Aitchison (150--52) ˤС (borrowing) ˤ4ĤνפħȤ
First, detachable elements are the most easily and commonly taken over --- that is, elements which are easily detached from the donor language and which will not affect the structure of the borrowing language. (150)
ϡɽŪʸäǤڤ䤹ñ̤ǤȤȤˤʤ롥ǤꡤŪʸáʸˡʤɡ¾θμѤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ (cf. #902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]))
A second characteristic is that adopted items tend to be changed to fit in with the structure of the borrower's language, though the borrower is only occasionally aware of the distortion imposed. (150)
ϡ㤨бñ줬ʸȤܸ˼ѤȤˡọ̇Ѳʤɤ¿쾯ʤܸ첽ƼޤΤ̤ȤȤ롥
A third characteristic is that a language tends to select for borrowing those aspects of the donor language which superficially correspond fairly closely to aspects already in its own. (151)
μѤ˺ݤơζθ礬¦θǤƤˤϡѤ䤹ʤ롤ȤäΤȤξǤ褽бطäۤʤѤ䤹ȤΤϤäȤäΰפȤǤ (cf. #1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]))
A final characteristic has been called the 'minimal adjustment' tendency --- the borrowing language makes only very small adjustments to the structure of its language at any one time. In a case where one language appears to have massively affected another, we discover on close examination that the changes have come about in a series of minute steps, each of them involving a very small alteration only, in accordance with the maxim 'There are no leaps in nature.' (151)
̤μѤˤäơ¦θ줬礭Ѳ褦˸륱ǤäƤ⡤ϻ֤ƾĤʤäΤǤäơŪ11Ѥ˺ݤƵäƤ뤳Ȥ϶ϾѲˤʤȤǽ3ϡ衤ܿ (contact) ʬǤŦƤȤ4ܤλŦŪˤʤ줿ȤϡۤɤʤäΤǤϤʤȻפ롥
ϢơѤȤѸȳǰäơ#44. ּѡפˤߤ ([2009-06-11-1])#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1])#3008. ּѤȤϻͤˤǤ¤Ǥס ([2017-07-22-1]) ƤΤǡȤ줿
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
ϢεǡJoseph ʸ "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture" ȡѤƤ (cf. #3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1])#3326. ̻ŪȶŪ ([2018-06-05-1])#3327. ѲˤüԤ϶ŪǤ ([2018-06-06-1])) ѲˤˤĤƤκŪƹͤľƤ롤ͥ줿ͤǤ롥
ϡJoseph ŪỊ̇Ĺʲս˺Τ˲ȴƤ
[T]he contact is not really between the languages but is rather actually between speakers of the languages in question . . . . (129)
ϸƤߤФȯۤ˻פ뤬̡뤤ϸܿˤƤ顤Ф˺ƤǤ롥ʲε⻲ȡ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1])
ˡХ륫 (Balkan linguistic_area) ˤܿ夲ʤ顤ͿƤսꡥ
. . . an overemphasis on comparisons of standard languages rather than regional dialects, even though the contact between individuals, in certain parts of the Balkans at least, more typically involved nonstandard dialects . . . (130)
2ĤθѼܿͤݤˡξԤɸŪѼǰƬ֤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤθܿˤƤϤषɸѼɤܿʤΤˤɸѼüԤɤܿˤΤ̤ۤǤϤʤäȤʸǤ롥
Ѥäơָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ؾ塤פǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ
Folk etymology often represents a reasonable attempt on a speaker's part to make sense of, i.e. to render transparent, a sequence that is opaque for one reason or another, e.g. because it is a borrowing and thus has no synchronic parsing in the receiving language. As such, it shows speakers actively working to give an analysis to data that confronts them, even if such a confrontation leads to a change in the input data. Moreover, folk etymology demonstrates that speakers take what the surface forms are --- an observation which becomes important later on as well --- and work with that, so that while they are creative, they are not really looking beyond the immediate phonic shape --- and, in some instances also, the meaning --- that is presented to them. (132)
Ǥ Joseph ϸѲˤüԤָ̱츻ŪȯۤΰյɾˤȤɤޤ餺ǤüԤζפָ̱츻ȤӤĤƤ롥#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2932. salacious ([2017-05-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ˡüԤζȴϢơʬ (reanalysis) ñ㲽ʣˤɤؤ뤫˼1ʸ褦
[W]hen reanalyses occur, they are not always in the direction of simpler grammars overall but rather are often complicating, in a global sense, even if they are simplificatory in a local sense.
ѲΡñ㲽פ˴ؤŪȤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1])#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#1693. §ŪʲѲԵ§ŪʷѲ ([2013-12-15-1]) Ȥ줿
ǸˡѲζŪˤĤƤΰѤƤؼԤ϶Ū˷кȤƵ뤬ɬǤϤʤȤƤ
[T]he grammars linguists construct . . . ought to be allowed to reflect uneconomical "solutions", at least in diachrony, but also, given the relation between synchrony and diachrony argued for here, in synchronic accounts as well.
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
ɸˤĤƤϡʲεϤȤƲ٤ƤθѲؤδؿΥˤǤ롥
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܳŪ˹ Hopper and Traugott (213) ˡؤθڤ롥
. . . distinctions are often made in historical work between "internal" and "external" factors in change. Roughly speaking, "internal" change is associated with child language acquisition in a relatively homogeneous speech community, and "external" change with contact, whether with communities speaking dialects of the "same language" or other languages. This distinction is essentially similar to the contrast regarding the locus of change between mind/brain and grammar (= "internal") and social interaction and use (= "external"). . . . [S]uch a polarization obscures the realities of language change, in which structure and use, cognitive and social factors continually interact: "speakers' mutual accommodations can draw materials from either the same linguistic system or separate ones" (Mufwene 2001: 15). This is nowhere clearer than in pidgin and creole situations, where the notion of "homogeneous speech community" is typically not appropriate, and where, as we will see, second language acquisition plays a significant role in structural innovation.
ѲǤŪװȳŪװʬ뤬ζΤǤϤʤˤξԤȤ߹蘆äƸѲʤळȤ¿ȤޤäȤʸȻפ¿θѲˤϡmultiple causation ͿƤ롥
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Mufwene, Salikoko S. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
#3162. Ű ([2017-12-23-1]) #3172. 饤ҥ㡼ηŪȯۤϥǤϤʤʸؤ ([2018-01-02-1]) ǻȤƤˤСʹ֤ιԤʤʪʬˡϡʬ͡ (group thinking) ȡַ͡ (tree thinking) ̤ȤȤʬहȽļηطȤʬहΤ (107) Ϥ줾˴ŤʳؤʬʳءפȡָŰʳءפȸƤӡξԤΤ褦оȤƤ롥
| ʬʳ | ʬ | ե | 硿 | ǧΥƥ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Űʳ | | ȥ˥ߡ | Ρʬ | ˡʥ֥ |
| ǰŪ | Ū | |
|---|---|---|
| ηϳ (Systematik) | (Phylogenetik) | |
| (Formverwandtschaft) | ط (Blutsverwandtschaft) | |
| (Metamorphose) | ȯ (Stammesentwicklung) | |
| ηϳŪʳ (systematischen Stufenreihen) | (Ahnenreihen) | |
| (Typus) | (Stammform) | |
| (typischen Zuständen) | Ū (ursprüngliche Zuständen) | |
| Ū (atypischen Zuständen) | Ū (abgeänderte Zuständen) |
| ʬʳ | Űʳ |
|---|---|
| ¤ (structural linguistics) | Ӹ (comparative linguistics) |
| (typology) | ˸ (historical linguistics) |
| (linguistic area) | ² (language family) |
| ܿ (contact, borrowing) | (inheritance) |
| (space) | (time) |
| (synchrony) | ̻ (diachrony) |
| ط (paradigm) | Ϣط (syntagm) |
| ѥ (pattern) | ץ (process) |
| ???? (variation) | ???? (change) |
| (type) | ȡ (token) |
| ե (metaphor) | ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) |
| How | Why |
ʲͤƴĤȤƹ⤯Ǥ뤿ˤϡ䤿ʬͤйϤĤ⤦ĤλȤȤƥԡ뤹ɬפ롥ȤСܤˤΤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡƤΤʻװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϼºݤ̿ץʬʪؤؤȤߤʤ롥ФơΤ֤ʤפΤ褦ˤäΤʵװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϿʲʪؤȤ٤
ѲΡ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפȡ֤ʤפ (how_and_why) ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2642. ѲμȻȤߤν̡ ([2016-07-21-1])#3133. Ѳ "how" "why" ([2017-11-24-1]) ǰäƤʪؤθˤ꿷ȯۤ줿롥
ؿʲͤҥȤϿݤɤηϲ뤫١NHKǡ2010ǯ
1220դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ12ε֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡޤ
κǸǤϡɸε֤ʤѸ϶Ż뷿Ż뷿θؤڤؤꡤκݤˤʤܸSVOȤ줿ΤפȤؤȥѥե졼ޤȾǤϤ褤褳䤤ܳŪޤڤɤ褦5W1HΥߥƥΩƤäŸޤ
Ѳˤ餺˸ݤεˤ䤤 Why Ǥεˤ˶Ťˤϡˤʳ4W1Hä겡ڵѤ߾夲ƤɬפޤξǡŪ Why ؤβƤȤǤϡαʸˡ˾ǤŪѲ1ĤλȸΩơ5W1H˥ߥƥΩƤꤿȻפޤ
ϢܵŸϲǤͭϤʲǤϤޤ˾λǤŪ뤳ȤϤۤԲǽȸ虜ޤϺε˸¤ޤѲݤˡ¤褯Ĵ١λ¤ȿʤǰ̴طΥȡȤΩƤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ⡤λߤ1ĤȤƤФȻפޤʲϢܵΰѤǤ
ѲϷ褷ƶ櫓ǤϤʤȤ狼äȻפޤѲظˤϸŪŪʽװʣŪ˺ѤƤꡤΤˤΰĤҤȤĤͤߤ뤳ȤΤǤWhat, When, Where, Who, How ¤ɤƤСǸˤϵˤ䤤 Why ˤ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǤΤǤ
ϢܵȤƤϺǽȤʤޤ줫ܥ֥䤽¾ΤǡѸѤʵˤäƤȻפޤΤǡȤꤤ夲ޤ
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ۤ¿εǿƤƸѲ "multiple causation" θ§ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤThomason ϡܿ˴ؤϥɥ֥åεΤʤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . a growing body of evidence suggests that multiple causation --- often a combination of an external and one or more internal causes --- is responsible for a sizable number of changes. (32)
The search for internal and external causation should proceed in parallel, because of the strong possibility, an actuality in many cases, that both internal and external causes influenced the linguistic outcome of change. (46)
ǡThomason ϸˤ⡤Ȥ "multiple causation" Ȥˤ衤ѲεˤΡ֤ʤפ뤳ȤԲǽǤƤ롥ϤäսʤΤǡΤޤްѤ롥
. . . in spite of dramatic progress toward explaining linguistic changes made in recent decades by historical linguists, variationists, and experimental linguists, it remains true that we have no adequate explanation for the vast majority of all linguistic changes that have been discovered. Worse, it may reasonably be said that we have no full explanation for any linguistic change, or for the emergence and spread of any linguistic variant. The reason is that, although it is often easy to find a motivation for an innovation, the combinations of social and linguistic factors that favor the success of one innovation and the failure of another are so complex that we can never (in my opinion) hope to achieve deterministic predictions in this area. Tendencies, yes; probabilities, yes; but we still won't know why an innovation that becomes part of one language fails to establish itself in another language (or dialect) under apparently parallel circumstances. there is an element of chance in many or most changes; and there is an element of more or less conscious choice in many changes. Even if we could pin down macro- and micro-social features and detailed linguistic features to a precise account (which we cannot), accident and the possibility of deliberate change would derail our efforts to make strong predictions. This assessment should not be taken as a defeatist stance, or discourage efforts to find causes of change: recent advances in establishing causes of changes after they have occurred and in tracking the spread of innovations through a speech community have produced notable successes. More successes will surely follow; seeking causes of change is a lively and fruitful area of research. But the realistic goal is a deeper understanding of processes of change, not an ultimate means of predicting change. (32--33)
ޤäƱǤ롥Ѳ˴ؤˤ Why 뤳ȤԲǽ How ФȤϲǽǤ Why ˶ŤƤϤϤ٤Ǥcf. #3026. ˤˤ How Why ([2017-08-09-1])ˡϢ Thomason ν긫ϡʲεǤƤΤǻͤޤǤˡ
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#2113. ʸˡѤξ ([2015-02-08-1])
ˡ#2589. ѲưΤϷǽ (2) ([2016-05-29-1]) Ǥ "multiple causation of language change" Ż뤹٤Ȥ˿ƤΤǡεȤŽäεɤ
Thomason, Sarah. "Contact Explanations in Linguistics." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 31--47.
ε#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 ([2017-12-11-1]) ǡܿη̡ñ㲽ΤʣΤȤ夲Trudgill ηȤƤϡñ㲽˻Τ "high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations" ξ¿ȤȤΤ褦ʾϡ˾夢ޤʤäȤǤꡤдʹߤŪǤϤʤȤĤޤꡤۤʤüԤɤû֤ǻ̩ܿиȤ֤ϡ˻ˤϷ褷̤ΤȤǤϤʤäΤǤϤʤTrudgill (313) ۩
I have argued . . . that we have become so familiar with this type of simplification in linguistic change --- in Germanic, Romance, Semitic --- that we may have been tempted to regard it as normal --- as a diachronic universal. However, it is probable that
widespread adult-only language contact is a mainly a post-neolithic and indeed a mainly modern phenomenon associated with the last 2,000 years, and if the development of large, fluid communities is also a post-neolithic and indeed mainly modern phenomenon, then according to this thesis the dominant standard modern languages in the world today are likely to be seriously atypical of how languages have been for nearly all of human history. (Trudgill 2000)
դ˸С餯˻θܿ˴ؤ֤ϡǤ 1 3 ΥפäȤȤˤʤʤܿϸߤθʣݻĹ뤳Ȥ¿äΤǤϤʤȡ˻ʿŪ¸˻ƮŪͻ¤ȤܤΩ벾Ǥ롥
Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ܿ (contact) ϸñˤΤ뤤ʣˤΤźθܿλȤȡΥ⤢ΤƤ롥Trudgill ˤĤƤΤǡҲ𤷤褦ޤܿϸʣ˴ͿȤˤĤơ
. . . there is considerable evidence that language contact can lead to an increase in linguistic complexity. This appears to occur as a result of the addition of features transferred from one language to another . . . . This is then additive change in which new features derived from neighboring languages do not replace existing features but are acquired in addition to them. A sociolinguistic-typological consequence of language contact is therefore that languages which have experienced relatively high degrees of contact are more likely to demonstrate relatively higher degrees of this type of additive complexity than languages which have not. (301)
ȴϢơϰؤΩ줫顤बޤ䤹Ū¿äŪñʸ칽¤䤹 "spread zones" Ȥư²ιԤʤƤϰʤɡˤȡȿФ˸Ū¿ʣħŤ "residual zones" Ȥƥ˥塼˥ʤɡˤȤǰˤĤƤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ"contact among languages fosters complexity, or, put differently, diversity among neighbouring languages fosters complexity in each of the languages" (303) ǤȤĤιͻФȤǾ嵭ŤΤβսǤ롥
We can thus take seriously the sociolinguistic-typological hypothesis that languages spoken in high-contact societies are relatively more likely to have relatively more complexity, not just in terms of having more features such as grammatical categories and articulation types, but also in terms of possessing features which are inherently more complex. (305--06)
ǡŪʤ⡤ܿñ㲽⤿餹ϹǧƤʤۤˡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ⻲Ȥ줿ˡ
. . . the paradox here is that contact can also, and just as clearly, lead to simplification. This is very well known, and is a point which has been made by many writers. Pidgins, creoles, and creoloids . . . are all widely agreed to owe their relative structural simplicity to language contact; and koines to dialect contact . . . . (306)
ǤϡܿΤʤ¦̤ʣñ㲽ꤹΤTrudgill ϡܿζ١֡콬˴ؤ׳ȤװŦƤ롥׳ȤϡפˡܿиƤο͡ҶͤȤ㤤Ǥ롥Trudgill ηϰʲ̤ꡥ
1 high-contact, long-term pre-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to additive (and only additive) complexification;
2 high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to simplification;
3 low contact situations are likely to lead to preservation of existing complexity.
ӺΤ褦ˤ⸫뤬̣Ǥ롥
Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.
ε ([2017-12-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ֤ΡְŪطפȤˤϤʤƤΤ
ϼ¤Ԥˤä͡Ǥꡤ٤ƤθؼԤƱդƤȤΤϤʤNoonan (50) ϡְŪطפȤơ礭3٤̤ȤƤ롥
(1) the generational transmission approach¿θؼԤƤ롤䤹Ǥꡤ椨Ū˻Ŧ뤳ȤǤ⾯ʤͤǤ⤢롥ΩˤäƤϡ֤ΰŪطȤϡŪ塹ѤƤˤƱǤ롥ƤΤȤۤƱηϤҶλҶȤ뤬塹֤뤳ȤˤäơƱθ줬ѾƤȤͤΥ䤬ʤ¤ꡤȤȤ¿쾯ʤѲȤƤ⡤ŪˤƱθ줬ѤƤȤߤʤΤQŪǤ롥ѸüԤϡ̤äƤʤűѸüԤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤷ӸؤϤڤƤǤϤ뤬ޥĸüԡưĸüԤؤ̤뤳ȤǤʤȾʤȤϤǤˡäơѸȰĸˤϡϢʤݻƤŪطȤ롥
(2) the essentialist approachüԤϢ³ŪǤϤʤηѾ˾ƤΩǤ롥ľŪ˰طΤ֤ǤϡʸˡŪʷǤŪħѤϤǤȤΩġդˤСΤ褦ʸħܤ줫̼ܤؤȰѤƤСá̼פδطˤ롤ĤޤŪطˤȤߤʤȤǤ롤Ȥ롥(1) (2) ΩϡФƱʬϷ̤ȤӸؤˡĴ¤Ȥ⤢뤬εäΩ(1) ǤüԤˤηѾ(2) ǤϤθηѾǤȤ㤤դɬפ롥
(3) the hybrid approach(1), (2) ʳ͡ʹͤ͡ˡǼ줿ΩǡǤصŪ "the hybrid approach" Ȥ1ĤΥ٥βˤޤȤƤ롥ȾӸء쥪ʤɤ˴ޤޤ롥ζϡʤȤ⤤ĤξˤƤϡʣθ줬礷ΤǧƤ뤳ȤǤʾ嵭 (1), (2) ΩϸΰŪȤǰǧ᤺Ȥ "mixed language" ¸ߤǧˤ衤ְطפγ֤ˤȤˡӸؤˡӽ櫓ǤϤʤˡ٤ƤλŬѤȤϹͤƤʤޤϸνΤǤȤθäƤ롥ΩǤ͡ʥ˥奢ΰ㤤ꡤޤäǤϤʤ
Τ褦˸ؤθŪѤְŪطפظˤϡ¤¿ޤǥΩƤΤǤ롥Ϣơ#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ȡˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ȡ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 48--65.
Kretzschmar ϡʣϤȤƤȤ館Ѳ븦ԤǤ롥ǶʸǡʣϤγǰѤơꥫѸνѼ郎ˤƤȤƤ롥ʸƬ (251) ǡȯäʣϤȤƤȤ館븫üŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . language in use, speech as opposed to linguistic systems as usually described by linguists, satisfies the conditions for complex systems as defined in sciences such as physics, evolutionary biology, and economics . . . .
ʣϤȤߤʤ٤2Ĥħʤ "non-linear distribution" "scaling" ƤȤ (253) "non-linear distribution" ϡŪˤСж (A-curve) ʬۤؤƤ롥ȤƤ˻פ⤫֤Τϡ#1103. GSL ˤ Zipf's law θڡ ([2012-05-04-1]) #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 zipfs_law ΥդǤ롥ιٸ¿ٸˤꡤĹդ롥Kretzschmar ϡ˴ؤ¾θݤǤ⤳Τ褦ʥդȼĥ롥
ָʣϡפ˴ؤ⤦1ĤħǤ "scaling" ϡA-curve Τ褦ʬۤΰۤʤ٥ˤƷ֤ؤƤ롥ꥫˤñ¸ˤĴǡƷ֤ˤĤٽ̤ι⤤¤٤٤ץåȤƤ A-curve Ȥʤ뤬New York ˸¤äƱͤΥդƤ뤷üԤ˸¤äդǤϤƱͤζȤ (255)
դǤꥹ롦եȤȤˤʤСʤ#3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1]) ۵롥Ϣơ#3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1])#3112. ȸѲ (2) ([2017-11-03-1])#3122. ηϤϡ֥ձפˤ ([2017-11-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Kretzschmar (263--64) ʸκǸǡѼΤʣϤιͤͭѤǤȷŤʣϸؤ롥
Complexity science is the model that can cope successfully with the problems of language variation and change that we are interested in solving for the history of American English. Complexity science addresses the emergence of a new American variety, along with its component regional varieties, more adequately than traditional approaches. Complex systems replace the notion of monolithic "language contact" or Fischer's "cultural shift" with interaction between speakers. Complex systems can deal with the extension of existing varieties into new areas, and still account for the evident acquisition of new variants from important cultural groups in different areas. Finally, complex systems can cope with contemporary American cultural change and attendant language change, again without recourse to monolithic thinking. We are just at the beginning of research to understand the operation of the complex system of speech, but it is already clear that it gives us a good way to describe how the process of emergence and change really works.
Τ褦 "monolithic" ʸܿ˴ŤǤϤʤ˴ޤ߹褦ʣϤ줫θѲ٤ƤΤǤϤʤȤ櫓Τ˻ɷŪǤ롥
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. "Complex Systems in the History of American English." Chapter 4 of Developments in English: Expanding Electronic Evidence. Ed. Irma Taavitsainen, Merja Kytö, Claudia Claridge, and Jeremy Smith. Cambridge, 2015. 251--64.
ε#3113. ͤ˥ɤΤ ([2017-11-04-1]) ǡܿɤμҲŪʴطҤˡʸʬƹͤȸڤ®Ѹ˾μפʸܿƤϤƤߤȡ褽Τ褦ʿ롥
ŪͥʸŪƱʸŪͥʸŪͥ ƥ졡 ѡ졡ե졡or ꥷ졡 ѡ졡ťΥɸ졡 ȡѡ졡ѡ졡
ε ([2017-07-16-1]) ˰³ɸ4ơѸФؿܤܳŪƤΤϡ#2993. Ѹؤδؿιޤ ([2017-07-07-1]) ǸȤꡤäƤȤäƤǤϤʤˤ⤳λ˴ؿġθԤϤᤤȤǤϡѸˤ̾1Ĥ路 Strang ⡤ʤ̴ؿäƸѸҤStrang ϡληŪʲѲƤʤŦƱ夬ڻ뤵ƤȤʤ⡤ȤäƸ٤ѲʤȤȤˤϤʤʤƤ롥
Some short histories of English give the impression that changes in pronunciation stopped dead in the 18c, a development which would be quite inexplicable for a language in everyday use. It is true that the sweeping systematic changes we can detect in earlier periods are missing, but the amount of change is no less. Rather, its location has changed: in the past two hundred years changes in pronunciation are predominantly due, not, as in the past, to evolution of the system, but to what, in a very broad sense, we may call the interplay of different varieties, and to the complex analogical relationship between different parts of the language. (78--79)
ʲѲθ줬ѤäȤ⤷ǤϡϤɤ˰ưȤСѼ֤ܿȤҲŪΰǤꡤηʣѤȤΰȤ
Strang ˼ǤʤСǤϡˤѲϡΤ褦ΰ̵äΤ䤤餯̵ȤȤϤʤĤƤƱͤˡѼ֤ߺѤηѤϤ˴ͿƤۤʤΤϡĤƤλθϸѸ⥢ˤʣ⸫ˤȤȤǤϤʤѸϡ٤μҲŪʾ뤳ȤǤƤޤ椨ˡʣ´䤹ȤȤ٤⤤˱줬ΩġȤǤĤޤꡤѲθ줬ѤäȤϡǽ餫餢äˤ⤫餺ˤä줬褯褦ˤʤäƤɽΤ⤷ʤѸˤĤƤϡʤ褯뤳ȤϸޤǤʤ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ͤȥȤ襤9եå粦Ϥ褯路ΤΡϤȤˤʤäڤ Danelaw ȸƤФ졤ʹ߿ˤ錄äξ̱²ξʸűѸȸťΥɸˤ¸礹ȤʤäʴϢϿޤȤơ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ȡˡ
ѸѻƤߤȡξζ¸Ⱥη̤餫˱Ѹ¸ǤꡤťΥɸˤѸִǤϤʤäΤ˸ťΥɸαƶϤ˸뤬 (cf. #1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1])) ̤ȤƤθϡѲѸפǤѲťΥɸפǤϤʤäΤǤ롥
ʤդθ (language_shift) ʤäΤñ Danelaw ˤ̱²οŪ˵ȤǤΤ뤤ϡ¾μҲŪװ˵٤ŪͿ뤳Ȥ1Ĺθ٤פǤ롥Gooden (38--39) ꡤϢʸϤ
In the long run, . . . it was the Old Norse speakers who ceded to the English language. There was still a large proportion of native speakers in Danelaw, and within a few years of King Alfred's death in 899 his son Edward had begun a campaign to restore English rule over the whole country. For most of the tenth century under leaders such as Athelstan --- the first ruler who could justifiably be referred to as the king of all of England --- the Vikings were defeated or kept at bay. Additionally, the fact that Old Norse was an oral rather than written culture would have weakened its chances in the 'battle' with English.
ѤκǸʬ狼褦ˡͤδ֤夷ƤʸʸνŤߡ⤦ġȼʸ¸ߤťΥɸФƱѸĤ餻װ1ĤǤ롤ȤĥθϡͤƤȻפͤƤߤСۤɻ֤γ֤äƤʤ11ȾФΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤƤ⡤ѸϥΥޥե (norman_french) ֤뤳ȤʤäǤפμҲŪװθʤФʤʤȤϸޤǤʤ#1461. William's writ ([2013-04-27-1]) ǻŦ褦ˡ¦ˤ֤ǤĹդäؤΰΥꥹڥȡפäΤǤϤʤʸβ뤫ꤽˤΤäƤԤϡθǤդ̱ͭ²ȸˤϰܤ֤ʤ褦˻פ롥
Gooden, Philip. The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. London: Quercus, 2009.
ε#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸء ([2017-06-18-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡޤοȸθ경ϡʸˡˤɽ㡼Ǥ롥˶ޤοबˤäƼ줿ʸˡǽŶ뤿˸夫礬경뤳ȤˤʤäΤ뤤˸礬경η̡פȤʤäޤ夫षϤΤ⤷ϡ3θˤȡξݤΰ̴طϰŪʤΤǤϤʤ줾줬ƶ礤ʤ饹ѥ˿ʹԤƤäΤȤ⤤롥ޤ˥˥ȥǤ롥
ϲ3θ¤ȻפäƤ뤬ϢȤƤ Allen ⤳ιͤǤ롥Allen ϡ2Ū칽ʸˤ2ĤŪθǤʤ°̾Ȥ˽Ȥΰִط˴ؤѸѲˤĤƤĴƤꡤޤοबθ경ͣװǤϤʤȤƳǧƤ롥Allen (220) ۩
The two case studies [= the fixing of the order of two nominal NP/DP objects and the genitives] examined here do not support the view that the fixing of word order in English was driven solely by the loss of case inflections or the assumption that at every stage of English, there was a simple correlation between less inflection and more fixed word order. This is not to say that deflexion did not play an important role in the disappearance of some previously possible word orders. It is reasonable to suggest that although it may have been pragmatic considerations which gave the initial impetus to making certain word orders more dominant than others, deflexion played a role in making these orders increasingly dominant. It seems likely that the two developments worked hand in hand; more fixed word order allowed for less overt case marking, which in turn increased the reliance on word order.
ΰ̴طֶޤοࢪθ경פäȤǽꤳƤʤդΡָθ경ޤοפΰ̴ط椫ƤɤΤȤξݤ˼äƿʹԤȹͤΤǤȷƤ롥ޤξԤδطפƤۤñʴطǤϤʤȤϡѸˤƤʤ˶ޤλĤäƤʤɤǤ⡤űѸθ礬Τޤ¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդ˶ޤषƤƤűѸŪʸ礬¸Ƥ㤬뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
ε#2973. ʤ٤κ ([2017-06-17-1]) ˰³Allen ͤ
2Ū칽ʸֻ to Ѥ빽ʸ֤äƤΤϡѸǤ롥űѸԤ⸫줿ǽưμब¤ʤɤħäѸˤʤȡ٤ƤФ꤫ư¤ʧ褦ˤʤ롥ߥȤƤϳʶޤολȽŤʤꡤ̴طʤ뤬Allen ϡطȤϤʤ⿵ŤʵŸƤ롥ΥƥȤˤƤϡǤʬŪʹʸ夷Ƥեαƶ餢뤳Ȥ⼨ƤꡤñʡʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤФԤäƤ롥Allen (214) Ѥ롥
It can be noted . . . that we do not require deflexion as an explanation for the rapid increase in to-datives in ME. The influence of French, in which the marking of the IO by a preposition was already well advanced, appears to be the best way to explain such text-specific facts as the surprisingly high incidence of to-datives in the Aȝenbite of Inwit. . . . [T]he dative/accusative distinction was well preserved in the Aȝenbite, which might lead us to expect that the to-dative would be infrequent because it was not needed to mark Case, but in fact we find that this work has a significantly higher frequency of this construction than do many texts in which the dative/accusative distinction has disappeared in overt morphology. The puzzle is explained, however, when we realize that the Aȝenbite was a rather slavish translation from French and shows some unmistakable signs of the influence of its French exemplar in its syntax. It is, of course, uncertain how important French influence was in the spoken language, but contact with French would surely have encouraged the use of the to-dative. It should also be remembered that an innovation such as the to-dative typically follows an S-curve, starting slowly and then rapidly increasing, so that no sudden change in another part of the grammar is required to explain the sudden increase of the to-dative.
Allen ϶ޤοȤݤ deflexion ɽƤ뤬ϤդȤƤʤ⡤νѸȤäȤʤäѸ1ĵȤͯΤϡѤκǸΤȤǡto-dative ؤΰܹԤˤĤƸóȻSȤȤڤƤ뤬δŪ˵Ҥ줿ϤΤȤȤޤοȸθ경ȤѸʸˡ˾礭⡤ޤޤ겼褦ꤽ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
εǡĸϤۤ¿ʤȤ̣ΤϡŪʬۤФȤǤ롥衼åѡեꥫʿΤ˴ĸ줬¿εǤϡܤʸȤĤġŪкߤ˾Ƥ
Ѹˤ봧ȯãϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡؼ줫θŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) η̤Ƥ롥¾θǤƱͤŪȯãȤƤȤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥ҤΤ褦ŪʤޤȤޤ꤬뤳Ȥ顤 (139) ϡŪ˸Ϣȯã䤹Ȥ¦̤褦˻פפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤĹˤ錄ܿˤ (linguistic_area) ιͤطʤˤ롥
Ƕͭβǽϡȯͼ칽¤˻ޤܸ͡⤽βǽ1ĤǤ롥εǤ줿褦ˡưƬĸˤФи뤬θνΤʤǤ1ۤɤߤ줺ʬۤϤФäƤΤǤ롥㤨С٥ȸɡإ֥졤ӥ졤ȥͥʤɤưƬĴĸ췲Ǥ롥
Ǥϡ2ĤθŪħ˲餫ϤΤ (139) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
ֽŵŪ˸褦ˡ̤ˡʸƬȤΤϡФܤʤξᡤˤƺǤŪʰ֤ȹͤ롥ưƬξϡΰ֤̾ŪǤǤʤư줬ơ̾ꡦɽΤʸƬ֤Ѥˡ̾ŪǤ˴դꡦζɬŪ⤯ʤäƤȹͤ롥
ȴϢơưƬĸʤ餺Ȥ⡤礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡܡɾΡ۷פȡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡּ졽Ρּ۷פȤŪʶ̤ͤʤСԤǤξܤˤɽ蘆ΤǡΤ褦ʡʳ̤ɸμʤפǤ뤬ԤǤϴΤ褦Ūʼʤᤵ䤹Ȥ⤢ꤽɾȡѸϳΤ (1) ۷Ǥꡤ(2) ĸǤ뤫顤ȤȤ褤Ȥˤʤ롥
ǽҤ٤ƤȤϡĸŪưŤǤ⤢ꡤĸȤͤ˴Ť쳰ŪưŤǤ⤢롥ʬۤϡ餯θ⳰װߤ߹äơ٤ФΤ
ָˤȤäƴȤϲסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ136--41ǡ2003ǯ10Ͽ
ļ̦رѸȤɤκɤδ֡ɤǿʹԤƤɸ줫Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ʿפʸΤǡܺ٤Ƥ롥եɥ̤ƹ̱οˤޤ⤦ȤĴ١ɱѸθŪʬϡܿ˴ؤŪʹܸ⤦ƤȴʤȤηپʤɡɤߤɤ¿奢ɤθˤĤơΤ褦˰̸ɤߤ䤹줿ܤФȤϴޤ٤Ǥ롥
ԤϡɤˤؤȤʼҲ˸ŪʸԤʤäơŻǤϤʤüԽŻ٤Ȥ뤳ȤƤ롥
錄ϸΤޤޤʸݤȤȤ˹ͤȤޤѼԡʤüԤ濴֤ȤФᤰ뤵ޤޤʸݡʤȤСܿѲѡɡåˤϤ٤üԤβߤΤȤˤ롥Τ褦ʤȤϤޤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤ٤Τ褦ʸƤ줿ɼԤϡʳθŤ餤⤷ʤºݤƤƤʬӹͻˤƤϡޤޤװΤȤ˸ѤˤüԡפξݤơܼʳŪ˲褦ȤߤΤΤȤۤƤطʤ⤢롥ġp. 55
ѤˤȤꡤؤɮƬȤ˴ؤǤϡüԤμξݡפӻǤ롥Ȥ櫓üԤŻ뤹ϤʬǤҲؤǤ顤ʤǤ֤ˡĤΤޤˤüԤδ餬ʤʤäƤ뤳ȤФФǤ롥
üԡʵڤӥߥ˥˴ؤ뤽¾ο͡ˤʤи줿ꤨʤȤ¤ƳǧȤüԤξݤؤչԤͤޤȤưפǤ롥ؤüԤߤȤɬפʤΤΤȤϡܥ֥Ǥ⼡εʤɤǷ֤Ƥ
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])
#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])
#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1])
ȤϤϰפǤ롥δȤΤϤޤΤǡȴȡüԤδθʤؤäƤޤηϤΤΤΩӤؤΤ٤ƤȤ櫓Ǥʤηϡˤüԡʽġˤͻ硦Ĵ¤ָ (invisible_hand) Τ褦ʸѲܤƤƤʡ#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ȡˡؤȤƤ⡤ηϡˤüԡʽġˤδطˤĤƺ٤äͤƤߤƤ褦˻פ롥
̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ
[2016-10-01-1], [2016-10-11-1], [2016-10-31-1]³4ơޤǤεǡ15ޤǤˡChaucer ʤɤɽ볬λ¹äƤȹͤ첻η (System I)ɤǹԤʤƤη (System II)East Anglia ʤɤˤߤη (System III) 3बɥˤƺäƤSystem II System III üԤϡAlexander Gil ˤơ "Mopsae" "Easterners" ȸƤФƤ롥
ηϤ1650ǯޤǤȼȯŸ뤲ɤǤϤȤ櫓Ťΰҿ System I ȡΤ System II 2郎Ԥʤ褦ˤʤäƤ
System I:
ME /eː/ > EModE /iː/, e.g. meed
ME /ɛː/ > EModE /eː/, e.g. mead
ME /aː/, /ai/ > EModE /ɛː/, e.g. made, maid
System II:
ME /eː/ > EModE /i:/, e.g. meed
ME /ɛː/, /aː/, /ai/ > EModE /eː/, e.g. mead, made, maid
Ȥ18ˤʤȡޤ̤2ηϤ礹褦ˤʤäƤ1ĤϡSystem I ɤȴưҿΤ褦ʰ֤ŤȤ¸³Ƥ System II Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤϤŤǹԤʤƤ System III Ǥ롥System III ϡ[2016-10-31-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡɥǤ System I Ȥ̤ܿưʲΤ褦Ѳ뤲Ƥ
System III:
ME /eː/, /ɛː/ > ModE /iː/, e.g. meed, mead
ME /aː, aɪ/ > ModE /eː/, e.g. made, maid
System III ϸŤηϤǤϤ뤬18ޤǤưҿϤƤꡤ̣ǿηϤǤ⤢äơθ塤 System III ޤޤͥȤʤꡤˤޤ³Ū RP δפȤʤäƤäSystem III ͥȤʤäΤϡSystem II ٤Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) εʤޤȤŪʥåȤˤϤäSmith (110) ϡSystem III II ǻܿϥɥƤۤˤʤˤ⡤װȤƤ롥
. . . System III's success in London is not solely due to intralinguistic functional reasons but also to extralinguistic social factors peculiar to the capital. System II and System III could only come into contact in a major urban centre, such as London; in more rural areas, the opportunity for the two systems to compete would have been much rarer and thus it would have been (and is) possible for the older System II to have been retained longer. The coexistence of System II and System III in one place, London, meant that it was possible for Londoners to choose between them.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
#2714. 첻ܤμҲŪͻ ([2016-10-01-1])#2724. 첻ܤμҲŪͻ (2) ([2016-10-11-1]) ³3ơ2Ƥε ([2016-10-11-1]) ǡSystem II 첻ηϤäƤȤ¿üԤҤ System I ΤۤزŬ (hyperadaptation) Ȥ첻 (gvs) ΰȤʤäȤҲ𤷤Smith (106--07) ˤȡ⤦1 GVS ΰȤʤä첻ηϤäüԽĤȤϡ"Easterners" ȸƤФ롤餯 East Anglia пȤο͡Ǥ롥
East Anglia Ǥϡ14Ⱦ15ˤƥɥǿʹԤϤ첻ܤܤäƤطʤȤơűѸ Saxon ǣ Ф Anglia Ǥ ē äƤȡ/d, t, n, s, l, r/ ֤Ǿ夲 (raising) ФƤȤʤɤäοܤη̤ȤơEast Anglia 첻ηϤϡ3ʳι⤵5ĤĹ첻 /iː, uː, eː, oː, aː/ ȤʤäƤ
ơ Easterners 15ȾȾФˤԻԲοʤɥذܽɥѸ졤ä˸Ҥ System I üԤܿȤˡ⤦1ĤβŬ줿3ʳ East Anglia ηϤ˺٤ʳʬ줿 System I ܿȤԤϸԤΰҿĴ˰ơΤȤĴ֤Ĵ뤳ȤˤʤäŪˤϡEasterners System I [æː] ʬ /eː/ γФƸԤȤȯƱͤ [eː̝] /iː/ γФơΤ褦ȯ3ʳ⤿ʤ Easterners ˤȤäơѸ /eː/ ĸ /ɛː/ ĸζ̤ϤĤʤäΤǡɤ /iː/ ȤγФ졤ȯ뤳Ȥˤʤä褽ƱȤ첻ˤⵯä
System III Ȥ٤ Easterners Τ첻ηϤϡ¤ϡ18ޤǤϤư̲ɸѸ meed, mead, maid, made ʤɤ˸Ϣ첻Ρԡ˶̤߽ФΤȤʤäǤ⡤Ѹ첻˾塤礭ôä첻ηϤäȤ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
#2714. 첻ܤμҲŪͻ ([2016-10-01-1]) ˰³첻 (gvs) ȤβҲŪʴ褦ȤߤˤĤƹͤ롥εǤ1ĤθŪ˾Ҳ𤷤٤äȤˤäꤵ첻ʬۤطѸѼϼ㴳ۤʤäƤ롥ϡSmith (101--06) ˽äơ⤦1ĤμҲŪƤߤ褦
Smith ϡChaucer λޤǤ˥ɥǤ2Ĥΰۤʤ첻ηϤ¸ƤȲꤷƤSmith (102) βޤȡˡSystem I ϡChaucer ɽس°͡ΤäƤηϤǤꡤ5ʳʣҲŪʰҿäƤȹͤ롥* դ줿Ĺ첻ϡбû첻Ѹ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ФƼ㴳֤ʤĹǤ롥System II ϡʳ¿ΥüԤäƤηϤǤꡤ4ʳäꤵƤ롥
| System I | System II | |||||||||||||||||
| iː | > | ɪi | uː | > | ʊu | iː | > | əɪ | uː | > | əʊ | |||||||
| eː | > | eː̝ | oː | > | oː̝ | eː | > | iː | oː | > | uː | |||||||
| ɛː̝* | ɔː̝* | ɛː | > | eː | ɔː | > | oː | |||||||||||
| ɛː | ɔː | aː* | > | ɛː, eː | ||||||||||||||
| aː* | > | æː | ||||||||||||||||
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