
ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơŪ졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥
Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)
ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյäפȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥
It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)
ˡѸΦʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥
. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)
¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥
. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)
ǸˡϿλշǼޤŪʶ٤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥
. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
[2010-12-11-1]ε#593. ˤߤäŤ -wiseפ³ԡ
Foster (100) ϡ-wise ϡꥫѸǻϤޤꡤطʤˤ American-German ˡαƶäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
It cannot be denied that such expressions as 'engineeringwise' are very readily coined in modern English and that this habit comes from America where in turn the astonishingly free use of the ending '-wise' owes something to the equally free application in German of the parallel -weise (as in beispeilsweise 'for example', gastweise 'as a guest', and others). . . . It may well be that the old usage had lingered on in the United States to a greater extent than in the English of Britain, but it can scarcely be doubted that its blossoming forth in the twentieth century was due to a more or less unconscious transference of a German habit, whether on the part of scholars or --- more likely --- of immigrants.
Foster ϡ-wise ˸¤餺ꥫѸˤ¿γŪɽɥĸ줫αƶˤΤǤƤ롥ϡ路 The Changing English Language ΤӤĥȤۤɤǡʸ̤˼ȡꥫѸγʤơΥꥹѸؤšˤϡ硤̣ʸˡ˻ޤǥɥĸˡμ̤ǤϤʤȻפƤۤɤǤ롥
ʸ̤˼뤳ȤϤǤʤѤƶƱɬưפǤʤƱΤˤϡѤƶȤξζŪҤʤƤʤФʤ餺¾˼Ҳ¾ܺ٤ʬäƤʤФʤʤȤ¿Foster ⤹٤ƤˤĤƽʬʾڵͿƵƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɾˤϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤ
ȤϤ (loan translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ޤ substitution ([2011-10-15-1]) ѶŪɾ褦Ȥ륿פεϡĿŪˤϹǤ롥ҴŪʾڵƤεǤϤʤʾ塤ǰȤäۤ褤Τ⤷ʤ֤αƶˤ importation Τ褦ɽŪ˸ʾθ̤äȤϤȹͤ롥줫αƶˤĤơɾդ٤ᾮɾˤⵤĤʤФʤʤ褦˻פ
ꥫѸˤƳαƶᾮɾƤаޤˤĤƤϡFoster (86--87) Τ褯ޤȤƤ롥顤ȤʤʬȴФ
Writers on the subject of Americanisms have usually made little of the fact that, in the past, millions of Americans have had a foreign language as their mother-tongue, though in fact it is incredible that the language of the country should not have been affected thereby. . . . In other words there has been a natural tendency to see foreign influences as consisting solely in straightforward loan-words from German, Yiddish, Spanish, Italian or whatever the language of the immigrants may have been. / Fortunately there have been some signs in recent years that scholars are becoming rather more aware that foreign borrowing into American speech has been taking place on a larger scale than had been thought.
ѤƱˤϷ夬ĤʤȤ¿ΤŤ˵ȤץФ뤳ȤϽפ
Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.
20θȾˤϡҲؤʬǤĤβŪʥեɥ»ܤ졤Ѳμ֡ïġɤǡɤΤ褦ˡƤʤѲϤΤˤ餫ˤƤ[2010-06-07-1]ε#406. Labov New York City /r/פǾҲ𤷤ϤΤ1Ĥ̤οʼŪʸҲ𤷤ε#881. ťΥɸǤ͡ ([2011-09-25-1]) ǰ礤˽Ф Milroy (and Milroy) θǤ롥Aitchison (73--77) ˤƱȤĤġʲǾҲ𤹤롥
Milroy (and Milroy) ϡ̥ɤ Belfast ԳϼҲƤ벻ѲĴĤ첻ѲƤ뤬Τʤ grass bad ˴ޤޤ첻 /ɑ/ 岽 /ɔː/ ؤѲƤȤΤ롥 <grawss> <bawd> ֤뤫Τ褦ȯȤʤѲ첻Ѳ19Ⱦ국ϿƤꡤ褷ƿʤοʹԲˤ椬äBelfast ԳϼҲǰΧƤ櫓ǤϤʤʬۤФ꤬ȤΤǤ롥
ʬۤФˤĤƸˡBelfast ԳϤμҲŪطʤƤɬפ롥Belfast ԳϤϤѤƤꡤȡࡤµǯȺ̢䤹륹äΤʤǥץƥȤȥȥåΩΩäƤξĤϻǽʬƤꡤߤ˸ŪܿϤʪŪܿ⤢ޤʤޤܿϰ쿨¨ȯδϤǤ
ơμĴϡԳΥץƥȷϤĮ Ballymacarrett ȻԳΥȥåϤĮ the Clonard ǹԤʤ줿η̡첻Ѳ Ballymacarrett ̱˸˴ѻ뤳ȤʬäBallymacarrett ̱ϽΨ the Clonard ⤯μҲŪϰ̤ͭƤΤħŪǤ롥ϼҲŪĤʤˤäƸߤ˶ӤĤƤꡤνϤˤä Belfast ԳϤˤ첻岽οϤȤʤäƤȹͤ롥Ballymacarrett νˤĤƤϡ첻ѲۤɿƩƤʤޤĤƳƤѲǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥̤ˡɸŪؤθѲ¿뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ뤬η褯Ƥ롥
Ȥ̣Ȥ˻ԳΥȥåϤĮ the Clonard ˤƤϡƱ첻Ѳǯؤˤ¿ѻȤΤǤ롥2Ĥ椬롥1ĤϡBallymacarrett Ǥϡ첻ѲɸŪؤѲǤ뤳Ȥͽ¬̤Ƴγäthe Clonard Ǥϼ㤤ƳƤ褦˸뤳ȤǤ롥⤦1Ĥϡ⤽ξĤΤˤۤȤɼҲŪܿϤʤϤʤΤˡʤѲŤΤȤǤ Ballymacarrett the Clonard ؤŤƤ뤳ȤϳΤ餷ˡ
ϡBallymacarrett the Clonard μ㤤ȤΤ˲餫ܿ˰㤤ʤȤǤ롥ҲͤСۤɥޥåäꤽˤϻפʤޤޥåǤϤʤȤǤСܿεϤ롥ϡĮ濴ˤŹäthe Clonard μ㤤ϼ㤤⽢Ψ⤯ξĤ̤ѤĮ濴ŹŹȤƸۤƤ륱롥ϡBallymacarrett Ҥ˱ФݤˡȯʤǤ岽 /ɔː/ ΤǤϤʤŹؤ˹碌Ƹոؤ "shop-assistant phenomenon" ϡҲؤǤ accommodation ΰȤΤƤꡤ[2010-06-07-1] Labov θǤǧƤ̤Ǥ롥ξʡŪܿˤꡤBallymacarrett ȯ첻Ѳ㤤Źͳ the Clonard ؤŤƤΤǤϤʤ
첻Ѳʬۤ䤫˲ Milroy (and Milroy) μĴϡ˸ѲμҲŪͥåȥؤȯŸ롥ޤܤ˸ʤäѲŤθȤª뤳ȤǽˤŪʸǤ롥
ͤޤǤˡAitchison (75) Ƥ첻ٻؿ4.0ǹͤǤ롥
| Men | Women | Men | Women | |
| Aged 40--55 | 40--55 | 18--25 | 18--25 | |
| East Belfast | 3.6 | 2.6 | 3.4 | 2.1 |
| West Belfast | 2.8 | 1.8 | 2.3 | 2.6 |
BBC Υ㥹ǡҲȤȤƤΤ Melvyn Bragg ν̸αѸˤܤ롥BBC Radio 4 2000--2001ǯ줿25ˤ錄 The Routes of English ΥȤôиȤˡ٤2003ǯ ITV 8ˤ錄ƥӥȤȤ The Adventure of English κݤܤȤܤǤ롥ޥ奢ܿͤλ鼫ˤǮäܤǡѸ黿ޥȤȤƤɾ⤢뤬ʤƻ⤽ɾ˻뤬ˡѸˤȤǤϤʤ椨꤫βϤȯϪ˸졤ΤʸϤؤäơɼԤοĤܤȤʤäƤ롥սФФ꤬ʤΤǤ⥤ꥹζܿͤȤϤΤȻפ碌ɮפǤϤ롥
Bragg ˤˤĤƤμȯۤ˭ϡ㤨СΤ褦ʤɽƤ롥878ǯKing Alfred ǡͤǤ餫ݤ뤵줿ɥ⥢ (Treaty of Wedmore) ˴ŤơɤϥΤȥǡΤʬ줿[2011-07-24-1]ε#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾פȡˡθξϰιۤήˤĤơBragg (19) ϤҤ٤Ƥ
. . . he [King Alfred] drew a line diagonally across the country from the Thames to the old Roman road of Watling Street. The land to the north and east would be known as the Danelaw and would be under Danish rule. The land to the south and west would be under West Saxon, becoming the core of the new England. This was no cosmetic exercise. No one was allowed to cross the line, save for one purpose --- trade. This act of commercial realism would more radically change the structure of the English language than anything before or since. Trade refined the language and made it more flexible.
ťΥɸȤܿڤܤѸؤαƶťΥɸαѸ˾ΰյˤĤƤϡ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյäפܿˤϡطʤˤܿ͡ˤĤƤŪʤФʤʤܿȤŪʸݤäƤȡŪ˺䤹ܿȤ̵ʸºݤˤüԤȤȤοʹ֤ܿäƤΤǤ롥
ޤǤο͡αŪŪʼǤ¤ƤϤ夤긽ŪʱĤߤǤפȤǤϳȯäϤơפôäͤϾʤǤʤդ̤ؤӤ̤ȴ뤳Ȥˤä̤θ콬ߤȵڤפϡ礦 Milroy (and Milroy) Belfast ˤѲθ䤫줿ҲŪͥåȥ۵롥
Bragg αѸˤɤߤ䤹Τϡν˸ŪʸѤ˷ӤĤƤΤȤˤؤμ䤤ȤˤäȵƤ뤫ȻפȤǤˤΰ̴طΤˤ뤢ޤñˤϸˤǤʤȤϥޥ奢Ū˻Ŧ롥˵ҤȤ˾Ȥɤ롥Ѹˤؤδؿ椯ˤϤ褤
Bragg, Melvyn. The Adventure of English. New York: Arcade, 2003.
The Northern Personal Pronoun Rule (NPPR) ϡѸ Scotland Ȥιնᤫ饤عäȤֵ§Ǥ롥ϡLaing and Lass (26--27) ˤ The Northern Present Tense Rule ȸƤФƤΤƱǤ롥3;ʣ̾ "they" ܤ븽߷ưˤäưۤʤ뤬̾ -s -eth ˤ졤 -en, -e, -ø θȤ§Ǥ롥ε§ϡѸˤ The Wash ̤ΥǤ褽ΩƤꡤƱνޤǤˤϡ̳Ūʵ§ǤϤʤΤ1ĤȤƥɥؤãƤ ( Wright 147 )
Wright ˤϡ14θ Rosarium theologie ȤƼ㤬Ƥ롥
whiche is giffen to al sentis or holy men, þat cleueþ togeder in charite, weyþer þei knowe þam bodily or noȝt (qtd in Wright 147 as from Rosarium theologie)
ֻǼǽ cleueþ ̾3;ʣ knowe þei Τ³Ƥ뤿 NPPR ŬѤ -e ȤäƤ롥
ơΥưθ߷ϤɤΤ褦˶ޤ뤫ȤСο;Τˤ餺 -s Τ§Ǥ ( ex. I walks, you walks, Betty walks, we walks, Betty and Shirley walks ) 3;ʣˤĤƤϡ̾ they ѤȤˤΤ they walk ̵ˤʤΤħޤѸ NPPR ΰ仺Ǥ롥
NPPR ˴ؤƶ̣Τϡֵ§ȸȤܿ˵ΤȵƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȸƶĥ̾ͤ McWhorter 롥McWhorter (48--51) ϡ NPPR θƾΤǤ Northern Subject Rule ˤϡWelsh Cornish ȤäȽư§ʿŪʴطˤȻŦ롥Welsh Ǥϡ"she learned" "Betty and Shirley learned" Ϥ줾 dysgodd hi, dysgodd Betty a Shirley Ȥʤ궦̤ -odd Ȥ뤬"they learned" dysgon nhw Τ褦˰ۤʤ -on ȤȤ(1) ޥϤƤ⥤ NPPR Τ褦˴̯ʵ§äƤ¾˸ʤȡ(2) ɤδؤˤ륱ȽʿŪֵ§ǧ뤳ȡ2ͤ碌 NPPR ϶λʪȤϹͤ줺ȸȤθܿˤ̤ǧᤶʤȤǤ롥McWhorter ¾ˤѸˤˤ do-periphrasis ʹԷʸȯãȸαƶȸƤ롥
ϥȸΤʤΤǶŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸǤϸ߷˴ؤ뵬§Ǥˤ⤫餺McWhorter Welsh äƤӤƤΤääޤɤԤν̸ǥȥǥŪĴҤǤ뤳ȤϤʬ뤬ɤޤdzؽŪɾǤ뤫ϵǤ롥ʸˡΤĤħطʤˤϡ̤˱Ѹ˸ԤƤʾ˼սȤܿͿƤ˰㤤ʤȤӤǰϡ伫ȤιͤȰפƤꡤ⤷ɤळȤϤǤԤθѲ "why" ˤǽϤ䤦뤵ʹ "why" ˤʤѸ˸θؤȽʤΤª顤ä˲ɤ
[2009-08-31-1]εǾ줿褦ˡظȤƤΥȸ줬ʸˡͿƶˤĤƤϡǯĵ褦ˤʤäƤ褦Ǥ롥
Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.
McWhorter, John. Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue: The Untold History of English. New York: Penguin, 2008.
Ѳʤ뤫θˤĤƤ͡ʸ椬ʤƤѲ causation ˴ؤϡŪˤϸդεǤ롥뤤ϺƤѲѻڵ鲿ȿ¬롥¿ξ硤Τ褦˿¬줿θѲˤĤƤΤͭǤꡤ̤ѲŬѤꡤѲͽ¬ΤˤΩʤޤۤܤ٤ƤθѲˤƸϰĤǤϤʤʣθʣŪȤ߹蘆äƤȹͤ졤causation εǤϰΩˤ
Ūˤ¿θѲƤϤޤȹͤ뷹ϤꡤʬवƤ롥ʬФ꤬ʤŪƱդƤȻפΤϡŪ ( language-internal ) ʸȸ쳰Ū ( language-external ) ʸȤʬǤ롥Brinton and Arnovick ( 56--62 ) ˽äơɽŪʸվ褦ĤιܤˡϢ륭ɤܥ֥ؤΥդ
Language-Internal Causes
[ üԤ褽̵ռŪ ]
ease of articulation ( assimilation )
perceptual clarity ( dissimilation )
phonological symmetry ( [2009-11-27-1] )
universal tendencies
efficiency or transparency
[ üԤ褽ռŪ ]
spelling pronunciation ( spelling_pronunciation )
hypercorrection
overgeneralization
analogy ( analogy )
renewal
reanalysis ( reanalysis, metanalysis )
Language-External Causes
contact-induced language change ( contact )
extreme language mixture ( leading to pidgins, creoles, and bilingual mixed languages ) ( pidgin, creole )
language death ( language_death )
ŪʸˤĤƤϡüԤѲˤĤ̵ռŪʤΤռŪʤΤʬƤ뤬ռ̵ͭ٤ʤΤŪʴˤϤʤʤ
Ϣ뵭Ȥơ[2010-07-01-1], [2010-06-01-1]ε⻲ȡ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
λѸˤιֵǤϱѸ줬²ΰǤ뤳ȤˤĤä롥ꥢڡѡǴ긫¿ΤֱѸϥƥ줫ޤ줿ȻפäƤפȤΤǤ롥ʸʤΤʤǤγäȤ⸸ۤȤȤ⤤뤳θäμäƱѸǯٶƤȤˤʤ롥
褦ʸȤƤϡֱѸϥɥĸ줫ޤ줿סֱѸϥƥϤǤסֱѸϥȷϡפʤɤ롥ޤƤޤ褦ʸȤƤϡָѸϸűѸαƶƤפȤΤ⤢롥
ˤϡ²ηޤͤФ褤 ( see [2009-06-17-1] )Ѹ줬ƥ줫ޤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤϰѸ줬ɥĸ䥱ȽʤɤȤʤطˤ뤫¨¤餫ˤʤ롥ޤǤʹȤΤ졤뤤̾Τʤä줬ѸȤɤΤ褦ʷطˤ뤫˿ƤꡤƤοͤäįƤߤ뤳Ȥ롥
嵭θ¿ϡַפȡֱƶפȤƱƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥 ַפȤŪˤзδطǤꡤƻҡ̤ȤäѸǸ褦ʴطǤ롥ޤʬȤꡤ֥եϥƥ줫ޤ줿סֱѸȥեꥸϷʤλ¹ˤǤסֱѸȥϥޥɤȤƱפʤɤɽ뤳ȤǤ롥ƥȱѸˤĤƤС褷ԤԤȤطǤϤʤ²Ȥ礭ʤǤϳΤ˱뤬ޤ˱Ƽºݾ֤¾ͤȤäƤ褤餤δطǤ롥
Ū˶ᤱСܤƤ뷹ΤϡʪξƱǤ롥줬ĤʤäƤȤƤ夿ƤгʤۤʤΤ뤳ȤʤǤ⡤ոзطϤϤäꤹ롥Τ褦ʴطַפǤ롥
ǡֱƶפϡȤ̼Ǥ롥οͤƶȤȤȤ褤οͤȿƸޤСʬθܤͤ⤽οͤ˻ƤΤǤ롥οͤȤƱƤʪǤʤĤƤʿʪǤäƤ褤Ԥξ硤οʪλĤܤʤɤˤƶȤȤˤʤ롥
ƥȱѸδطϤޤΤ褦ʡֱƶפδطǤ롥ѸˤȤäƥƥϷŪˤϸ¤ʤ֤¾ͤ˶ᤤƥΰŪʸϱѸˤȤäɤܤˤʤäѸŪˡƥʸ䤽ɤ߽Ǥμ̤̤ͤΥƥñѤƤΤǤ롥äơä˸äΰ̤ˤƤϡѸϥƥ줵ʤȤäƤ褤ƻҴط̴طʷˤˤΤǤϤʤлطʱƶˤˤΤǤ뤳Ȥϡäȶ̤Ƥɬפ롥
ο̤οͤΤۤ˻ΤϡͤǤʤƱȤʤΤ⤷ʤȤΥꥢڡѡǡ۩
ȱƶϰ㤦ȤȤʬޤ褷ƤơƤꡤȶͧãƶޤ
19ȾС絲 ( 1845--48 ) ƥɿͤΥꥫؤܽ ( The Great Irish Immigration ) äη̡ĤΥɱѸθˡꥫѸ˻ޤ졤˥ꥫˡȤ夷ȤϲͭԡرѸˡ٤ˤС㤨СΤ褦ʹܤƤ롥
shall ˡ will ˤۤȤɼä줿1855ǯˤǤ˳Ω
the measles ʤɤΤ褦괧ѤˡʥɱѸδؤˤ륲αƶ
Ƭˤʻѡ anti-, semi-, -ster, -eer ʤɤܼˤ¤ AmE ˸ΥǤϥɱѸαƶϤޤDzǽȤΤȡ
ո¿
Τʤäαƶ¤ɤҴŪդΤǧɬפ뤬ФлŦѸαƺΰü Irish English ˵ȤСꥫ̱ˤȤϢƶ̣
ϲ ͭ ԡ ¼ϰ ˡ ϲ ͭĻ ¼ δ ˧ رѸˡ١Ѹإ[1]1986ǯ罤۽Ź159--60ǡ
Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) νǤꤺä1701ǯ The True-Born Englishman ȤɻƤ롥ꥹ James II Ѥơ̾̿ˡäƤ William of Orange William III ȤơMary II ȤζƱȤDz̤ˤĤƤѥեåȺȤ William III λٻɤǤä Defoe ϡͤ椬ƤȤȤ͡йŪǡܽ˽ФפˡΥɿͤʤɤȤΤϤꤨʤˤʬȤꥤɿͤϻʤΤ顤ͤβۤäƼ衤ȤåǤ롥֤褦졤ߤǤͼҺѻߤδ餽ƤϿƤʤɾƤ롥
ɿͤǤ뤳ȤȱѸ줬Ǥ뤳ȤϡԤ礷Ƥ롥ĤƤܽʤɤˤ¿̱²Ȥܿη̤ȤơɤѤˤʤꡤѸ줬Ѥˤʤä (see [2009-06-04-1])ɤ¿̱²Ѹλˤϡ Defoe θդƸ餷Τ֤褵Ĺ 1703ǯǤ˴Ť饤 Luminarium Edition Ѥ롥
The Romans first with Julius Cæsar came,
Including all the nations of that name,
Gauls, Greeks, and Lombards, and, by computation,
Auxiliaries or slaves of every nation.
With Hengist, Saxons; Danes with Sueno came,
In search of plunder, not in search of fame.
Scots, Picts, and Irish from the Hibernian shore,
And conquering William brought the Normans o'er.
All these their barbarous offspring left behind,
The dregs of armies, they of all mankind;
Blended with Britons, who before were here,
Of whom the Welsh ha' blessed the character.
From this amphibious ill-born mob began
That vain ill-natured thing, an Englishman.
The customs, surnames, languages, and manners
Of all these nations are their own explainers:
Whose relics are so lasting and so strong,
They ha' left a shibboleth upon our tongue,
By which with easy search you may distinguish
Your Roman-Saxon-Danish-Norman English.
Ѹϡ"this amphibious ill-born language" ȤȤˤʤ뤤ϡ"The Untrue-Born English Language" ȸƤǤ褤
塤üԤζϤʰϤˤѸ줬ƤƤ椯ǽ뤬 ( see [2009-10-07-1] )˸Ƥ뻨ŪʱѸФüԡʤʸˡŤαѸ춵աˤϤɤΤ褦ȿƤ椯Ȥˤʤ
Ѹΰ̣ѲꤢȤɬȤäƤ褤ۤɰ礤˽ФȤơdeer 롥ߡּפ̣뤳θϡűѸѸǤ̤ˤϡ֡ʥҥȤФƤΡưʪפ̣űѸǤּפΰ̣ޤäʤä櫓ǤϤʤθŪʰ̣ưʪפǤ뤳Ȥϡ¾Υޥ줫ǧǤ롥ȤХɥĸƱ캬 ( cognate ) Tier ǤꡤߤǤưʪפ̣롥
ȤѸˤʤּפΰ̣ΩäƤ褦ˤʤ롥ΰǡưʪפΰ̣Ͻ˿ꤨƤäưʪ̤ɽƤ줬μưʪɽ褦ѲƤ櫓ǡΤ褦ʰ̣ѲΤȤ̣ü첽 ( specialisation ) Ȥ֡
deer ˰̣ü첽äطʤˤϡѸΥեȤθܿ롥1200ǯ Ancrene Riwle Ȥʤˡե줫Ѥ줿 beast ֡ʥҥȤФƤΡưʪפȤ줬ѤƤ뤬ʹߡѸˤϡưʪפΰ̣ǤϤ beast ͥˤʤäƤ椯deer ϡưʪפΰ̣ beast Ϥּפΰ̣˸ꤹ뤳ȤǼӤȤ롥
ˡѸꡤanimal Ȥ̤θ줬ե줫äƤ֡ʥҥȤФƤΡưʪפȤ̣Ǥϡ Shakespeare Ǥ롥ˤäơޤdzƤ beast ϡ֡ʥҥȤФƤΡưʪפΰ̣ɤФ졤ޤ̣ü첽Фơ֤Ρưʪפΰ̣ؤȸꤵ줿

եȤθܿˤ륷åȡ˲ФФϢ ( push chain ) ˤꡤỌ̇̄Ƥä櫓ݥȤϡdeer beast ѸȤϤʤ餺̣ò뤳ȤˤäƤ֤ȤĤäȤǤ롥֤Ȥˤä ( synonym ) ߡѤƤ椭ѸθäỌ̇̄˭ĹƤȤ롥
Gelderen (102) ˡCeltic, Latin, Scandinavian, French, Dutch/Flemish 5줬ѸͿƶɽ롥ˡ⤦ Greek äơ6ˤƶɽǤ롥
| vocabulary | morphology | syntax | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Celtic | yes | no | possibly |
| Latin | yes | somewhat | no |
| Scandinavian | yes | yes | yes |
| French | very much | yes | minimal |
| Dutch/Flemish | minimal | no | no |
| Greek | yes | somewhat | no |
| vocabulary | morphology | syntax | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Celtic | yes | no | possibly |
| Latin | yes | somewhat | no |
| Scandinavian | yes | yes | yes |
| French | very much | yes | minimal |
| Dutch/Flemish | minimal | no | no |
| Greek | yes | somewhat | no |
| Japanese | somewhat | no | no |
ѸˤΤʤǿ¿θܿƶƤΤʤǤä˸ťΥɸ ( Old Norse ) ȸťե ( Old French ) ΥѥȤϸǤ롥
ťΥɸϸűѸѸˤơťեϼѸ濴ˡѸ¿ʱƶڤܤξȤ⸽Ѹ˿ܿĤǤ϶̤Ƥ뤬ΥפŷϤۤɰ㤦ѸˤγǤξαƶϤ褯椵ΤǡݥȤޤȤƤɽϡѸˤˤťΥɸȸťեŪ椵ΤǤ롥
| ťΥɸ | ťե | |
|---|---|---|
| ƶθʻ | űѸ줫Ѹ | Ѹ |
| ƶλϤޤäϰ | ||
| ѸȤθŪ | 礭 | |
| ѸȤʸŪ | 礭 | |
| դȤƤΩ | ʤ | Ω |
| ƶεڤܤο | ¿ | ʤ |
| ƶεڤܤγ | ̳ | ή |
| ѸȤμҲŪط | Ʊ | |
| ߤΰջ | ǽ | Բǽ |
| Ѹο | 椯餤 | ¿ |
| ѸΥ | Ƹȵǽ | Ƹ |
| Ѹ | ˴ܸ | ܸ |
| Ѹ | ⤤ | 椯餤 |
| Ѹʸ | Ū | ʸŪ |
| Ѹβ | ¿ñ | ¿¿ |
| ̾μѸ | ¿ | ʤ |
| ֤ؤαƶ | ʤ | ¿ |
Ѹˤؤ ( borrowing ) 夲ȤˡˡΤ褦˷֤â롧ָˤѤϰ̤ΥΤμѤȤϰۤʤꡤڤꤿ֤ɬפϤʤѤȤǰ䤹ƤΤǡܽǤϤѸȤ³뤳Ȥˤ롥
äȤʤȤǤ롥ߤʡΤˤȤʤ̤ΥΤμѤȸμѤκۤˤĤơʾĤäǵ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤεǤϡ⤦겼Ƥߤ
ΤμѤȸμѤΰ㤤Ƥߤ褦
(1) ΤڤȤˤϤƤĤ뤬ڤȤˤϵĤʤʤΤʤʤȤ˾ˡּڤפȤǤ롥
(2) Τξ硤ߤߤȤǧ뤬ξ硤ߤߤȤǧʤ
(3) Τߤ餽ߤμ긵ʤʤ뤬ߤȤƤ⡤ȤƤߤμ긵˻ĤäƤ롥ĤޤꡤξˤϰưǤϤʤԡäƤ롥
(4) ߤ(2)(3)ΤȤꡤߤӼʤʤΤǡڤä֤ɬפʤȤ֤Ȥǡߤμ긵ˤƱΤǤˤΤΤξˤϡߤˤӼ뤫⤷ʤ
嵭ΥݥȤϡǽפǤ롥¾줫ѤȤϡïˤǤˡΡȤǼ˿ʹܤղäȤǤ롥μѲܼưǤϤʤԡǤ뤳ȤǽˤƤ롥ưξˤϡǥΤ̤ѤԡξˤϡǥΤ̤롥
ʪǤϡ¾Ѳ12ˤ뤳ȤԲǽǤ롥⤷2ˤʤäȤ顤ɬ褽1åäƤϤǤ롥ФơǤϤȤñ12ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥κݡïˤӼϤʤ˽Ǥ롥
ΤȤϡ줬뤤ϸĤɤ̵ͤ¤βǽƤ뤳ȤƤΤǤϤʤ
űѸνޤǤˡ֥ƥϾʤȤ5̱²ˤ뿯̱²äƤϡ͡ʷDZѸˤפĤƤƸαѸˤˤյ⤷Ƥߤ롥
(1) Celtic
ȸɡ6000ǯꡤΦ֥ƥ˰֥ܽƥǤϥȸɤΤ Brythonic 롼פ°줬äƤѸؤαƶȤƤϡä˥֥ƥ̾˸ʺפĤ
(2) Latin
åɡ֥ͤƥϤΦˤꡤǤ˥ͤȤ̤ܿƥޥˤϥƥ줬äƤˡ֥ƥ礬ޤλ۲ˤä˥֥ƥΥȿͤ˺դƥñ줬Τ˱ѸˤѤ줿űѸˤϡꥹȶȤȤ¿Υꥹȶطñ줬Ѥ줿ʹߡä˥ͥˤ̤Υƥ줬Ѹ˼Ѥ줿
(3) English
ޥɡΤʤǤޥɤ°롥ΦΥ͡ʼºݤˤϥ͡͡塼ȿͤξʤȤ3̱²ޤ[2009-05-31-1]ˤ5˥֥ƥ˻ǤꡤѸ˾ΰյϤϤꤷʤȤ⡤ѸˤγϤΤΤǤ롥
(4) Old Norse
ޥɡΤʤǤ̥ޥɤ°롥̲ĤǤꡤťΥɸȸƤФ롥8ʹߡ֥ƥؿ꽻ȼťΥɸȱѸκʤ̾̾Τۤδܸä䵡ǽ֤ʤɡѸ¿ʱƶͿťΥɸαѸ˾ΰյðۤǤ롥
(5) French
åɡƥ줫ΰġ1066ǯΥΥޥͤ衤եñɽ̤˱Ѹήեʤȥƥˤñήˤꡤäδ鸫¤ꡤѸϤϤʥޥϤθȤϸƤ֤ȤǤʤȸäƤ褤
ʾ夬֥ƥؤ5̱²οȡ̱²θ줬ѸͿƶǤ뤬⤦ĿƤ줬롥إ˥åɤ°ŵꥷǤ롥Ѹʹߡʸ̤Ƹŵꥷͳñ줬̤˱ѸäѸ졤Ѹ줬¿ߤǤŵꥷͳ褹 bio-eco--logy ʤɤܼŪǤ롥ޤƥ켫Τŵꥷ줫¿ñѤƤꡤѸϥƥ줫ľܡ뤤ϥեͳǡ餿ƼѤƤΤǡʾ˱Ѹˤϥꥷ쵯ñ줬¿
˵ΤϡѸ˵ڤܤƶä礭ΤߤǤ롥ѸϤۤˤɴθ줫羮αƶƤΤǤꡤλ¤˺ƤϤʤʤ
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