ɸˤĤƤϡʲΰϢεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])
˴ϢơRothwell ʸɤRothwell (50) ˤȡѸΤ˸ŪʵϿθ줬ƥ줫եءե줫Ѹܤޤ뤷ڤؤä (language_shift) ȤҲŪʻθʤФʤʤȤ
If the English language appears to embark on a far more extensive campaign of lexical borrowing from the later fourteenth century, this is because French had become the second official language of record in England, alongside and often in replacement of Latin. This means in effect that from the thirteenth century onwards French is called upon to cover a much wider range of registers than in the earlier period, when it was used in the main for works of entertainment or edification. This change in the role of French took place at a time when English was debarred from use as a language of record, so that when English in its turn began to take on that role in the later fourteenth century, it was only to be expected that it would retain much of the necessary vocabulary used by its predecessor --- French. . . . For successive generations of countless English scribes and officials the administrative vocabulary of French had been an integral part of their daily life and work; it would be unrealistic to expect them to jettison it and re-create an entirely new Germanic set of terms when English came in to take over the role hitherto played by French.
13--14ˤơե줬ˡΧطϤȤŪʸȤƤƤȤϡ#2330. 13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) ǤߤΤ褦˥ɤˤƥեǸŪʵϿ봷ˤ錄äƳΩƤȤˡ14ȾѸ줬ƤΤǤ롥վΥХäȤϤ¿μ̻ˤȤäơ餳θؤˤϸǤääˡΧ˴ؤѸ¿ϡޤǥեñǤޤʤäƤƤꡤбѸϷ礱ƤΤ褦ʾǡ̻դѸؤȥեȤݤˡ줿եѸ¿ѤȤϼä
ѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤Ťȡ֤θüѤϡΤ褦̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥ϢǶȤơ#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia ([2015-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.
ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤεƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)
CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)
鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.
ε#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ǡӤȯãˡեƥб빽¤ͿƤǽ˿줿ä˥եƶϤФеƤѸȥեζӤι¤ۤʤäƤȡ줫եѸ줫Ȥˤ餺ӤѤƤȤʤɤ顤ƶǧʤΩ⤢롥
Mustanoja (280) ϡե졤ƥ줫ƶβǽˤĤƿŤ˵ĤĤ⡤̣ͿƤ롥
It is not easy to assess the influence of Latin and French on the development of English comparison. It is perhaps not altogether impossible that Latin influence has played a part in this process, particularly in the earlier stages. And considering the fact that periphrastic comparison begins to gain ground in English at a time when French influence is particularly strong, it seems reasonable to assume that the influence of this language has considerably strengthened the position of more and most in the English system of comparison. Another point which seems to speak for foreign influence is that the periphrastic mode of comparison does not seem to be favoured by living popular speech. 'The comparison of adjectives is formed in the [modern English] dialects by adding the comparative suffix -er and the superlative -est to practically all adjectives, polysyllabic as well as monosyllabic. More and most are as a rule only used to supplement or intensify the regular comparison, as more beautifuller, most worst' (Elizabeth M. Wright, Rustic Speech and Folk-lore, London 1913, p. 145).
⤷ǸȤСӤζӤλȤʬϡ衤βȤ (medium) ʸ (style) ʤɤλѰ (register) ˰¸ƤȤˤʤ롥ޤλȤʬϡѸΥɤˤȥե졤ƥμҲŪϰ̤κбȤˤĤʤäƤ¾Ūʸ椬˾ޤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸˤϡƻӵȺǾΤˡ̾2Ĥˡ롥 -er, -est դӤȡmore, most ֤뱪ŪʶӤǤʡֶӡפθƾΤˤĤƤϡ#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1]) ȡˡξʤʬۤȤʬˤˤĤƤϡ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1]) ȡ#773. PPCMBE COHA ӡ ([2011-06-09-1]) ǴϢ夲٤äΤǡϤ⤦겼
ӤϡޥħŪʼʤǤꡤѸˤƤűѸǤ롥űѸǤ϶Ӥʤä13˽ ma, mo, mara, more; mast, most ʤɤˤӤ롥εϡűѸˤ mā, bet, swīþor; betst, swīþost ʤɤ줬ưʬ֤줿¤ˤȤ롥
ӤȯãطʤˤϡĤװä1ĤˤϸűѸˤߤ줿 inemest (inmost), norþmest (northmost) ʤɤ -mest αƶäȻפ롥츻ŪŪˤ -mest ϡȤ˺Ǿɽ魯 m est ӤĤ2źǾθǤꡤΩ mæst ȤϴطʤΤξԤƱ˻äʴϢơ#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ȡ#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1]) ⻲ȡˡۤˡեƥбӤαƶ⤢ä⤷ʤ (ex. plus beau, le plus beau; magis dignus, maxime dignus) Ūˤϡ礫ʬϤؤȤѸŪѲȤ⡤ӤȯŸߤ뤳ȤǤˡΧװθ٤Ǥ롥
Ӥ14ޤǤϻȯŪä15ˤʤȤˤȤʤä-ly ζӤѸǽФФ餯ϵä14ˤȤʤä
ʤӤνλѤˤƤϡѸηȤϰۤʤꡤष12û㤬¿Ȥ̣ޤless, least ˤӤϸűѸ̤ꡤmore, most ᤤȤΤ⤪⤷ʾ塤 (13) Mustanoja (278--80) ȤƼɮ
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸθüѤȤСޤե줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾뤬ե졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥեͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ̣ǼСѸ쥤ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)
| LANGUAGES | Direct Introduction | Indirect Introduction |
| Latin | --- | |
| French | --- | |
| Scandinavian | --- | |
| Low German | --- | |
| High German | --- | |
| Italian | through French | |
| Spanish | through French | |
| Irish | --- | |
| Scottish Gaelic | --- | |
| Welsh | --- | |
| Cornish | --- | |
| Other Celtic languages in Europe | through French | |
| Portuguese | through French | |
| Arabic | through French and Spanish | |
| Persian | through French, Greek and Latin | |
| Turkish | through French | |
| Hebrew | through French and Latin | |
| Greek | through French by way of Latin |
Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲȡ
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])
Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤֤ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
| LANGUAGE | Register | Medium | Status |
| Latin | Formal-Official | Written | High |
| French | Formal-Official | Written/Spoken | High |
| English | Informal-Colloquial | Spoken | Low |
| ENGLAND | Languages | Linguistic situation |
| Early Middle Ages | Latin--French--English | TRILINGUAL |
| 14th--15th centuries | French--English | BILINGUAL |
| 15th--16th c. onwards | English | MONOLINGUAL |
Ѹ̤ˤߤ wh- δطϡѸ which ȤƽФ롥ط which ϡŪä that ȶ礷ʤ⡤14դ꤫ʬۤȤ15ˤ̤Ȥʤä#2314. °³ȤƤ that ([2015-08-28-1]) Ǽ褦ˡexpletive that ȼ which that ⸽졤Chaucer ʤɤǤ̤ˤߤ줿expletive as ȼ which as ΤƤ (Mustanoja 197--98)
ܤ٤ϡƱѸ the which (that) Ǥ롥괧 the ȼطϡѸǽ줿 Cursor Mundi ǽФCursor Mundi Ǥϡ¤70ۤɸˡOED which, pron. and adj. ꡤ13
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Gött.) l. 9434 þe first law was cald 'of kinde,' .. þe toþer has 'possitiue' to name, þe whilk lawe was for-bed Adam, Forto ete þat fruit.
θ塤14ˤǤ⸫褦ˤʤꡤ٤ƤԤƥȤˤäƤ٤ϤޤޤǤꡤChaucer Ǥ which ٤1:9ȳʤ˾ʤGower Ǥˤ褯롥15λʸˤʤȰ̤ the which which ⤺ä٤⤯ʤ뤬Capgrave, Pecock, Fortescue 㳰ǡष the which ڸʤ (Mustanoja 199)
ʬۤޤޤǤȤ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ᤤƤΤϡεǤ롥ɴФǡϤʤˤȡʩ liquels ʸʩ lequelˤȴطȤʤϡ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) ΥꥹȤǤˡʩ줫ƥȤˤƤб뤳Ȥ顤ξԤ̵طȤϸʤФ嵭Τ褦ƥȤǤ뤳Ȥ顤ե줬 the which ľܤΰȤʤäȤϹͤˤեϡѸŪȯãɽλѤ岡ۤɤä
ŪȯãȤȡűѸ seþe swa hwelc 1˵롥ʣطϡűѸƥ Lindisfarne Gospels ˸ƤꡤȤƤϤդ路褦˻פ롥ͤγؼԤٻƤΤűѸ줢뤤ϽѸ se þe Υפδط˵ߤǡѲ þe which ֤줿ΤȤ (Mustanoja 198)
켣 (253) ˤ18ȾǤܾۤǤߤϻ¾ѤȤʤäƤ뤬OED ǤκǤ٤ϡ"1884 Tennyson Becket Prol. 20 He holp the King to break down our castles, for the which I hate him." ȤʤäƤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
Ѹ˾3ñ -s 3ʣ -s ˤĤơ3sp 3pp ¿εǤ줾ƤǡޤΩʤ3ñΥȤ꤬롥褯ΤƤΤϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1])#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦 AAVE Ǥ -s æȤݤ뤷ɤǤ East Anglia Υѥˤƿ;Ρˤ餺¤ߥȤȤ㤬롥
Wright (119) ˤ3ñΥ˴ؤˤγάˤСEast Anglia ˤ3ñΥε15ˤΤܤꡤŪʲˤС¾ο;θΥ3ñŪ˳ĥΤȤ뤬ܿαƶǤϤʤȤ⤢롥16ȾޤǤˤϡNorfolk β²41--77%ȤΨ -th ˥ѤƤȤ𤬤ꡤEast Midland Ϥθ3ñΥ濴ϤǤ³Ƥ롥Helsinki Corpus ĴˤСŪˤߤ3ñΥ2%Ȥ㤤Ψʤ East Anglia ˸¤餺ʬۤƤΤ¤ǤꡤŤѸʸˤƤޤ˽вȤϤ롥
Wright κǿʸϡ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire пȤΤ뽾ͤˤѥȤĴ21%Ȥͽ۰ʾι⤤Ψ3ñΥѤƤ뤳ȤͤߤWright ϡEast Anglia ȤŪˤΥ줿ϰǡ餯λ˸ꤷơ3ñΥʬۤƤΤǤϤʤȿ¬ޤΰŪʬۤϡľ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) षľɸŪ -s 礷Ƥäޤ˰ܹԴκˤߤ줿ĤʤŪʬۤȷŤ
Wright εϹäƤ뤬ʤȤѸΤϤ¤ꡤ˱͡ʥѥबƤϾäƤäȤϳΤǤꡤ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire ˸Ū˾嵭Τ褦ʾäȤƤ⡤äˤϤʤ
Wright, Laura. "Some More on the History of Present-Tense -s, do and Zero: West Oxfordshire, 1837." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 1.1 (2015): 111--30.
ܥ֥ǤϡѸˤ˴ؤ뵭Ʊ餤Ѳ (language_change) ˴ؤ뵭ƤѲȤѸ䳵ǰȤƤطʤˤƤʤФʤʤȤ롥ϡѲ (linguistic change) üԺ (speaker-innovation) ζ̤Ǥ (Milroy 77) 줬ѲΤϡüԤո뤫Ǥ롥
üԤոȤäơ줬Ѳľ뤹Ȥϸ¤ʤ٤η֤뤳ȤΤʤˤʤ⤷ʤĿŪѰۤˤȤɤޤ뤫⤷ʤ줬ηϤΤʤ夷춦Ʊ˳ȤäƤϤơѲȤ롥ֽǤСüԺϸѲԤ롥ޤüԺߤθѲϤꤨʤȤȤǤ⤢롥ΤȤϹͤƤߤмǤϤ뤬䤿ϡָѲפݤˡФиηϤΧΤȤưüԤƤɤ롥ռŪˤΤ褦ˡΤäƤΤǤϾʤȻפ뤬ոκμΤüԤǤȤ¤ϡǰƬˤƤɬפ롥
ѲμΤüԤȸΤưפˤؤΤϡѲؤΰܹԤ˴ؤᥫ˥ब褯ƤʤǤ⤢롥Υᥫ˥1ĤȤ (invisible_hand) ƤƤ뤬ޤơθȤäƤ褤
褦ѸηǰȤơüԡʽġˤɤܿƤˤ⤫餺ФСָܿ (language contact) ȤȤ롥ܿȤΤΤ꤬櫓ǤϤʤäƾüܿȤǧοǤ롥
ѲüԺζ̤üԺߤθѲˤĤƤϡʲεˤƤΤǡȤ줿
#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])
#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])
#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])
#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])
Milroy, James. "A Social Model for the Interpretation of Language Change." History of Englishes. Ed. Matti Rissanen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 72--91.
ǸɽˤŪ칽¤롥ʸˡѸǤСΩʬ칽ʸľ and 빽¤פФ褤Ѹ줫ѸˤѤ졤ߤǤ⥢ɱѸ䥹åȥɱѸ˸ä칽¤Kremola and Filppula Helsinki Corpus ѤƤι¤ˤˤĤƤΤŪ䤹ʸʲ˺ƷǤ뤳Ȥˤ褦
And thei herynge these thingis, wenten awei oon aftir anothir, and thei bigunnen fro the eldre men; and Jhesus dwelte aloone, and the womman stondynge in the myddil. (Wyclif, John 8, 9, circa 1380)
For we have dwelt ay with hir still And was neuer fro hir day nor nyght. Hir kepars haue we bene And sho ay in oure sight. (York Plays, 120, circa 1459)
& ȝif it is founde þat he be of good name & able þat þe companye may be worscheped by him, he schal be resceyued, & elles nouȝht; & he to make an oþ with his gode wil to fulfille þe poyntes in þe paper, þer whiles god ȝiueþ hym grace of estat & of power (Book of London English, 54, 1389)
. . . and presently fixing mine eyes vpon a Gentleman-like object, I looked on him, as if I would suruay something through him, and make him my perspectiue: and hee much musing at my gazing, and I much gazing at his musing, at las he crost the way . . . (All the Workes of John Taylor the Water Poet, 1630)
. . . and I say, of seventy or eighty Carps, [I] only found five or six in the said pond, and those very sick and lean, and . . . (The Compleat Angler, 1653--1676)
Which would be hard on us, and me a widow. (Mar. Edgeworth, Absentee, xi, 1812) ʢòŪˡ
and Ƴˤư줬礱Ƥꡤ졤ʬ졤ʬ졤ƻ졤̾졤ֻʤɤΤħǤ롥Ūˤϼˤˤи뤳ȤǤǽŪˤΩʬ칽ʸƱͤƱӾɽ魯ιʸ٤ѸǤϵǡѸǾȤϤ˼Ū칽¤Ǥäˤϰ㤤ʤKremola and Filppula (311, 315) ϡŪΩʬ칽ʸȹƤ뤬ȤľܤˤϴطʤȯãǤꡤäƥƥåʹʸȤʤطʤȹͤƤ롥
Ǥϡι¤εϤɤˤΤKremola and Filppula (315) ϡ줬ѤƤ륱ˤĤƤϡƥгդ칽ʸδͿ⤢뤫⤷ʤȾ⤷ƤΤΡʳΥˤĤƤϥȽб빽¤αƶƤ롥
The infinitival type, which at least in its non-exclamatory use is closer to coordination than the other types, may well derive from the Latin accusative with the infinitive . . . But the non-infinitival constructions (and the exclamatory infinitival patterns), although they too are often considered to have their origins in the Latin absolute constructions, could also stem from another source, viz. Celtic languages. Whereas the Latin models typically lack the overt subordinator, subordinating and-structures closely equivalent to the ones met in Middle English and Early Modern English are a well-attested feature of the neighbouring Celtic languages from their earliest stages on.
伫ȤϥȷϸʤΤǡKremola and Filppula (315--16) ˵Ƥťɸ졤楦륺졤奢ɸ줫ʸŬڤɾǤʤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡǤ⤳ι¤ɱѸ䥹åȥɱѸ̤˸뤳ȤŦƤ롥
ʤFilppula ϡѸ˥ȽδŪƶ (substratum_theory) ǧ褦ȤҤǤ롥#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
Kremola, Juhani and Markku Filppula. "Subordinating Uses of and in the History of English." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
֤μѤȤФޤǽ˸ùܤפ⤫֤ʸˡܤμѤΤƤʤ櫓ǤϤʤʸˡѤŪޤǤ뤳Ȥϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1]) ε䡤#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) ˥ĥä¾ΤĤεǤ夲Ƥ̤źθϤʸˡѤθڤ⤤ȸĤ롥Ѹˤ˸¤äƤ⡤ʸˡѤβǽȤȤǤСȸ졤ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤եʤɤ͡ʸ䤬Ƥ
ʸˡܤμѤϸùܤμѤƱꤷˤͳ1ĤʸˡܤŪùܤΤ褦ʶŪʤΤǤаθ줫¾θذܤäȤȤǧ䤹칽¤ޤ줿ŪʸˡܤξˤϡľܰܤäΤɤǧˤͳ2ܤϡùܤȤϤ¸ߤΤФơʸˡƤ̸ŪˤबŪʤ̵ط2ĤθƱʸˡƤΩȯȤȤ⤢뤿ᡤѤβǽäȤƤ⿵ŤʤȤ
Thomason (93--94) ȡʸˡѤ뤤Ϲ¤Ū (structural interference) ˤϡ5ȤɬפǤ롥
(1) evidence of interference elsewhere in the language's structure
(2) to identify a source language, or at least its relative language(s)
(3) to find shared structural features in the proposed source and receiving language
(4) to show that the shared features were not present in the receiving language before it came into close contact with the source language
(5) to show that the shared features were present in the source language before it came into close contact with the receiving language.
5ĤξڵСA줫BʸˡܤѤ줿ȤϤäƸڤ뤳ȤǤȤȤȤ櫓ŪʲȤƤʸˡѤˤƤˤϡΤ褦ʾڵ·븫ߤϸ¤ʤ˶ᤤȤΤϡڵ·ˡ2ζŪʵҤξȤޤҲŪʾεҤܺ٤ˤʤƤʤФʤʤ
Ǥ⡤嵭5Τ٤ƤˤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⤢٤ʥϤ롥Τ褦ʾˤ⡤ǰΤˡʸˡܤ촳Ĥη̤ȤƤǤϤʤŪΩȯǽθɬפ롥װˤǡʸˡѤΰȤߤʤΤŤˤƲΩʸˡѤ̥ŪǿŤפǤ롥
Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.
#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1]) ǰ褦ˡμ (borrowing) ϲǤꡤѸ (loanword) Ϸ̤Ǥ롥Weinreich Ūˤζ̤ĤԤϾʤäȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Roberts ȤԤζ̤ˤĤƤ롥Roberts (31--32) ϡܿβ "fusion" ȸƤӡ̤ȤƤξ֤ "mixture" ȸƤʬޤRoberts "fusion" "mixture" 줾ʬȤȤˡΤ褦ʲ̤ʳˤ2ѾΥפ2ĤʬΤȤƸܿȤ٤ΤƤ롥ʲRoberts (32) οƸ褦

ľʸɤߤʤˤȴ¿Ѹ줬Ω¤Ǥ뤬줾ŪʻȤδ֤ߤδطȤ館ˤΤBILINGUALISM FUSION MIXTURE ȤŪȸ2ν̤ɾǤȤƤ⡤ʳˤĤƤѸ줬äƤݤǤꡤƤɤδطƤRoberts (31--32) ˤΤޤäƤ餪
When a bilingual situation ends, the surviving language (that is, the language whose grammar prevails) is colored in greater or less degree by the perishing language (that is, the language whose grammar succumbs). The extent of this coloring depends upon the relationship of the two languages during the antecedent bilingualism. Subordinative bilingualism results in admixture; a portion of the weaker language is added to the stronger, which still retains both its grammatical and its lexical integrity. Co-ordinative bilingualism results in intermixture; virtually the entire vocabulary of the weaker language is swallowed up by the stronger, which thereby loses its lexical, though not its grammatical, integrity.
The words admixture and intermixture, as here used, denote accomplished situations, the results of processes. To designate the generative processes, the terms affusion and interfusion, corresponding respectively to admixture and intermixture, are proposed. Affusion has three modalities: infusion, suffusion, and superfusion. Interfusion has three stages or temporalities: diffusion, circumfusion, and retrofusion.
Affusion 鸫ƤȡInfusion ̾θμѤ롥Suffusion ϡظƶ (substratum_theory) ξظ줫θŪƶ롥Superfusion (loan_translation) 롥importation substitution ȤΩȡռŪʴĤ̵ռŪʴĤȤΩޤˤʤä褦ʬ
Interfusion ܤȡDiffusion äȼѸäѰ˴ؤʬؤƤ롥Ѹäˤ̤λع¤ʤɤˤߤФ褤 Interfusion ʳ餵˿ʤȡCircumfusion ʳȤʤ롥Ǥ㤨ƸϤ٤ƥեƥѸǤäƤ⡤괬ǽȤʤ褦ʾ߽Ф롥ˡRetrofusion ϥ줫ΰΡפβǤꡤեθˡαƶ house beautiful, knights templars, sufficient likelihood, nocturnal darkness ʤɤɽ߽Ф롥
Roberts 2 (bilingualism) δǤΩƤ褦ȤŪǤʸ褦ǰʤ餦ޤäƤ褦ˤϻפʤϤΤܿȤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Thomason and Kaufman ˤǥ뤬ǯǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
Ѥ˴ؤȷ̤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ⻲ȡޤϢơ#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) εȤĥä⻲Ȥ줿
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Roberts, Murat H. "The Problem of the Hybrid Language". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939): 23--41.
¾줫Ѥ硤֤褽Τޤڤ importation ȡƼڤ substitution ̤롥̤ԤϼѸ (loanword) ȸƤФ졤Ԥѡʸ (loan_translation) ȸƤФ롥٤ʬѸ Haugen ˰͵ƽ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ˾뤬2μˡŪ礤㤷Ƥ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥
2Ĥμˡ̤ȤʤΤϡ̸θüѤθġλˤơˡǼѤ뤫ꤷƤΤϤʤװȤȤˤäơ뤤ϻˤäơ줫ޤȤΤϱѸˡܸˡ¾θˤǤǧƤꡤġη뤳ȤǤʤƱƱθġμѤλߤȡΤˤĤƤ importation ̤ΤΤˤĤƤ substitution ǤȤä롥ˤĤƤϸ̤˸ŪŪװõꡤ줾װθΤɬפΤºݾϳǧɽŪˤϼˡϥǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥ޤimportation substitution ΤʤȾ˺Ѥ֥磻פΤ褦 loanblend λ⸫졤ˡηϤʣˤʤ롥դˤĤƤϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1])#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1])#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ǤʬŪ˿Ƥ̤
importation ǤϤʤ substitution 쳰ŪװȤƿ˻פ⤫֤ΤϡüԡʽġˤƤ뤫⤷ʤؤŪ (cf. #2068. ؤ ([2014-12-25-1])) ؤΰ夬жۤɡ¾줫μؤܤ˸ƶӽȻפΤ̤ƤǤäѤȤȤˤʤСΤޤѤǤϤʤѤ깥ޤΤ⼫Ǥ롥Τ褦ǤСΤޤѤؤ
¾˹ͤѥȤƤϡѤطʤˤܿꤷ2ѾʤΤ뤤üԤθؤȼΤʤΤȤ̤롥ԤǤ substitution ¿ԤǤ importation ¿ȤWeinreich (109) ". . . language shifts are characterized by word transfers, while loan translations are the typical mark of stable bilingualism without a shift" Ȥǽ˸ڤƤ롥
ǡ#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1]) Ǽ֤ȶ̣űѸΥƥѤǤ substitution ¿äѸΥեѤȽѸΥƥѤǤ importation ¿äơԤ2ĤθüѤȤϡΡְŪ2Ѿפ졤ΡָءפϤ礦ɤΥߥǴѻΤǤ롥βǤϡְŪ2Ѿפȡָءפ֤ƤΤΡºݤˤϢ³ΤǤꡤΤʶߤ뤳ȤȤϤ롥βΤĴߤ礭ˡȤŪŪȡؤؤΤ褦ʼҲŪȤǽ뤫⤳ˤϴؿƤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
ͤФǤʤäƤ롥ȤäƤ褤ȤäƤ褤ؤȡŪ (purism) Ū¾˻뤳ȤꡤҲؾδؿȤʤ롥ޤǹԤʤȤ⡤ɸη䵬ϼγΩȤ褦ʸˤ顤ؤͿƤ롥äƤ븽ݤˤ⤫餺ηŪ˸椵줿ȤΤʤ꤫⤷ʤ
ΤʤǤ Weinreich "Sources of Language Loyalty" (99--102) ꤹϵͭͤǤ롥ؤȼӤʤ顤⤭ĦˤƤ롥ƱƳ (99) Ѥ褦
The sociolinguistic study of language contact needs a term to describe a phenomenon which corresponds to language approximately as nationalism corresponds to nationality. The term LANGUAGE LOYALTY has been proposed for this purpose. A language, like nationality, may be thought of as a set of behavior norms; language loyalty, like nationalism, would designate the state of mind in which the language (like the nationality), as an intact entity, and in contrast to other languages, assumes a high position in a scale of values, a position in need of being "defended." Language loyalty, like nationalism, can be "an idée-force which fills man's brain and heart with new thoughts and sentiments and drives him to translate his consciousness into deeds of organized action." In response to an impending language shift, it produces an attempt at preserving the threatened language . . .; as a reaction to interference, it makes the standardized version of the language a symbol and a cause. Language loyalty might be defined, then, as a principle---its specific content varies from case to case---in the name of which people will rally themselves and their fellow speakers consciously and explicitly to resist changes in either the functions of their language (as a result of a language shift) or in the structure or vocabulary (as a consequence of interference). Thus in the field of sociolinguistics purism, standardization, language loyalty, and related defensive mechanisms are phenomena of major importance requiring systematic treatment, even if, for understandable reasons, they are considered irrelevant in descriptive structural linguistics.
³ Weinreich (100--01) ϡɤΤ褦ʾﲼˤƸؤȯ䤹狼䤹⤤Ƥ롥
It is in a situation of language contact that people most easily become aware of the peculiarities of their language as against others, and it is there that the pure or standardized language most easily becomes the symbol of group integrity. Language loyalty breeds in contact situations just as nationalism breeds on ethnic borders. . . . / Thus language loyalty, like a nativistic movement, is "unlikely to arise in situations where both societies are satisfied with their current relationship." It is rather frustrated superiority feelings that cause language loyalty to develop.
ξɽ碌СгŪʶĥפΥɤϡ#1876. ġ ([2014-06-16-1])#2029. ܤ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-16-1])#2030. ꥹ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-17-1]) ǤѤƤˤƤȤˤƤ⡤ռܳФΤϡ¾ԤȤβ餫ܿˤƤꤨʤäơ㤨нѸˤ륤ꡤܸˤץꡤܸˤ륫ʸ⡤줾ξˤ¾ԤǤ뤫¾ԤȼδطϤʤΤθ뤳ȤʤˤϡŬڤ˰ȤǤʤ (cf. #1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]))
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
촳Ĥװ٤ˤĤơޤǰʲε͡˹ͤƤ
#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])
#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])
#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1])
#2065. ʸμѼ (2) ([2014-12-22-1])
ϡ촳Ĥ¥ʤ롦˳빽¤Ū¤ŪװˤƤޤȤ Weinreich (64--65) ˤɽǤ褦PDFǤįʤ顤Ѳ̤Ʊͤ˸촳ĤˤѲ⡤ŪŪξװˤäƾդƤǽˤ뤳ȤǧϢơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ڤ multiple causation γƵ⻲Ȥ줿
| FORM OF INTERFERENCE | EXAMPLE | STRUCTURAL | NON-STRUCTURAL | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| STIMULI | RESISTANCE FACTORS | STIMULI | RESISTANCE FACTORS | ||
| All interference | Any points of difference between two systems | Stability of systems; requirements of intelligibility | Social value of source (model, primary) language; bilingual interlocutors; affective speech; individual propensity for speech mixture; etc. | Social value of recipient language; intolerance of interference; puristic attitudes toward recipient (secondary) language; loyalty to mother-tongue; unilingual interlocutors; etc. | |
| Phonic | |||||
| Under-differentiation of phonemes | /d/ and /t/ not differentiated | Absence of corresponding distinctions in primary language | Functional yield of the distinction | --- | Loyalty to secondary language |
| Over-differentiation of phonemes | [k] and [kh] treated as separate phonemes | Presence of distinction (only) in primary language | --- | --- | --- |
| Reinterpretation of relevant features | Voiceless /p/ treated as phonemically tense and only concomitantly voiceless | Different phonemic systems | Existence of appropriate holes in the pattern | --- | --- |
| Phone substitution | [r] for [R] where there is only one trill phoneme | Different pronunciations equivalent phonemes | Danger of confusion with another phoneme | Social value of primary language | Loyalty to secondary language |
| Integration of loanwords | English /rajs/ into Hawaiian /lɑiki/ | Difference in phonemic systems; homogeneous but different type of word structure in recipient language | Potential homonymy (?) | Intolerance of recognizable loanwords; unilingualism of speaker | Social value of source language |
| Grammatical | |||||
| Transfer of morphemes | Slovak-German in Pressburg-u; Yiddish-English job-shmob | Congruent systems, much common vocabulary, relatively unbound morphemes, greater phonemic bulk | Non-congruent systems; complicated functions of morphemes | Affectiveness of categories | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Transfer of grammatical relations | German-English I come soon home | Different relation patterns | Conflict with existing relations | Affectiveness of categories | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Change in function of "indigenous" morpheme or category | German-English how long are you here? | Greater explicitness of model (usually) | --- | --- | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Abandonment of obligatory categories | Loss of old French tense system in Creole | Very different grammatical systems | --- | Makeshift language | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Integration of loanwords | English change into Amer. Portuguese chinjar | Homogeneous word structure in recipient language | --- | Intolerance of recognizable loanwords; unilingualism of speaker | Social value of source language |
| Lexical | |||||
| Lexical interference as such | --- | Structural weak points in recipient vocabulary, need to match differentiations in source language | Existence of adequate vocabulary | Lexical inadequacy in face of innovations; oblivion of infrequent words, need for synonyms, prestige of source language, stylistic effect of mixture | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Outright transfer of words (rather than semantic extension) | German Telephon rather than Fernsprecher | Congenial form of word; possibility of polysemy (?) | Potential homonymy (?); uncongenial word form | Bilingualism of interlocutors | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Phonic adjustment of cognates | Spanish /euˈropa/ into /juˈropa/ on English model | Economy of a single form | --- | --- | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Specialized retention of an "indigenous" word after borrowing of an equivalent | French chose, retained and distinguished from cause | No confusion in semantemes | Elimination of superfluous terms | --- | --- |
ε#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ³ʸμѤˤߤ붦ˤĤơʸΰȤСѤ˺ݤƤξԤδ֤˶뤳ȤԻĤǤϤʤ⤷ʤޤꤳΤ褦ʻӤϤƤʤäȻפΤǡηˤĤƤθڤߤĤȡʤۤɤȴƤޤ
ƱͤˡWeinreich Linton (Linton, Ralph, ed. Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes. New York, 1940) ˰͵ʤ顤ʤ붦2ĤۤɻŦƤ롥1Ĥϡ¸θƱ줬¾줫Ѥ˴ؤ롥Ǥ˼¸ߤƱ줬¾줫Ѥˤϡ(1) ξΰ̣˺Ʊ롤(2) Ѹ줬֤롤(2) ξθ줬̣㤨ʤ鶦¸롤Τ줫Ȥ롥(3) ƻʤɤʸŪʹܤμѤˤĤƤ뤳ȤǤϤʤWeinreich (55fn) ۩
Similarly in culture contact. "The substitution of a new culture element," Linton writes . . ., "by no means always results in the complete elimination of the old one. There are many cases of partial . . . replacement. . . . Stone knives may continue to be used for ritual purposes long after the metal ones have superseded them elsewhere."
¸ιबòʤɤʤ餢ޤĤȤϡʸˡʤɤܤƤ exaptation ˤӤ (cf. #1586. ʬβ̶ʬ ([2013-08-30-1]))
ʸμѤˤߤ2ܤζϡѤ¥ʤװ˳װ˴ؤΤǤ롥μѼ٤η˴Ϳװϡ¤ŪʸŪˤʤΤ¤Ūʸ쳰ŪˤʤΤ2ʬ롥ԤϸηϤؤٹ礤˴ؤꡤԤ㤨2ѼԤνȯäξܿμҲʸŪĶʤɤޤʡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ⻲)Weinreich (66--67fn)ϡʸؼԤƶ˿ʤ顤ʸμѤˤƱͤ˹¤Ū¤ŪװǧȤƤ롥
Distinctions parallel to those between stimuli and resistance, structural and non-structural factors, occur implicitly in studies of acculturation, too. Thus, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits . . . distinguish culture traits "presented" (=stimuli) from those "selected" in acculturation situations, and stress the "significance of understanding the resistance to traits as well as the acceptance of them." They also name "congruity of existing culture-patterns" as a reason for a selection of traits; this corresponds to structural stimuli in language contact. When Linton observes . . . that "new things are borrowed on the basis of their utility, compatibility with preëxisting culture patterns, and prestige associations," his three factors are equivalent, roughly, to structural stimuli of interference, structural resistance, and nonstructural stimuli, respectively. Kroeber . . . devotes a special discussion to resistance against diffusion. Resistance to cultural borrowing is also the subject of a separate article by Devereux and Loeb . . ., who distinguish between "resistance to the cultural item"---corresponding roughly to structural resistance in language contact---and "resistance to the lender." These authors also discuss resistance ON THE PART OF the "lender," e.g. the attempts of the Dutch to prevent Malayans, by law, from learning the Dutch language. No equivalent lender's resistance seems to operate in language contact, unless the inconspicuousness of a strongly varying, phonemically slight morpheme with complicated grammatical functions be considered as a point of resistance to transfer within the source language . . . .
Τ褦ʸȸˤѤӤϡؤʸؤȤγغŪʸꡤؤθơޤˤʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
μѼ (scale of adoptability) ˤĤơ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤŪˤϡäǤеǽƸ줬Ūʰ̣ĸ϶Ūʰ̣ĸΤ֤ۤǤμѤưפǤ롥ΤȤϳΤľˤ礦٤ϼ¾ڤƤ⤤롥
Whitney, Haugen, Moravcsik, Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤƱѤؤδؿ Weinreich (35) μѼ٤ˤĤƹ͵椷Ƥ뤬礤Ϥ俵ŤǤ롥
It may be possible to range the morpheme classes of a language in a continuous series from the most structurally and syntagmatically integrated inflectional ending, through such "grammatical words" as prepositions, articles, or auxiliary verbs, to full-fledged words like nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and on to independent adverbs and completely unintegrated interjections. Then this hypothesis might be set up: The fuller the integration of the morpheme, the less likelihood of its transfer. A scale of this type was envisaged by Whitney in 1881 . . . and by many linguistics since. Haugen . . . discusses it as the "scale of adoptability," without, perhaps, sufficiently emphasizing its still hypothetical nature as far as bilinguals' speech is concerned. It should be clear how much painstaking observation and analysis is necessary before this hypothesis can be put to the test.
Weinreich ˴ؤǡƤΤϡμѤʸμ (acculturation) δ֤ŦƤ뤳ȤΰѤƱڡεˡΤ褦ˤ롥
Students of acculturation face a similar problem---almost equally unexplored---of rating culture elements according to their transferability. "It seems," says Linton in a tentative remark . . ., "that, other things [e.g. prestige associations] being equal, certain sorts of culture elements are more easily transferable than others. Tangible objects such as tools, utensils, or ornaments are taken over with great ease, in fact they are usually the first things transferred in contact situations. . . . The transfer of elements which lack the concreteness and ready observability of objects is the most difficult of all. . . . In general, the more abstract the element, the more difficult the transfer."
ˤʸˤ衤ζȼѲǽϢƤȤȤޤǤϻĤʤϡΤȤȼѤimportation substitution ȤˤȤδ֤ˤⲿ餫شطꤦȤȤ㤨СŪʸʸϡݤˡפ˥ǥΤޤ뷹 (importation) äꡤդŪʤΤϡפƼ (substitution or loan_translation) äꤹ뤤ϡषդηΤ
Ѥˤ importation substitution ˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1])#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1]) ʤɤǰäƤˤȤɤޤ餺礭ʸˤʤꤦȤȤ⤷ʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
μ (borrowing) ȼѸ (loanword) Ȥϰۤʤ롥ԤϲǤꡤԤϷ̤Ǥ롥ξԤ̤ɬפˤĤơ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǰäƤ̤Ǥ롥
ܿʬ餳ζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤĥƤԤ1ͤˡWeinreich (11) 롥
In speech, interference is like sand carried by a stream; in language, it is the sedimented sand deposited on the bottom of a lake. The two phases of interference should be distinguished. In speech, it occurs anew in the utterances of the bilingual speaker as a result of his personal knowledge of the other tongue. In language, we find interference phenomena which, having frequently occurred in the speech of bilinguals, have become habitualized and established. Their use is no longer dependent on bilingualism. When a speaker of language X uses a form of foreign origin not as an on-the-spot borrowing from language Y, but because he has heard it used by others in X-utterances, then this borrowed element can be considered, from the descriptive viewpoint, to have become a part of LANGUAGE X.
ȤƤμѤȷ̤ȤƤμѸϸ촳 (interference) 2Ĥΰۤʤ̤Ǥ롥Ԥ parole ˡԤ langue °ȸƤ褤⤷ʤ³ Weinreich Ʊڡεǡζ̤νǧƤԸϾʤȤʤ顤ʲθ˿Ƥ롥
The only one to have drawn the theoretical distinction seems to be Roberts (450, 31f.), who arbitrarily calls the generative process "fusion" and the accomplished result "mixture." In anthropology, Linton (312, 474) distinguishes in the introduction of a new culture element "(1) its initial acceptance by innovators, (2) its dissemination to other members of the society, and (3) the modifications by which it is finally adjusted to the preexisting culture matrix."
ä˿ؼ Linton ΰʬܤʸޤȹͤʸŪǤƳˤ3ʳ̤ȤŦ뤬ϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ (1) potential for change, (3) diffusion, (2) implementation ˴ˤ䤫бƤ褦˻פ롥ѤϡѸμơ硤ȤʳФʤʹԤƤȤμѤˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʣŪưŪʤȤ館ɬפǤ롥"dissemination" "diffusion" ΥơȴϢơóȻ (lexical_diffusion) γƵȤ櫓#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) ǡKrygier ˤϢʸɤεκǸǡseek /k/ ǹԤ줿ťΥɸƱ /k/ αƶˤΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤Krygier ϤٻƤ롥ǫϤʤΤǡפƤ
εǤȤꡤűѸб sēċan ǤꡤλҲ [k] ǤϤʤŸ˻ [ʧ] äθβϡGmc *sōkjan ˤƸ [j] ³ƤȤˤ줿ΤǤ롥űѸθ߷ޤǤϸ줿 [ʧ] 뤬2;ñ3;ñζΤߤ sēcst, sēcþ Τ褦 [k] ʤΥѥǤθؤˤĤƤϲŪʵ뤬ǤϾάˡŪʸˤȡ23;ñ [k] ѥ˹ꡤ1;ñʤɤ٤Ƥζ [k] ˻äȤ롥 (analogy) ΤʤǤѥǤοʿ (levelling) ȸƤФतβȤ (cf. #555. 2 analogy ([2010-11-03-1])) Hogg (7.42) ⤳ٻƤ롥
Following general principles of analogy . . . we would expect the nom.sg. to predominate over plural forms in nouns, and in strong verbs the present forms similarly to predominate over past forms. . . . In the present tense of weak verbs the alternation type sēcan ? sēcþ is, as would be predicted, the source of later seek, cf. beseech, where the affricate has been extended, perhaps on pragmatic grounds, and so for other similar verbs, such as think, work.
Krygier ϡ˵롥̾Ѥͭɸʷ̵ɸʷݤ߹ޤƤǤ롥ǤСsēċan ξ硤ष1;ñʤɤ [ʧ] ķ̵֤ɸȤߤʤϤ顤[ʧ] ؿʿƤ椯ΤڤȤ¤ȿФǤ롥ΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤष [ʧ] ؿʿ beseech ˴ؤƤϤĤΤǤꡤseek ˤĤƱФȤΤǤϤʤ
Krygier ϡseek Ʊ֥饹°ưʸ촴 [k] ļѲIưˤΥꥹȤä (catch (OFr cachier), dretch (OE dreccan), letch (OE læccan), quetch (OE cweccan), reach (OE rǣcan), reach (2) (OE reccan), rech (OE reccan), seek (OE sēcan), stretch (OE streccan), teach (OE tǣcan), think (OE þencan ? þyncan), watch (OE w(r)eccan), work (OE wyrcan)) ơ13ĤưˤĤơ5Ĥ˶ʬѸФ[k] [ʧ] 夲η̡ưΤȤƤΤȤƤ [ʧ] ͥǤϤĤưˤĤƤष [k] ͥǤ뤳ȤƾʤȤ¾٤٤Ȥ狼äŪˤϡHogg ΰѤͽۤ褦ˡseek, think, work 3줬Τ褦ʬۤ (Krygier 465)
Ǹˤä [k] ͥǤȤȤϡťΥɸδͿ碌롥ºݡ˵ưбťΥɸˤ [k] 롥3ˤĤƤСťΥɸ sœkja, þekkja/þykkja, yrkja Ǥ롥ξΤߤǤޤǤ뤬ξˤϸťΥɸλͿͤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤϡϤ [k] ɸȤƺѤ줿ȤʥꥪꤹΤߤseek beseech ʿŪȯãʤäΤϡťΥɸ sœkja ʸڤ뤬 *besœkja ʸڤʤȤȤطƤΤǤϤʤ (Krygier 468)
Krygier (468) ηʤΤǡѤƤ
By way of a summary, the following interpretation of the developments in the "seek"-group regarding velar restoration can be proposed. The Present-day English situation is a result of an interplay of two factors. One of them is analogical levelling of the alternations resulting from Primitive Old English syncope of medial unstressed [i]. Contrary to earlier scholarship, however, a path of development parallel to that in strong verbs is postulated, thus removing the minority velar forms from second and third person singular present tense. This would give palatal consonants throughout the present paradigm in all dialects of Late Old English/Early Middle English. On this pattern the influence of Old Norse equivalents of the "seek"-verbs should be superimposed. For obvious reasons, initially it was limited mainly to the north-east, later spreading southwards, with West Midlands as a possible relic area. The absence of an Old Norse equivalent would favour the preservation of the palatal type, while its existence would further velar restoration, as best exemplified by the seek ? beseech contrast. In individual cases other factors, such as the existence of etymologically related Old English words with a velar, e.g., wyrcan : weorc, could have played a secondary role, which can probably be seen primarily in isolated velar forms in the south.
Krygier, Marcin. "Old English (Non)-Palatalised */k/: Competing Forces of Change at Work in the "seek"-Verbs." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 461--73.
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1])#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1])#1884. եѸʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) 褦ˡΥޥαѸ˾ΰյϼȤƴŪǼҲŪʤΤǤ롥äˤϳΤ˾ʤ̱ƶľܤͿʸˡ䲻ؤαƶϤäȤƤϤǤ (cf. #204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1])#1815. ̾ one ˡϥեαƶ ([2014-04-16-1]))
ΥޥκιϡҲѸνϤåꡤѸäդزäȤǤȻϹͤƤ롥ˤäơѸϼͳãŷ̵˥˸Ѳ뤲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäǤ[2012-07-11-1][2012-08-17-1]εǰѤƤȽʣ뤬֥륷 (42--43) ޤΥޥΤɾƤ롥
1066ǯ˵ä礭ʽɬŪ֤ȼäơαƶʬͿĤĤäϤ֥Υޥͤˤѹ (conquête normande) ΤȤǤꡤˤäĤθ졤Ѹȥե줬ܿŪҲŪư줿줫Ĺ֡Ȼ۳ϱѸäʤʤǤ롥11溢ޤǤ˴˻ϤޤäƤĤθ츽ݤ⡤ȤȤ礷ǤϤΡ֥ΥޥͤˤѹפѸξ˷ŪʱƶͿȤϴְ㤤ʤ1300ǯޤǤˤĤΡܤ٤㳰̤ˤơȾʸغʡ¿νʪϰȤƥΥޥ줢뤤ϥƥǽƤΤǤѸΰҿ㲼֥Υޥͤˤѹװʹ߱ѸμפΤäդˤʤäΤǤ롥äդϽդݼ˳ήưŪǡפ˱뤳ȤΤǤ֤Ǥ롥Ĺʲβ̤Ƥ˱Ѹ줬ʸήξdzȤƤΰҸ᤹ȤǤѤդϡ֤λäդãȯãʳȿǤƤȹͤ롥פˡݼŪʽϤλߤ̵ʤäΤǤ롥¿Ȳ̶ʬä˸ƤʤˤƤϿŤǤʤФʤʤʤʤ顤űѸʳǻѤǤϡλο¿ڤƤȤϸ¤ʤǤˡݼŪʽϤλߤ̵ʤäȤϡʸؤȻθѰ (registre) ͰŪ˴ѤȤ߹ޤƤ¿θ줬ǤȤ䡤ä˷ŪѲ (paradigme) (désinence) ΤʤŰ줷ƴά줿Ȥˤ⸽Ƥ롥
֥륷ϱѸˡˤˤȳ̻ˤޤߤŪʱѸˤɽȻפ
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
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