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contact - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2014-05-14 Wed

#1843. conservative radicalism [language_change][personal_pronoun][contact][homonymic_clash][homonymy][conjunction][demonstrative][me_dialect][wave_theory][systemic_regulation][causation][functionalism][she]

#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ϡޤϤäƲƤʤѸˤǤ롥QŪˤϡҲŪƶϤΤ London 濴Ȥ륤󥰥ѲȯϤȤʤꡤʤɼդŤƤϤѸǤϤषդθबعߤƤȤ㤬¿
ФơMillar Samuels ήεǽŪΩ줫顤"conservative radicalism" ȤͿƤ롥ȤƼ夲ƤѲϡ3;ʣ̾ they ˤűѸ hīe ִȡͤȲꤵƤ롤³ though ˤ þeah ִӻؼ those ˤ tho ִ

   The issue with ambiguity between the third person singular and plural forms was also sorted through the borrowing of Northern usage, although on this occasion through what had been an actual Norse borrowing (although it would be very unlikely that southern speakers would have been aware of the new form's provenance --- if they cared): they. Interestingly, the subject form came south earlier than the oblique them and possessive their. Chaucer, for instance, uses the first but not the other two, where he retains native <h> forms. This type of usage represents what I have termed conservative radicalism (Millar 2000; in particular pp. 63--4). Northern forms are employed to sort out issues in more prestigious dialects, but only in 'small homeopathic doses'. The problem (if that is the right word) is that the injection of linguistically radical material into a more conservative framework tends to encourage more radical importations. Thus them and their(s) entered written London dialect (and therefore Standard English) in the generation after Chaucer's death, possibly because hem was too close to him and hare to her. If the 'northern' forms had not been available, everyone would probably have 'soldiered on', however.
   Moreover, the borrowing of they meant that the descendant of Old English þeah 'although' was often its homophone. Since both of these are function words, native speakers must have felt uncomfortable with using both, meaning that the northern (in origin Norse) conjunction though was brought into southern systems. This borrowing led to a further ambiguity, since the plural of that in southern England was tho, which was now often homophonous with though. A new plural --- those --- was therefore created. Samuels (1989a) demonstrates these problems can be traced back to northern England and were spread by 'capillary motion' to more southern areas. These changes are part of a much larger set, all of which suggest that northern influence, particularly at a subconscious or covert level, was always present on the edges of more southerly dialects and may have assumed a role as a 'fix' to sort out ambiguity created by change.


Millar Conservative radicalism ̾ΤȤDz⤷ƤηϤ˼ޤƤᥫ˥ϡƵǽŪȤ뤬Υᥫ˥बѤȤơܿ (dialect contact) ȽѰ۷ (variants) ζ¸äȤפǤ롥ܿ (contact) η̤ȤƷ֤Ѱ (variation) εޤ졤ηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ˤꡤ֤Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ѳ3 contact, variation, systemic regulation ФäƤ롥Millar conservative radicalism Ȥͤϡ츫ԲĻ׵ĤؤθѲŤȤˡӤŪͿƤ褦˻פ롥
they though Ѳ˴ؤ̤ȤƤϡ#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]) ȡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ([2011-04-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ʤMillar (119--20) ϡ3;νñ̾ she ˤűѸ hēo ִˤ conservative radicalism Ʊ褦ŬѤǤȹͤƤ褦she ˤĤƤϡ#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1]), #793. she --- 奤󥰥ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲([2011-12-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.

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2014-04-16 Wed

#1815. ̾ one ˡϥե󥹸αƶ [french][borrowing][personal_pronoun][numeral][contact][french_influence_on_grammar]

ե󥹸ϱѸθäֻˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʸˡ˵ڤܤľܤαƶϤۤȤɤʤȤ롥#1208. ե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) 褦ˡŪʱƶȤȤǤС#1171. ե󥹸Ȥθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) Ǽ夲Ϥ˵ͤ뤬֤ؤΥե󥹸αƶϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤ʤ1ĤȤơ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡѸ;ư줪;ιʸäϥե󥹸äƤ뤳ȤŦ뤬줯餤ΤΤ
⤦1ġȤ˥ե󥹸줫ʸˡŪʱƶȤƻŦܤ롥One should always listen to what other people say. Τ褦Ѥ롤̾ one Ǥ롥줬бե󥹸̾ on (< L homo) μѤǤϤʤȤǶǤϡMillar (126) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥

What is noteworthy about these large-scale French-induced changes is that they are dependent upon the massive lexical borrowing. Other structural changes not connected to this are limited (and also contested), such as the origin of the Modern English impersonal pronoun one in the ancestor of Modern French on.


OED one, adj., n., and pron. ˤȡե󥹸ƶɬǤϤʤ⤷ʤݤƤ롥

The use as an indefinite generic pronoun (sense C. 17), which replaced ME pron.2, MEN pron. in late Middle English, may have been influenced by Anglo-Norman hom, on, un, Old French, Middle French on (12th cent.; mid 9th cent. in form om ; French on; ultimately < classical Latin homō: see HOMO n.1), though this is not regarded as a necessary influence by some scholars.


C. 17 ˵󤲤ƤϡMED ōn (pron) θ2νäΤǤ롥

a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) 1023 (MED), Of an [a1400 Gött. ane; a1400 Trin. Cambr. oon] qua siþen ete at þe last, he suld in eild be ai stedfast.


Mustanoja (223--24) Ѹˤ one ΤˡȯˤĤơޤȤޤäŸƤ롥Ĺ٤ưѤ褦

   'ONE.' --- The origin of the one used for the indefinite person has been the subject of some scholarly dispute. Some grammarians believe that it developed from the indefinite one (originally a numeral . . .) meaning 'a person,' just as man expressing the indefinite person developed from man meaning 'a human being.' It has also been suggested that the one used for the indefinite person is in reality French on (from Latin homo), though influenced by the native indefinite one. This view, first expressed by R. G. Latham (The English Language, Vol. II, London 1855), has been more recently advocated by G. L. Trager and H. Marchand . . . . The case of those who maintain that one is a direct loan from French is, however, somewhat weakened by the fact that in the two earliest known instances of this use one occurs as an object of the verb and as an attributive genitive ('possessive dative'); one of these is doo thus fro be to be; thus wol thai lede oon to thaire dwelliyng place (Pall. Husb. v 181). The earliest examples of one as an indefinite subject are recorded in works of the late 15th century: --- he herde a man say that one was surer in keping his tunge than in moche speking, for in moche langage one may lightly erre (Earl Rivers Dicts 57); --- every chambre was walled and closed rounde aboute, and yet myghte one goo from one to another (Caxton En. 117). It is not until the second half of the 16th century that the use of one in this sense becomes common.
   From all we know about the first appearance and the subsequent development of one expressing the indefinite person it seems that this use arose as a synthesis of native one and French on. This view is further supported by the fact that in Anglo-Norman the spelling un is used not only for the numeral un but also for the indefinite person, as in the proverb un vout pendre par compaignie.

    
    ɸϡޤ夬ĤƤʤ
    
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2014-03-13 Thu

#1781. ܿ෿ [contact][old_norse][sociolinguistics][typology]

ε#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) Ⱥε#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ǡThomason and Kaufman ˵äơܿˤĤƤΰۤʤ෿򼨤Ԥΰ Thomason ñȤ Language Contact ˤƤ⡤褽Ʊ֤Ƥ뤬ˤϤŪʸܿ˴ؤ륿ݥ󼨤ƤΤǼƤThomason ϸܿˤѲη "contact-induced language change" ȸƤǤ뤬(1) ͽ¬ɸ (predictors) (2) 줬˵ڤܤ¤Ūʱƶ (effects)(3) Υᥫ˥ (mechanisms) Ƥ (60) "contact-induced language change" ʳθܿ2Ĥη "extreme language mixture" "language death" ΥݥȤȤˡʲ˼

LANGUAGE CONTACT TYPOLOGIES: LINGUISTIC RESULTS AND PROCESSES

1. Contact-induced language change
    A typology of predictors of kinds and degrees of change
        Social factors
            Intensity of contact
            Presence vs absence of imperfect learning
            Speakers' attitudes
        Linguistic factors
            Universal markedness
            Degree to which features are integrated into the linguistic system
            Typological distance between source and recipient languages
    A typology of effects on the recipient-language structure
        Loss of features
        Addition of features
        Replacement of features
    A typology of mechanisms of contact-induced change
        Code-switching
        Code alternation
        Passive familiarity
        'Negotiation'
        Second-language acquisition strategies
        First-language acquisition effects
        Deliberate decision

2. Extreme language mixture: a typology of contact languages
    Pidgins
    Creoles
    Bilingual mixed languages

3. A typology of routes to language death
    Attrition, the loss of linguistic material
    Grammatical replacement
    No loss of structure, not much borrowing


predictors ϡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ǵ󤲤ΤȤ˳ĥΤǤ롥effects γƹϡबȹͤŪʲǽ󤵤ƤȹͤФ褤mechanisms ȤϡѲƤ븽ˤơüԡʽġˤ˵äƤ뤳ȡ̣ǤοŪȿ󤷤ΤǤ롥
¤ˤϤۤɤ줤෿˼ޤʤܿ˴ؤ礭ʸޤȤƤϻͤˤʤ

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.

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2014-03-12 Wed

#1780. ܿȼѤμ [contact][borrowing][sociolinguistics][loan_word][typology][japanese]

2֤θܿˤƤϡ뤤˸μѤ롥θܿȼѤζ٤ϡθäѤ٤ξʤΤ顤ʸˡƤʤɤι¤ŪǤѤ٤礭Τޤ͡ꤦ뤬źθܿλ㤫顤μ٤෿뤳Ȥϲǽ
ˤĤƤϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1]) ۤʬŪ˸ڤƤε#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ǰѤ Thomason and Kaufman (74--76) ˤѼ ("BORROWING SCALE") ߤΤȤǤܳŪʤΤԤϸܿ礭 borrowing shift-induced interference ʬƤ뤬Ǥμ٤ϤޤԤ˴ؤΤǤ롥5ʳ˶̤줿٥Ѥ롥

(1) Casual contact: lexical borrowing only
    Lexicon:
        Content words. For cultural and functional (rather than typological) reasons, non-basic vocabulary will be borrowed before basic vocabulary.

(2) Slightly more intense contact: slight structural borrowing
    Lexicon:
        Function words: conjunctions and various adverbial particles.
    Structure:
        Minor phonological, syntactic, and lexical semantic features. Phonological borrowing here is likely to be confined to the appearance of new phonemes with new phones, but only in loanwords. Syntactic features borrowed at this stage will probably be restricted to new functions (or functional restrictions) and new orderings that cause little or no typological disruption.

(3) More intense contact: slightly more structural borrowing
    Lexicon:
        Function words: adpositions (prepositions and postpositions). At this stage derivational affixes may be abstracted from borrowed words and added to native vocabulary; inflectional affixes may enter the borrowing language attached to, and will remain confined to, borrowed vocabulary items. Personal and demonstrative pronouns and low numerals, which belong to the basic vocabulary, are more likely to be borrowed at this stage than in more casual contact situations.
    Structure:
        Slightly less minor structural features than in category (2). In phonology, borrowing will probably include the phonemicization, even in native vocabulary, of previously allophonic alternations. This is especially true of those that exploit distinctive features already present in the borrowing language, and also easily borrowed prosodic and syllable-structure features, such as stress rules and the addition of syllable-final consonants (in loanwords only). In syntax, a complete change from, say, SOV to SVO syntax will not occur here, but a few aspects of such a switch may be found, as, for example, borrowed postpositions in an otherwise prepositional language (or vice versa).

(4) Strong cultural pressure: moderate structural borrowing
    Structure:
        Major structural features that cause relatively little typological change. Phonological borrowing at this stage includes introduction of new distinctive features in contrastive sets that are represented in native vocabulary, and perhaps loss of some contrasts; new syllable structure constraints, also in native vocabulary; and a few natural allophonic and automatic morphophonemic rules, such as palatalization or final obstruent devoicing. Fairly extensive word order changes will occur at this stage, as will other syntactic changes that cause little categorial alteration. In morphology, borrowed inflectional affixes and categories (e.g., new cases) will be added to native words, especially if there is a good typological fit in both category and ordering.

(5) Very strong cultural pressure: heavy structural borrowing
    Structure:
        Major structural features that cause significant typological disruption: added morphophonemic rules; phonetic changes (i.e., subphonemic changes in habits of articulation, including allophonic alternations); loss of phonemic contrasts and of morphophonemic rules; changes in word structure rules (e.g., adding prefixes in a language that was exclusively suf-fixing or a change from flexional toward agglutinative morphology); categorial as well as more extensive ordering changes in morphosyntax (e.g., development of ergative morphosyntax); and added concord rules, including bound pronominal elements.


Ѹ˾μפʸܿλƤϤȡűѸˤ륱ȸ졤űѸʹߤΥƥȤܿϥ٥1١ѸʹߤΥե󥹸Ȥܿϥ٥2١űѸθťΥɸȤܿϤ٥3٤Ǥ롥ѸŪ˸ܿ¿Ѥ줿ˤդƤȤŪʱѸʻˡ˴Ѥϡ켫ΤȤƸäƤ櫓ǤϤʤThomason and Kaufman ΥǤСȤϤʤˤϤäȷ㤷ܿФƤ줬¿¸ߤΤȤȤˤʤ롥̸Ū෿̸ߤ븫򤬤ѤƤߤƤ빥ǤϤʤ
ܸˤĤƤ⡤˻˸ꤹʴˤνפʱƶäΤΡBORROWING SCALE ǤСϤ٤˻ޤн줫ν٤ܿä⤷ʤˤäƤ borrowing Ȥ̼θܿǤꡤ嵭ΥδɳˤȤߤʤ shift-induced interference ͿƤǽ⤢롥

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

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2014-03-11 Tue

#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ [contact][old_norse][sociolinguistics][typology]

ε#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) ǡThomason and Kaufman ̾˿줿 Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) ϡǯܿ (contact linguistics) 礭ʱƶڤܤǤ롥θ줫¿λ˴Ťܿ෿󼨤θθνפʥե󥹤ȤʤäƤ롥ѸˤȤδϢǤϡä˱ѸȸťΥɸȤܿ (Norsification) ˤĤλ䤭ĤġǤäťΥɸαѸؤοʱƶȤŪʤťΥɸαѸؤαƶϤФиƤۤǻǤϤʤܿˤѤζ٤ɽ魯5ʳΥ٥ΤΥ٥2?3˲᤮ʤȷŤΤƤεɤȤˡQʤơܤڤפ򤷤Ȥ򵭲Ƥ롥˴ؤƤ Thomason and Kaufman ζŪʽ긫ϡ#1182. ťΥɸȤθܿϤǤϤʤ ([2012-07-22-1]) ǰѤ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤϤThomason and Kaufman ؤȽ⾯ʤʤȤդäƤ
Thomason and Kaufman ϡܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸȤơʲΤ褦ʼҲŪʹܤȸŪʹܤǧƤ롥

(1) (sociolinguistic) intensity of contact (46)
a) "long-term contact with widespread bilingualism among borrowing-language speakers" (67);
b) "A high level of bilingualism" (67);
c) consideration of population (72);
d) "sociopolitical dominance" and/or "other social settings" (72)
(2) (linguistic) markedness (49, 212--13)
(3) (linguistic) typological distance (49, 212--13)

Thomason and Kaufman ϡŪˤ (1) μҲŪʻɸŪ˽פǤ⤹롥ŪɸǤ (2), (3) ͿΤϡ촳Ĥ٤Ū㤤 ("light to moderate structural interference" (54)) ǤꡤŪˤϱƤȡ

. . . it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact. Purely linguistic considerations are relevant but strictly secondary overall. (35)


ξǡThomason and Kaufman ϡ(3) 2֤෿ŪʵΥˤĤƼΤ褦ʾQŪʸ򼨤Ƥ롥

The more internal structure a grammatical subsystem has, the more intricately interconnected its categories will be . . . ; therefore, the less likely its elements will be to match closely, in the typological sense, the categories and combinations of a functionally analogous subsystem in another language. Conversely, less highly structured subsystems will have relatively independent elements, and the likelihood of a close typological fit with corresponding elements in another language will be greater. (72--73)


Thomason and Kaufman ϡ¾λɸȤüԡʽġˤμҲŪ "attitudinal factors" ˤ⤿ӤӸڤǤ뤬äͽ¬Τ񤷤ɸǤ뤳Ȥ顤礿ˤȤ߹Ǥʤºݤˤϡ "attitudinal factors" ܿˤϺǤͿŪʤΤԤ褯褯ŤƤ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤ

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

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2014-01-08 Wed

#1717. dual-source κ [pidgin][creole][creoloid][contact]

2Ĥθ줬Ȥˤϡ¿Υԥ䥯쥪줬Ǥ褦ˡ줫θι׸Ψ˹⤯ʤ롥ظ (superstrate) ö (lexifier) ȤѸ졤뤤ϱѸ١ΥԥȤɽ褦ˡ̾Ϥθ줬Ǥ뤫餫Ǥ롥ޤʥǤϡۤȾ˺äơɤ餬礿줬ȽȤʤ "dual-source" Ȥ٤줬롥#1683. Pitkern ([2013-12-05-1]) ϡˤޤ dual-source creole ȤƵ󤲤ۤˡdual-source pidgin dual-source creoloid ȤߤʤȤΤǤ줬¸ߤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 182--83)
1917ǯޤǥΥ륦ǸפθȤäƤ Russenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin ȹͤ롥Russenorsk ϥȥΥ륦θǤۤȾ˺ǡñ㲽ηϤͭƤθϡ1917ǯ˥̿ˤäξθפǤѤƤäȥΥ륦üԤΤߤʤ餺߸졤եɸ졤졤ɥĸ졤ѸüԤˤѤ졤lingua franca ȤƵǽƤRussenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin Ǥ뤳Ȥ˲ä̱ϤȤǤϤʤפΤȯã衼åѸɤΥԥȤƤͭ¸ߤǤ롥Russenorsk ϡ㤨мΤ褦Ѥ줿 (Trudgill, Glossary 114)

Kak ju vil skaffom ja drikke te, davaj på sjib tvoja ligge ne jes på slipom.
'If you will eat and drink tea, please on ship your lie down and on sleep'


ʥ˵ߤǤϥꥫ North Dakota ΰϰäƤ Michif (or Metsif or Métis) ϡdual-source creoloid Ǥcreoloid ˤĤƤϡ#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡȤȤʤä2Ĥθϡե󥹸轻̱ Algonquian ²θ Cree Ǥ롥ե󥹸 "mixed" Michif ̾ϡ19˥ʥפ̤ƥե󥹸ä Cree äȤ줷̱²̾ˤʤäƤꡤϢˮܤˤް񹳤ˤФƤMichif ϸŪˤϤۤñ㲽Ƥ餺̾ϥե󥹸ħǤΰפ򼨤ư Cree ʣʷħݻƤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 183--84) üԿʤ¸³֤ޤƤ轻̱1ĤǤ롥
Michif Ʊͤ2줬ͻ礷Ƥ븽ݤ language intertwining ȸƤФ졤˵¾ˤ Copper Island Aleut ȸƤФ줬⤦1ĤȤ (Trudgill, Glossary 28) ϡEskimo-Aleut ² Aleut ȥκǡüԤ2,000ͤۤɤȤ롥ä̾η Aleut ͳ褹뤬ưηǤȤ intertwining ֤򼨤

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2013-12-05 Thu

#1683. Pitkern [creole][contact][history][lesser-know_varieties]

󥰥ɤιҳΡõȤ William Bligh (1754--1817) ϡJames Cook (1728--79) ΤκǽҳˤդääɽΥץơбļԤꡤѤοȤƤΥѥΥݤˡõ褦졤1787ǯ12Bligh ϳβʳĴХƥ (HMS Bounty) ĹȤ Tahiti ؤιҳ˽Фλشŷδ¿κ1788ǯ10 Tahiti 夷ںߤθ塤1789ǯ44˥󥰥ɤؤεϩˤĤ̵ǽʢΩƤ뤳Ȥ¿ä Bligh ФơĹǯαӤǤäҳ Fletcher Christian (1764--c1790) 4289֤ͤȤȤȿ򵯤Τ "Mutiny on the Bounty" Ǥ롥Bligh 18ͤϥܡȤdzή줿Bligh Զǯ󥰥ɤˤɤĤХƥ˻Ĥä Christian ԤϡTahiti 뤬θ帽Ϥ˽̾ϢơTahiti 2000ʾΥ줿 Pitcairn Island ؤɤ夭Ƥʧäƾʿ̱ϤΩθ20ǯξܺ٤1808ǯꥫˤäλ¹ӤƤ뤳Ȥȯ줿
Pitcairn ϤλΩ1767ǯ˱ѹˤäȯƤ̵ͤäͤ߻Ϥ᤿ΤϤλ郎äǤꡤߡ̱ΤۤȤɤȿԤפǤ롥Pitcairn ϡ19ˤϥꥫȥȥꥢδ֤ߴϤȤƵǽ1856ǯ˿͸ä٤̱ΰߤΥȥꥢ Norfolk Island ذܽ
ߤ⡤ Pitcairn ȹ Norfolk Island ǤϡȿȤθηаޤ creole Ǥ Pitkern äƤ롥Ѹȥҥ줬򤸤äǤ롥ɤθ줬פǤ뤫ʬʤۤɤκ֤Ǥꡤ"dual-source creole" ȸ롥Norfolk Island ˤ creole ϡѸαƶ post-creole Ƥ롥Trudgill (183) εҤѤ褦

Pitcairnese, the language of the remote Pacific Ocean island Pitcairn, is a dual-source creole which is the sole native language of the small community there. The Pitcairnese are for the most part descendants of the British sailors who carried out the famous mutiny on the Bounty and Tahitian men and women who went with them to hide on Pitcairn from the British Royal Navy. Their language is a mixed and simplified form of English and Tahitian (a Polynesian language) . . . . Pitcairnese also has speakers on Norfolk Island, in the Western Pacific, who are descended from people who resettled there from Pitcairn. On Norfolk Island, the language is in close contact with Australian English, and is consequently decreolizing (in the direction of English, not Tahitian). We can therefore describe it as a dual-source post-creole.


ξϰξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡCIA: The World Factbook Pitcairn Islands Norfolk Island 򻲾ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-08-1]

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2013-12-03 Tue

#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" [creole][pidgin][me][old_norse][contact][terminology][creoloid]

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ᥯쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) ơ⤦κ󼨤ľܤȤϡ2κȤȥԥ (pidginisation) ȤȤɤΤ褦˶̤뤫Ȥͻ
Ϣ³줺"the drastic break" (Görlach 341) ȽǤˤϥԥ󲽤ȤäƤ褤ȹͤ뤬Trudgill (181--82) Afrikaans 夲ƱݤεŸƤ롥

Interestingly, there are some languages in the world which look like post-creoles, but which are not. These are varieties which, compared to some source, show a certain degree of simplification and admixture. We do not, however, call these languages creoles, because the extent of the simplification and admixture is not very great. And we do not call them post-creoles because they have never been creoles --- which is in turn because they have never been pidgins! Afrikaans, the other major language of the white community in South Africa alongside English, used to be considered a dialect of Dutch . . . . During the course of the twentieth century, however, it achieved autonomy . . . and now has its own literature, dictionaries, grammar books, and so on. Compared to Dutch, Afrikaans shows significant amounts of regularization in the grammar, and a significant amount of admixture from Malay, Portuguese and other languages. It still remains mutually intelligible with Dutch, however. The crucial feature of Afrikaans is that, although it is now spoken by some South Africans who are the descendants of people who spoke it as a non-native language --- hence the influence from Portuguese, Malay and so on --- and who undoubtedly therefore spoke a pidginized form of Dutch/Afrikaans, the language was at no time a pidgin. In the transition from Dutch to Afrikaans, the native-speaker tradition was maintained throughout. The language was passed down from one generation of native speakers to another; it was used for all social functions and was therefore never subjected to reduction. Such a language, which demonstrates a certain amount of simplification and admixture, relative to some source language, but which has never been a pidgin or a creole in the sense that it has always had speakers who spoke a variety which was not subject to reduction, we can call a creoloid.


ɸ४٤СAfrikaans ˤϳΤñ㲽䵬§ߤ롥ޤޥ졼졤ݥȥʤɤܤѤߤ롥Ȥä pidgin Ȥ creole ȤƤ֤櫓ˤϤʤȤΤϡAfrikaans ˤϴְ㤤ʤŪϢ³뤫üԤϡñ㲽ܿиʤ⡤ڤ뤳ȤʤθѼѤƤܿȹ碌¨ʤصŪʸФȤפʤ"the drastic change" ϤʤäΤǤ롥Ǥϡθ򲿤ȸƤ֤ΤTrudgill ϡѸȤ "creoloid" ŬڤǤϤʤȼĥ롥
"creoloid" ȤѸϡѸˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤűѸȸťΥɸȤܿϡcreole ߽Ф櫓ǤϤʤޤ creoloid ߽ФˤʤäȤ롥ʤʤСťΥɸȤܿϸűѸθѲ®٤®᤿ޤǼϩαĹǤꡤϢ³äƱݤεȤơ#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲ȡ

Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2013-08-29 Thu

#1585. ĺŪʶƱΤθʣ [suppletion][social_network][sociolinguistics][language_change][contact][accommodation_theory][language_change]

Ross (179) ˤȡ춦ƱΤĺٹ礤Ū嫤ζˤʬहȡ(1) closed and tightknit, (2) open and tightknit, (3) open and tightloose 3Ĥʬʤʤclosed and tightloose Ȥ߹碌ˤΤǾʤˡ(1) Τ褦Ĥ줿춦ƱΤǤϡ¾θ춦ƱΤȤܿǾ¤Ǥ뤿ˡŪˤ̻Ūˤ꤬ðۤǤ뤳Ȥ¿
ĺζƱΤθɽȤơФ Icelandic 夲롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1]), #903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1]), #927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) ʤɤˤƤIcelandic ϥޥΤʤǤŤܤ褯ݤäƤȤ롥social_network ˤȡɤΤ褦ʡɤ嫤ǷФƤ롤ĺ줿ƱΤǤϡѲˤݼŪʸĤȤ롥Τ褦ʶƱΤǤⴰĺƤ櫓ǤϤʤѲ̵ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ǤϡŪĺ줿ƱΤ˵ѲȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤPapua New Guinea νθԤˤȡĺ줿ƱΤǤϡѲʣˡޤդνȤκΩ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ (Ross 181) Ūˤϰ۷ (allomorphy) 佼ˡ (suppletion) äʤɤˤԵ§ԤˤȤä򤹤뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤ롥ơΤ褦Ե§ϡäƶƱ嫤򶯤˺Ѥ롥ΤȤϡ#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ǰ礤˽Ф accommodation_theory ιͤȤפ佼ˡؤڤȤܤ
ĺ줿ƱΤθˤʣβϡThurston ȤؼԤˤ "esoterogeny" ̾դƤ롥β˴ؤơRoss (182) 󵯤ΰѤ褦

In a sense, these processes, which Thurston labels 'esoterogeny', are hardly a form of contact-induced change, but rather its converse, a reaction against other lects. However, as they are conceived by Thurston their prerequisite is at least minimal contact with another community speaking a related lect from which speakers of the esoteric lect are seeking to distance themselves. Thurston's conceptions raises an interesting question: if a community is small, and closed simply because it is totally isolated from other communities, will its lect accumulate complexities anyway, or is the accumulation of complexity really spurred on by the presence of another community to react against? I am not sure of the answer to this question.


"esoterogeny" β⤬ްդΤϡդΥʤ줿ƱΤǤϡѲϤषñ㲽ȤȤϢơűѸȸťΥɸܿˤñ㲽ˤĤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Ross, Malcolm. "Diagnosing Prehistoric Language Contact." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 174--98.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-02-1] [2018-08-23-1]

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2013-05-12 Sun

#1476. Fennell ˤѲθ [language_change][causation][variation][contact][systemic_regulation]

Fennell αѸ˳Ƭ˶ᤤ1.2 Language Change (pp. 3--7) ܸ󤹤뵡񤬤äѲθˤĤƤγǤ롥äʤΤǡܥ֥ˤǺܤƤ

ʤ줬ѲΤͳ͡Ǥ롥1ˡưŪŪ¤ͭƤꡤŪʸѲ롥2ˡϡܿȼظ̤ʤɤȤƸ롤üԤԴʽ椨Ѳ롥
ˡʤ͡ϤĤƱä򤹤櫓ǤϤʤΤȤ䤤롥ؼԤϡ٤ƤλҶ콬˴ؤʿǤꡤɤθǤ⽬ǤǽϤäƤ뤳ȡޤƱĴﴱˤƱθ첻ȯǽϤäƤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ȯˤϤ鷺ѰۤĤǤ¸ߤΤǤ롥`sh' `th' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤С`r' `w' `l' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤롥ޤĿͤθߤƤߤȡռˤ褷ʤˤ衤Ȥ櫓ꡤѤꡤ̤Ѥꤹ롥θĿŪѰۤѲμʤΤǤ롥⤷ȡȯˡҿäƤꡤ֤üԤ餯̵ռˤΰҿäѤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ䤿ϤߤʡäϢӤ򶯤褦Ȼפ˹碌ä򤹤뤷Υ֤ȻפäˤΥ֤ΤǤ롥ҲؤǤϤָŪפȸƤǤ뤬줬ĿŪǰŪʸݤǤϤʤŪˤŪˤȤСѲؤȯŸ
줬Ѳ⤦1ĤͳϡüԤ̱ʤɤ̤¾üԤܿ뤫Ǥ롥ˤäƤϡȤθ줬Ԥθ˶ִפ뤳Ȥ뤫⤷ʤ뤤ϡ¸ȤƤξԤδ֤Ūʽ󤬤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤξĤ̩ܿƤΤǤС֤αƶ礭ǽ롥ȿФˡξĤʸŪʪŪʬΥƤСߤθŪƶϤۤȤɤʤ
ŪʸȤʳθȤδ֤ܿϤ뤬Ūʶ̹बʤˤϡ¤Τܿ줬ȯã뤫⤷ʤθϡϴά줿ηϤĤˤѰۤ䤹ɬ⤹٤ƤΥߥ˥εǽ̤ʤʳθԥȸƤ֡Υԥ줬夫Ʒ֤ȵǽư˸ȤѤ褦ˤʤȡ쥪ȸƤФʳȯŸȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʸϡҲꤷήɼҲθϤޤˤĤơФлŪʸΤۤܶᤷƤ椭̤Ȥƥݥȡ쥪Ϣ³ΤȸƤФѼϢ³Τ뤳Ȥ¿ǤϡŪñ㲽ޤޤΡֲءѼŪʸ˶ᤤءѼˡ־ءѼ郎¸Ƥ뤬ѼǤɸѼȤϰۤʤħƤ뤳Ȥդ
ܿϡĤѲɬ׾濫뤤ϽʬǤȤϤʤषʬΥ뤳ȤˤäƸѲ뤳Ȥ¿㤨СѸ줬17˥ꥫˤ⤿餵ȡĤͳǥꥹѸ줫ʬƤäޤ⤿餵줿Ѹϡʣΰ̱ȤˤäơʣȤƤ⤿餵줿Ǥ롥ˡ֤ο͏͡ʸȤܿˤꡤѲ뤲ˡä˥ꥫΩΤȤꥹѸδȤϰۤʤظŪʬФơꥫˤͣθ쵬Ϥʤäˡ줾ϰ˰ҿΤѼ郎ޤ줿ΤǤ롥
嵭Τ褦ʸѲˤñ㲽Τ餤뤳Ȥդ줿¿θѲˤϡ¿ͤͳΤǤ롥㤨СꥫѸ줬ꥹѸ줫ʬͳˤϡ¾Ȥܿ⤢ꡤͱѸ (AAVE) ǤϤʬ٤礭ɸѸˤƤϡ¾줫αƶŪϾǤꡤ͸ùܤ˸¤롥
ޤǽҤ٤ƤѲװϸ쳰ŪʤΤäŪװ⤢褦1ĤϡѸ줬ʸˡǽ̤Τ˷־θ˰¸Ūʸ줫顤˰¸ʬŪʸذܹԤǤ롥¤ŪˤϡϱѸˤˤѲѲͳϸŪǤ롥ǤϸΤɤˤǤ1褦ˤʤꡤ޸ۣ沽ȾüΤǤ롥ʸˡǽ϶޸礬ô褦ˤʤꡤ嵭෿ŪѲä⤽⶯ѲΤʤΤ쳰ŪͳäΤïˤ狼ʤäѲäȤϡϰϢŪѲΤǤ롥
ŪѲ̤ȤơI饦ȤȸƤФűѸޤޥ췲Ѳ롥ޥĸǶ˸³̵ [i] [j] ä硤첻ꤢ뤤ϹˤʤȤѲǤ롥beran bireþmūus mys 򻲾ȡѲθ⡤ŪװʳˤϹͤʤ
ŪѲΤ⤦1Ĥϡ1500ǯʹߤ do ΰư줫ưؤѲѲˤꡤdo ϸ򼺤ʸʸȤʸˡŪʵǽؤȯŸΤ褦ѲϡʸˡפȸƤФ롥
do ѲϡŪˤ빽¤ȷӤĤƤǽ̤ι¤ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäȤ̣ǡֺʬϡפȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤѸηǤϡʬϤβ̶ʬȤƤΡְʬϡפ㤬˭٤Ǥ롥㤨Сnaddre, napron, noumpere ϡ֤괧 an Ȥδ֤ǰʬϤ̡adder, apron, umpire θޤ줿ȿФˡan ewt a newt ȰʬϤ줿Ȥ褦⤢롥ŪѲȤ
ѲθޤȤȡ(1) ŪʬΥܿ(2) νݡʼҲĶˤܿ(3) Դʽ(4) ظ̡(5) ҲŪʰҿװ롥
ŪװȤƤϡ(1) Ĵưײ(2) ѡ(3) ʬϡ(4) 롥


Fennell ϸѲθȤơŪװȸ쳰Ūװ̤Ƥ뤬ΤʤѰ (variation) ε򺹤Ǥ롥碌ȡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǸѲ3ȤƸڤ (1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact Ǥ·äȤˤʤ롥Fennell ϡҲŪʱѸˤäƤΤǡʤ variation contact Ȥ櫓Ż뤹뤬ŪˤϤ3åȤDZѸˤˤѲ褦ȤƤȤ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-13-1]

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2013-05-02 Thu

#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 [language_change][causation][variation][contact][systemic_regulation]

Glasgow ؤ Jeremy Smith ĤҤ٤Ƥ롤Ѳ3ʳ3ˤĤơ
ޤ3ʳ顥ɤθѲɬФ3ʳ롥#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1]) Ǿ줿Τ (1) potential for change, (2) implementation, (3) diffusion Ǥ롥塼ؤΩ줫鸷̩ˤС(1) ϸѲʳǤꡤ(2) ʳǽơָѲפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥Smith ľܸäƤ餦 (7)

The distinction may be made between potential for change, implementation (itself including triggering or actuation) and diffusion. The potential for change exists when a particular speaker or group of speakers makes a particular linguistic choice at a particular time; implementation takes place when that choice becomes selected as part of a linguistic system; and diffusion takes place when the change is imitated beyond its site of origin, whether in terms of geographical or of social distribution. Strictly speaking, the first of these phenomena is not to be included as part of the typology of change. The continual flux of living languages means that new variant forms are constantly being created in a given linguistic state. However, these variants are not themselves linguistic changes; rather, they constitute the raw material which is a prerequisite for linguistic change. A linguistic change happens only when a particular variable is selected and a systemic development follows. In that sense, language change begins with implementation; when implementation of potential for change is for some reason triggered in a linguistic system, then we can speak of a linguistic change. The diffusion of the phenomenon within a particular speech-community is, it is held here, a further process which can be counted as part of the particular change involved; it may, of course, itself have further effects.


ˡѲ3ϸѲ3򤷤Ƥ褤(1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact 3ĤǤ롥(1) variation ϡ֡졤̣ʤɤܤˤʣ variants ѰդƤꡤ¸ΤϤΤ줫ǤȤͤ˴ŤƤ롥variants ΤμϰϤ variational space ȸƤФ졤μ¸ϤϰϤΤʤǰۤʤꤦ롥̵¤˰ۤʤꤦ櫓ǤϤʤˤ (2) systemic regulation ηϤεƯƤꡤ¤ߤƤΤǤ롥(1) (2) Ǥ٤ƤĴۤɡñʤΤǤϤʤʶƱΡˤϿˤ¸ߤϤθʶƱΡˤȤδؤΤʤ¸ߤƤ롥ɬŪ (3) contact ξΤǤꡤŪηϤˤȤɤޤäƤϤʤ
ʾ3ߴطʣSmith ΤȤФǤޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ (49)

The three mechanisms of linguistic change distinguished above --- variation, systemic regulation, contact --- are not to be taken as totally separate causes of the phenomenon; rather, they interact in complex and, except in the most general terms, practically unpredictable ways to produce dynamic change in the history of a given language. To sum up the argument so far: new variants are produced, and are imitated through contact; but they are constrained by the changing intra- and extralinguistic systems of which the are a part.


ǶϸѲ͡Ω줫͡Ȥߤ󼨤Ƥ뤬Smith ϡñ㲽ƤΤΡñ㲽Ƥ뤫顩ˡ褯ޤȤޤäƤȻפ

Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2013-05-01 Wed

#1465. Marr Υӥȸ [history_of_linguistics][origin_of_language][comparative_linguistics][contact][sociolinguistics][etruscan]

ػˤˤư̾⤤ɡӥȸؤµ Nikolaj Jakovlevič Marr (1864--1934) γȤΥѥȤˤĤơå (72--76) (196--212) ˵äƹͤƤߤ褦
Marr Τޤ˸Ūʸؤϡ른¿βޤäȤĶȥޥ륯Τʤ˿Ȥ֤Ȥˤʤäаޤ˵㤭 Marr λܤ뤳ȤǻɷεߴطˤĤƹͤ餻褦ˤʤäMarr γκʤΤϡ층ȯǤ롥Marr ϡ٤Ƥθ sal, ber, jon, roš Ȥ4ĤβǤȤ߹碌ˤȤ롤̵Τʵ򾧤äơ٤Ƥθϻ֤ȤȤʳŪ˹̤ؤȯŸƤ椯Ȥʳ (stadialism) 򾧤ȯŸʳκǹ̤ãΤ²䥻߸²Ǥꡤ°ʽʥХ졤ȥꥢ졤֥륷㥹ʤɤޤߡMarr ϥΥΥڥƤˤʤߥեȸ²ȸƤˤϲ̤ʳˤȤɤޤäƤȤˡ1924ǯ˥ޥ륯ȡMarr ϸ줬ŪͭҲŪкŪ¤ǤȤο󼨤ơMarr äʸء̾եƥɸءˤȯŸˤäƽǤޤǡ30ǯۤɤδ֡ӥȸؤ򸣰뤳Ȥˤʤä
Marr ϡƤμήɸؼԤˤϼʤ򼡡󼨤οŪϡӸؤˤäȤ褦ˤʤäη²ĸ졤ˡ§ȤäǰǤȤˤäѸ˽ɤäƤ̱²ѤʤäΤǤ롥Marr ϡʳŪȯŸϡθ򺵡ˤäƤꤨʤȹͤƤˤλۤä Marr ϡϢˤ륨ڥȸ챿ưʸԤȤƤ
1950ǯľ˸ؤ˲ơƻޥؤ顤ӸؤȤ벤Ƥʸؤؤᤷ̾θػˤǤϡMarr λ˥ӥȸؤ϶ˤäɾƤ롥 Marr 򤳤ɾƤ褦̱²ŰŪꤷ Marr ٤Ȥˤ뺬ܻۤϡγؤȤƤΡʼҲ˸ؤܻؤȤȰפ롤ȡ
γؤȤˤĤƤϡ#1381. "interventionist" sociolinguistics ([2013-02-06-1]) 򻲾ȡ

ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
ɧظؤȤϲ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1993ǯ

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2013-04-23 Tue

#1457. Х˥ɡʰ² [indo-european][family_tree][albanian][map][indo-european_sub-family][contact][borrowing]

²θɲ⥷꡼ (see indo-european_sub-family) 4ơϡBaugh and Cable (27--28) Fennell (26) ˤꡤХ˥ (Albanian) β򤹤롥
Х˥ (Albania) ϥХ륫ȾߡꥷܤǤ롥Х˥ϤθɤͣιǤꡤȤƥХ˥̱300ͤΤۤȤɤäƤ뤬¾ˤ⥳ܡޥɥ˥ꥷ㡤ꥢꥢȥ륳ƹˤüԤ͸750ͤۤɤȿפ롥Х˥ϡ Tirana ն򶭤 Gheg ToskʸѸˤ̤뤬ǯϽ̤ޤäƤƤȤEthnologueAlbanian 򻲾ȡ
θʸɡˤˤˤĤƤϡĤƥꥷɤ˸äʬवƤۤɤǤꡤΤƤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤΤϡǸŤΥƥȤ15̤ˤʤĤλǤǤ˥ƥ졤ꥷ졤ȥ륳졤θǤ¿ʬ򤸤äƤ뤫Ȥ櫓ƥʤޥ󥹽ˤμѤϸäβȾᡤѸӤۤɡκٹ礤ϿӤ#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1]) ˤ̤ꡤХ˥ȱѸϡּѤѶŪʸ "Mischsprachen" ʺˡפȤƤζ̹ब롥
ˤϰäƤꥢ ( Illyrian) θȤ⤢뤬ˤ˳
ʾ̤ꥢХ˥ɡˤˤĤƤ¿εҤĤʤΤܥ֥Ǥϸܿδ饢Х˥˲٤ڤƤΤǡؤλȤ򼨤#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1])#1314. ([2012-12-01-1])

Map of Albania

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-05-03-1]

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2013-02-16 Sat

#1391. lingua franca (4) [elf][global_language][pidgin][creole][esperanto][artificial_language][basic_english][contact][sociolinguistics][koine]

ѸȥڥȸζϲŪˤϡʬŪǤȤޥ󥹷ϸθ캬ĸä¿ȤġθܤˤĤƻŦ뤳ȤǤŤߤ˶1ĵ󤲤ȤΤ񤷤ҲŪˤСñǤ롥θ lingua franca Ǥ롤ȤȤѸȥԥζҥ¯ƥζˤƤƱǤ롥
[2012-04-17-1], [2012-04-18-1], [2012-04-19-1]ε lingua franca ȤѸˤĤĴ٤ҲŪʸϤ餳Ѹȳǰˤ⤦ꤿWardhaugh (55) ˤСUNESCO lingua franca "a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them" Ƥ롥Ǥϡθ줬ѤϰϤιˤĤƤϸڤƤʤΤǡʶƱΤǤΤѤƤ褦ʸξ lingua franca ȤȤˤʤ롥"used habitually" ˤ᤹Сǵ󤲤ϳΤˤ lingua franca ̾ͤ
lingua franca ϤĤμʬ뤳ȤǤ (Wardhaugh 56)

(1) եꥫΥϥ쥢եꥫΥҥΤ褦˸ŪѤ "trade language"
(2) 奮ꥷˤ koiné ʥ͡ˤ衼åѤˤ¯ƥΤ褦˽̤ܿȤƤ "contact language"
(3) ѸΤ褦˹ŪѤ "international language"
(4) Esperanto ([2011-12-15-1]) Basic English ([2011-12-13-1]) Τ褦ʿ͹ˤ "auxiliary language"
(5) ʥξƱΤäƤ롤꡼ʸˡȥե󥹸θäͻ礵̱²Ūǥƥƥôä Michif Τ褦 "mixed language"

ۤˤ嵭ƤϤޤ󤲤С泤θ׶̸Ȥʤä SabirγϰDZƶؤ Arabic, Mandarin, Hindi γƸ졤19Ⱦ British Columbia Alaska ˤƹѤ Chinook Jargon ʤɤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

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2013-01-08 Tue

#1352. ߥ˥̩٤̻ [sociolinguistics][diachrony][weakly_tied][social_network][language_change][contact]

Bloomfield (46) ϥꥫɽ빽¤ؼԤ̾ Language Ǥϡ˸ؤҲؤ褦ˤĤƤäۤ¿ƶŸƤ롥äΤ1Ĥˡ֥ߥ˥̩١ (the density of communication) ؤθڤ롥#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1]) 㤬褦ˡּ夤嫤ǷФ줿 ("weakly tied") ҲǤϡ׿Ƴ䤹ʤ䤹ȤʴϢ[2012-07-19-1]ε#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ספ⻲ȡˡϡǯμҲؤˤƸѲϳؤȤܤƤ복ǰBloomfield ᤤʳǤδŪʥǥäƤȹͤ롥
Bloomfield Τ "the density of communication" ϡʥХˤɽ蘆롥ȤɽġüԤߤ̵ǷӤĤ礤춦ƱΤΥͥåȥƤȤ᡼

Every speaker's language, except for personal factors which we must here ignore, is a composite result of what he has heard other people say. / Imagine a huge chart with a dot for every speaker in the community, and imagine that every time any speaker uttered a sentence, an arrow were drawn into the chart pointing from his dot to the dot representing each one of his hearers. At the end of a given period of time, say seventy years, this chart would show us the density of communication within the community. Some speakers would turn out to have been in close communication: there would be many arrows from one to the other, and there would be many series of arrows connecting them by way of one, two, or three intermediate speakers. At the other extreme there would be widely separated speakers who had never heard each other speak and were connected only by long chains of arrows through many intermediate speakers. If we wanted to explain the likeness and unlikeness between various speakers in the community, or, what comes to the same thing, to predict the degree of likeness for any two given speakers, our first step would be to count and evaluate the arrows and series of arrows connecting the dots. We shall see in a moment that this would be only the first step; the reader of this book, for instance, is more likely to repeat a speech-form which he has heard, say, from a lecturer of great fame, than one which he has heard from a street-sweeper. (46--47)


Ƿ«Ƥ붦ƱΤɤ٤ϸߤ˺٤Ǵˤ䤫˷ӤĤƤꡤΤȤĤʤäƤȤ᡼ϡҲؼԤ "social network" (Aitchison 49) οޤΤΤǤ롥
Ȥ˸ؤΩ줫鸫ƤפʤΤϡBloomfield ΰѤľˡХФƿľʼǤ̻֤פƤȤ¤Ǥ롥

The chart we have imagined is impossible of construction. An insurmountable difficulty, and the most important one, would be the factor of time: starting with persons now alive, we should be compelled to put in a dot for every speaker whose voice had ever reached anyone now living, and then a dot for every speaker whom these speakers had ever heard, and so on, back beyond the days of King Alfred the Great, and beyond earliest history, back indefinitely into the primeval dawn of mankind: our speech depends entirely upon the speech of the past. (47)


üԤϡƱƤ¾üԤȤΤĤʤΤߤˤäƸθƤ櫓ǤϤʤǯüԤˤŪʱƶäиηиκפϼθ˾ʤ餺ȿǤƤƱͤˡ餬ǯüԤ˸ŪƶڤܤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ϥХФƿľ˲ؤ̤ؤ⿭ӤƤ椭źΤ٤ƤͥåȥΤɤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
֤̻֤ζ̤ˡɬפBloomfield ΥХȤ˾Ȥ餻СξԤδ֤ΤʶʤȤͤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1]) #866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1]) ۤdiachrony γƵ򻲾ȡ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-12-29 Sat

#1342. ظƶؤȽ [substratum_theory][causation][celtic][contact][race][ethnic_group][celtic_hypothesis]

Ѳ벾ΰĤˡظƶ (substratum_theory) 롥ԤԤθݤˡȤθħäȯħˤϢƤ椯Ȥǡ¦θ˸ѲȤͤǤ롥ѸˤȴŪ˴ϢȤǤϡˡ§ޤ First Germanic Consonant ShiftSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤΤˡβ⤬Ф뤳Ȥ¿#416. Second Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤä ([2010-06-17-1]) #650. ˥ȥˡ§ ([2011-02-06-1]) #1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤ ([2012-05-22-1]) ʤɤǿ줿̤Ǥ롥
βκμߤϡ¿ξ硤ؤʤƤˤĤƤμ­Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥ä˸θѲˤˤϡμߤ˸롥㤨Сˡ§˼СƶͿƤȤظ줬ʤΤȤǤ鴰ʰפ򸫤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ˤ줬ȸäλ򤵤Ƥ⡤θѲľܤǤΤΥȸѼθηϤ뤳Ȥ񤷤פˡѲڤܤȹִͤظפ򡤵Թɤ褦˻Ωƾ夲뤳ȤĤǤǽʤΤǤ롥θħžܤȤݼΤϸ콬ʬǤ⹭ΤƤ뤬ζŪʸѲľƤϤ뤳Ȥ񤷤
Jespersen Bloomfield ⡤Ʊ˲ŪΩäƤ롥ȽδĴϡȤƤѲȡؤδͿꤵƤ̱²ȤŪ뤤Ūɬ礷ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰǤ롥̱²ꡤ̤ȤƸؤʹԤƤޤˤλ֤ȾˤơθѲäȤȤǤСظƶϾʤȤ⸡ڤͤѲؤλ֤äƤꡤѲ뤲ŪʬۤŪʬۤȰפʤΤǤСʬظƶʤåȤϾʤʤ롥ष̤θõä褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
ظƶԤˤϡʥ˥βǽΤȤ⤻ظ㤨Хȸˤαƶ͡ʻ˴Ф褦ȼĥԤ⤤롥Jespersen ϤΤ褦ʹͤȿ롥

I must content myself with taking exception to the principle that the effect of the ethnic substratum may show itself several generations after the speech substitution took place. If Keltic ever had 'a finger in the pie,' it must have been immediately on the taking over of the new language. An influence exerted in such a time of transition may have far-reaching after-effects, like anything else in history, but this is not the same thing as asserting that a similar modification of the language may take place after the lapse of some centuries as an effect of the same cause. (200)


Jespersen μĥϡظƶˤϳ (atavism) ϤʤȤĥ (201) ƱݤȽBloomfield Ǥⷫ깭Ƥ롥

The substratum theory attributes sound-change to transference of language: a community which adopts a new language will speak it imperfectly and with the phonetics of its mother-tongue. . . . [I]t is important to see that the substratum theory can account for changes only during the time when the language is spoken by persons who have acquired it as a second language. There is no sense in the mystical version of the substratum theory, which attributes changes, say, in modern Germanic languages, to a "Celtic substratum" --- that is, to the fact that many centuries ago, some adult Celtic-speakers acquired Germanic speech. Moreover, the Celtic speech which preceded Germanic in southern Germany, the Netherlands, and England, was itself an invading language: the theory directs us back into time, from "race" to "race," to account for vague "tendencies" that manifest themselves in the actual historical occurrence of sound-change. (386)


ǯѸˤ夬äƤƤ륱ȸαʸˡؤαƶȤ⡤ظƶΰ֤ª뤫⤷ʤǤȤСʤȤŪˤϡ嵭ȽƤϤޤ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) #1254. ѸäդθѲϽ񤭸դߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ظƶ⤬ƤѲȤƤϡJespersen (192--98) 򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-23-1] [2019-08-07-1]

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2012-10-02 Tue

#1254. ѸäդθѲϽ񤭸դߤäƤ뤫 [writing][standardisation][creole][celtic][contact][reestablishment_of_english][scribe][koine][do-periphrasis][celtic_hypothesis]

äդˤƤѲŪݼŪʽ񤭸դȿǤ줺ˡδѻԤܤ˸ƤʤȤǽϡʸؾ塤򤱤뤳ȤΤǤʤΤǤ롥㤨С줬ν񤭸դȿǤƤʤȤäơäդȤѤƤ⤷ʤȤǽǤOED νǯΰ˴ؤ뿵ʤɤϻʹ롥ΤʿǤϤ뤬򤢤ޤ˿䤷ʤȡʸ˳ǧʤǡʤ뤳Ȥ⡤äդǤϤ⤷ʤ󵯤Ǥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤޤϢȤơ񤭸վǡȤ礭Ѳä褦˸ˡϽ񤭸դڤؤ˵븫ѲˤбäդǤϡޤѲ˿ʹԤƤϤȤ롥
Ѹ᥯쥪βǤ⡤ˡ¤ѤƤ롥Poussa ϡ14ˤ Samuels ν񤭸դʬǤ Type II Type III ǡڤؤϡбäդεѲ򼨤ΤǤϤʤȤ񤭸դ˸ʤ̲äդˤƤϡKnut 衤쥪벽 koiné ³ƤϤȹͤƤ롥ơType III оϡ14Ūʥե󥹸ϰ̤βȡѸϰ̤θưŤ줿ѸɸಽĬήȿǤΤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

. . . if we take the view that the English speech of London had, since the time of Knut, been a continuum of regional and social varieties of which the Midland koiné was one, then it is easier to explain the changes in the written language [from Type II to Type III] as jerky adjustments to a gradual rise in social status of the spoken Midland variety. (80)


褦ʵϡǯ褦ˤʤäƤȸαѸ˵ڤܤƶˤĤƤʹ㤨С[2011-03-17-1]ε#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶפ򻲾ȡˡűѸɸ񤭸աLate West-Saxon Schriftsprache ߤäƤޤäƤΤΡűѸѸäդˤΥȸŪǤޤޤƤϤȤѸ줬ե󥹸ΤӤѸʹߤˡ褦䤯äդ񤭸դξ¤ȿǤ褦ˤʤꡤǤ˥ȸαƶƤ do-periphrasis ʹԷʸ塤Ƴǧ褦ˤʤäΤ롥
εϡʸؤˤƼֻܸѤƤ scribal error show-through Ȥäޤ餺äդƩƸƤޤ褦ʽ񵭾λ̵뤷Ƥ褦˻פ롥̻ʹ֤Ǥ롥񵭤˺ݤơäդȤȤʤɤǤ꡹ǻפ鷺äդϪ褷ƤޤΤȤΤǤϤʤ
äդ١񤭸դߤäƤȤΤϻ¤񤭸սڤؤˤäơ礭ʸѲä褦˸ȤΤˤ񤭸դ˸ʤȤǤäդǤϵäƤ⤷ʤ䵯äƤ˰㤤ʤȡѶŪƤƤ褤ͳˤϤʤʤƤѸ᥯쥪βȶǯΥȸƶδ֤˻褦򴶤Ǥ롥

Poussa, Patricia. "The Evolution of Early Standard English: The Creolization Hypothesis." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14 (1982): 69--85.

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2012-10-01 Mon

#1253. ťΥɸαƶ [old_norse][contact]

ε#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥ե󥹸αƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) ˴ϢơϡťΥɸ줫θŪƶ뤫⤷ʤȻŦƤܤ󤷤Hotta (155--56) ǡ͡ʸθڤˤΤΤǡƷǤ롥ä䲻˴ؤƤϡBaugh and Cable ϤȤ복ǡťΥɸαƶϹ⤵ƤΤǡǤϤޤȤޤäƵҤ뤳ȤξʤؤαƶβǽŦƤܤ˸ꤷ

1. functional words such as they, till, fro, though, both, are, and same
2. the third person singular present ending in -s of the verb in the North
3. the present participle ending -and of the verb in the North
4. the ending -t as in scant, want and athwart, which are attributed to the Old Norse neuter ending of the adjective
5. the genitive ending -er, as in on nighter tale and bi nighter tale
6. the reflexive ending -sk, as in busk and bask
7. are in the North in contrast with be in the South
8. the loss of the prefix ge- for the past participle of the verb
9. the preterit plural and the preterit subjunctive forms of certain verbs belonging to the strong classes IV and V


1. the tendency to omit the relative pronoun þat in Middle English in contrast with the Old English tendency to retain it
2. the Modern English differentiated usage of the auxiliaries will and shall, which is comparable to the Scandinavian usage
3. the Modern English usage of sentence-final prepositions, as in "He has someone to rely on," which is comparable to the Scandinavian usage
4. the position of an auxiliary in the subjunctive pluperfect construction, and its pattern of omission
5. the Middle English tendency to put a genitive noun before the noun it modified


ιܤˤϡťΥɸαƶη̤ȤȤʤäƤΤ⤢С路Τ⤢롥ޤǸťΥɸαƶ֤פȻŦƤΤ򽸤᤿ʤΤǡդǤϤ롥ʤHotta θʸǤϡ嵭ΤۤȤɤιܤˡŵդƤ롥

Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2012-09-30 Sun

#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥ե󥹸αƶܡ [french][celtic][old_norse][contact][cleft_sentence][french_influence_on_grammar]

##1223,1249,1250,1251 εǡBailey and Maroldt ˤäƻϤ줿Ѹ᥯쥪β򸫤ƤBailey and Maroldt ȽƤФäʸˤϼŪʹͻ⤢뤳ȤդäƤ
[2012-09-28-1]ε#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3)פ (5) Ǽ夲ֱѸȥե󥹸Ȥδ֤ʿԴطѻܡ (Bailey and Maroldt 51--52) 򡤡֥ե󥹸αƶܡפΥꥹȤȤªСʩܿθ󶡤ƤƤȤͭѤ⤷ʤ[2012-09-01-1]ε#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫פǾҲ𤷤褦ˡGörlach ϡʲΤۤȤɤιܤ˰۵Ĥ򾧤ˤƤȤϤʤˤΰ̣

A. Anglo-Saxon elements in French functions:
1) the -līce deadjectival adverb-formative;
2) the use of wh-interrogatives as relative pronouns; cf. French qu-interrogatives and relatives;
3) progressive formations and other tense/aspect/diathesis formations;
4) prepositions of the pattern exemplified by outside of, or Anglo-Saxon prepositions in French uses;
5) French-like uses of the pronoun cases;
6) the cleft-sentence formation;
7) case functions of the of-"genitive" and the to-"dative";
8) second-person informal/formal distinction in forms of address;
9) Middle English calques that got lost later; e.g. the which;
10) analytical comparison.

B. French-influenced developments, the first of which is essentially universal:
1) loss of inflections, especially case and gender distinctions;
2) word order, especially after negative elements; but not the order of adjectives.

C. French elements:
1) vocabulary --- quantitatively as well as qualitatively very considerable;
2) a huge part of English derivational morphology;
3) most phonomorphological rules;
4) certain sounds; e.g. initial [v dž] and the diphthong [ɔ].


ޤޤǤޤʹȤΤʤȸ줢뤤ϸťΥɸ줫αƶβǽȤơθڤܤαޤäΤդäƤ"The fact that clear [l] as well as non-aspirated [p t k] are widespread in the North could be due to either Keltic or Nordic influence" (25).

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.

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2012-09-28 Fri

#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) [creole][me][french][old_norse][contact][historiography]

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) ڤӡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
ΤäȤʤä Bailey and Maroldt ϡѸȥե󥹸Ȥκˤ륯쥪첽򾧤¿ȽӤƤɤǤߤͤùߤɤܤǡʸ֤ˤʤäγϤۤꤵƤȤäƤ褤ȽɬפʤȤ⤤˷깭ƤꡤϤǤ⤷ΤǤĤԥååפ롥

(1) Ѹϡá졦̣ ("semantax"!) ("phonetology"!)֤ΤˤƤ⡤ʤȤ40%ϺʪǤ (21) ʸäϤ褤ȤƤ졦̣֤κ٤ϤɤΤ褦¬Τ
(2) "In the instability created by the second, or minor, French creolization is to be seen the origin of the Great Vowel Shift, which, more than anything else, created modern English" (31). Ʊʸ˴ϢڤۤˤʤΤǡʸ̣ƤΤۤȤǤ롥
(3) "The Anglo-Saxon suffix -līċe (ME -ly), which has a functional counterpart in French -ment, is hardly an example of the reduction of inflections! This is in accord with the assumption of creolization" (33). 1ʸȡ1ʸ2ʸΰ̴ط
(4) Ѹȥե󥹸̾ζηϤϻƤꡤưפͻ¤[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספǤ⿨줿̤ꡤʣ -es ˴ؤ¤ꡤξľŪʴطϤʤȹͤƤ롥Hotta 154, 268 [Note 66] 򻲾ȡ
(5) ʸΤ̤ơѸȥե󥹸Ȥδ֤ʿԴطѻ (pp. 51--52) ƱǤ뤬椨ΰ仺ǤʤΩʿȯãǤʤġμѤǤʤҤäƱʩΥ쥪벽ȤդƤޤäƤ롥ȤƤϼüᤤǤƻˤʤƤġθ椬㤯

ȤƤμüᤵȤȤǤСϢۤΤܸ졦ߡ쥯쥪ξ֤Ӹؤ˴ŤطμΩ˼ԤξΥ쥪򾧤ԤǤϸ̩ʲбɬפȤ줺ޤʺȤȤդ뤫
쥪벽λǤøʰݤ򸺤뤿ˤϡ쥪θ漫ΤäϤɬפ롥줫ƥ쥪벽󵯤ɤ

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.

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