʤʤΤΤ褦ʥפǤϤʤäűѸζǰƬ֤ĤIJƹͤƤߤȡΤ˶ˤȤä-d- ̿1ȤϡθϢŪ˳̿ȤͶȯѸŪѤƤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
von Mengden, Ferdinand. "Old English: Morphology." Chapter 18 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 272--93.
ߡꥫѸθǡʬȤɸŪ drunk ǤϤʤƱ drank Ѥ뤳Ȥ뤬ϸѤȤϡŪˡη³ȸ٤Ǥ롥
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) #492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡ߷ʬ3ˤδ֤첻ѰۤŪʶѲưμѥѥϡġưˤäưۤʤꡤѸŪˤŪʵ§Ф뤳ȤºݤˡűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ̤͡3Υѥ˴깭ƤCowie (608) ȡ˰ѤƤ Lass ΥȤƤߤ褦
Tense marking on strong verbs in Early Modern English often had a different pattern for the form of the preterit and the past participle to both Middle English and Modern English. Different verbs go through different patterns, taking some time to stabilize . . . As Lass says, "it seems as if each verb has its own history" (1999: 168--70), which can be illustrated by changes in the paradigm for DRINK:
late 15th drink, drank, drunk end of 16th to 19th drink, drunk, drunk 17th to 19th drink, drank, drank
3ĤΥѥΤɸѼǤϺǽΤΤ줿ɸѼǤϺǸΤΤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ˡ츫ָѡפȻפΤϡĤ¸ߤʣ褫ΰۤʤ˴ŤΤ¿
Ϣơsing βɸŪ sang Τۤ sung Ѥ륱⤢뤬Ʊͤ˹ͤ٤Ǥ롥
Cowie, Claire. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 38 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 604--20.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħKastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ
(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶
One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)
Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥȤؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
ѸԵ§ư (irregular verb) οϡʣưޤС褷ƾʤȤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ춵δŪư˸¤С60٤Ǥ롥㤨СعؽƳΡ٤dzؽ٤Ȥ139ĤưΤ§ư82졤Ե§ư57Ǥ롥 (44--45ˤƷǤƤ57ΥꥹȤʲ˵Ƥ
| *become | *begin | *break | bring | build | buy |
| catch | *come | cut | do | *draw | *drink |
| *drive | *eat | *fall | feel | *find | *fly |
| *forget | *get | *give | go | *grow | have |
| hear | keep | *know | leave | lend | *let |
| lose | make | mean | meet | put | read |
| *ride | *rise | *run | say | *see | sell |
| send | *sing | sit | *sleep | *speak | spend |
| *spring | *stand | *swim | take | teach | tell |
| think | *wind | *write |
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