ε#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ǰѤ Moravcsik ϡɤΤ褦ʸबѤ䤹ʤɡѤˤĤŪʹͻäƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1]) Ǥ夲Ѽ (scale of adoptability) Ǥ롥
Moravcsik (110--13) ϡѤζȤ7ܤƤ롥ʲιܤʬΤߤվȴФ
(1) No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexical items from the same source language.
(2) No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the class of properties borrowed from a particular source language unless some members of another constituent class are also so included which do serve as domains of accentuation and which properly include the same members of the former class.
(3) No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this class also includes at least one noun.
(4) A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
(5) No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed from a language unless at least one derivational affix also belongs to the set.
(6) A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) cannot be included in the set of properties borrowed from a language unless the rule that determines its linear order with respect to its head is also so included.
(7) Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that class are not inflected in that language, if the language has borrowed lexical items that belong to that constituent class, at least some of these must also be uninflected.
äƤޤäǤꡤ䤱ʣʰݤͿ뤬줾פȤФǸȤǤϤʤľŪˤ⤢ʤȤǤꡤŤ Haugen Thomason and Kaufman ŦƤतδްռ (implicational_scale) ؤθڤǤ롥(1) ϡùܤμѤʤùܡʸˡܤʤɡˤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(2) ϡ«Ǥޤ༫ͳŵŪˤϸˤΩƼѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ(3) ϡ̾μѤʤ̾ΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(4) ϡư줬Ọ̇̄ΤޤݤäޤѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ㤨СܸΡ֥ܥåȤפʤɤϥưλ٤ư첽ƤΤǤꡤѸư boycott ΤޤưȤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ϡǤμѤʤǤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(6) ϡ㤨ֻβỌ̇̄ΤߤѤ졤֤Ȥ쵬§ΤϼѤʤȤȤϤꤨʤȤʤĤޤꡤֻѤƤʤ顤ֻȤѤȤ褦ϤʤȤˡ(7) ϡǤ̵¸ߤˤ⤫餺¾줫μѸϰ̵ǤϤꤨʤȤϤʤȤ
Moravcsik ϰʾиŪƳФ줿ΤȤƤ뤫顤θθȿ㤬ĤʤѹɬפȤʤϤǤ롥ˤ Moravcsik Ƥ϶ˤƹ¤ŪʡŪȯۤ˴ŤǤꡤߤθܿǽŻ뤵ƤѼԸĿͤο䤽νĤμҲŪʤɤδϤܴۤ˼ξݤƤcf. #1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])ˡȤлʤΤŪؤδؿƤȤϤΤΡ¤Ūʻˤȿ;ϤϻĤƤΤǤϤʤȤפΩ줫顤ްռ٤εҤ̲ƤȤǤ
Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.
ε#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǡּѡ (borrowing) ʤɤѸ˸ڤ̩ˤСˤּѡפȤѸ̷ϤǤ롥A줫BؤबּѡפȤBˤ錄ΤϤθʣʥԡˤǤꡤΤA˻ĤΤΡּѡפδŪȡѸ̷ˤĤƤϡ#44. ּѡפˤߤ ([2009-06-11-1]) ǸȤǤ롥
Ѥι¤Ū Moravcsik (99 fn) ⡤ѸȤƤμѤȡ̤ˤʪμѤȤΥˤĤưʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Needless to say, this use of the term "borrowing" is very different from the way the term is used in everyday language. Whereas, according to everyday usage, an object is borrowed if it passes from the use of the owner into the temporary use of someone else and thus at no point in time is it being used by both, according to linguistic usage the source language may continue to include the particular property that has been "borrowed" from it. Thus, what the latter implies is 'permanently' acquiring a copy of an object,' rather than 'temporarily' acquiring an object itself.'
ʤۤɡˤѤϡ֥ԡʵŪ˳뤳ȡפȤŦǼǤ롥ϡε ([2009-06-11-1]) (3) ˤĤƽҤ٤ΤƤ褤顤ѲγȻȤϳŪʸΥԡüԤ餽ٿͤذư뤳ȤϢ³ǤȤǽȤʤ롥
ˤѡʤ뤤ϤŪ˸ѲγȻˤȤϡԡʤϢ³ˤǤȤȴϢƻפФΤϡꥢο (neolinguistics) ΩϡѲγȻ˺ݤƤΤϥԡǤϤʤȸڤ롥üԤٿͤŪʸΡʣ (copy) äƤΤǤϤʤθ (imitation) 뤤ϡֺ¤ (re-creation) ƤΤȼĥ롥Bonfante (356) ۩
The neolinguists assert that linguistic creations, whether phonetic, morphological, syntactic, or lexical, spread by imitation. Imitation is not a slavish copying; it is the re-creation of an impulse or spiritual stimulus received from outside, a re-creation which gives to the linguistic fact a new shape and a new spirit, the imprint of the speaker's own personality.
ˤƼѤȤѸ줬̷ƤȤŪ꤫ȯơΤˤϥԡʣˤȸƤ֤٤Ȥ夤Ȼפ䡤ؤλ顤䤽Ǥ¤ǤȤƤФ줿#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǤҤ٤ؤθѤˤϡüԸĿͤ¤Ż뤹롥ػˤˤƿؤϼήɤˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤȤʤäƤȾ˺줿¸ߤԻĤ̥Ϥäɾ٤ɤȻפ
Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.
ɸ˵ѸϡܿʬѽФѸǤꡤͤŪˤⶦͭƤ褦˻פ롥٤ߤФϸԤˤۤʤäƤꡤŪ˵뤿ˤϡǧƤɬפΤѸ췲Ǥ⤢롥㤨 (borrowing) ȤѸ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϤǤ롥
ε#2008. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡܿʬζ1ĤȤ Weinreich Languages in Contact 롥ƬˡɸѸͿƤ롥
In the present study, two or more languages will be said to be IN CONTACT if they are used alternately by the same persons. The language-using individuals are thus the locus of the contact.
The practice of alternately using two languages will be called BILINGUALISM, and the persons involved, BILINGUAL. Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be refereed to as INTERFERENCE phenomena. It is these phenomena of speech, and their impact on the norms of either language exposed to contact, that invite the interest of the linguist. (Weinreich 1)
ΰѤ³ǡ¤Ω줫顤"interference" Ϲ¤ȤؤްդΤǤȤΤ褦ʴްդĤȤϸ¤ʤ "borrowing" Ȥ϶̤٤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥¤ȤؤȼʤɽŪʸäμѤʤɤؤ "borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤȤƤ⡤äμѤȤƴ¸θạ̈ι¤˱ƶͿ뤳Ȥꤦʾ塤"borrowing" ȤѸλѤˤϿŤǤ٤Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
ܽκμĥ1Ĥ嵭Ѥ2ʸʤʤܽ2ʸˤ˽Ƥ롥ܿξϡХĿͤǤȤȤޤХȤѸϺ¤˹ᤵƤ뤳Ȥˤդ줿̤鷺2ĤѼ˰ۤʤ줫˶ᤤޤˤ餫ͼǺ礷ؤꤹѤ bilingualism ǤꡤĿͤ bilingual Ǥ롥äơˤСñʤΡּѡפ⡤츫ȹ٤ʵѤˤߤ code-switching ⡤Ȥ bilingualism ȤȤˤʤ롥ơΰĤҤȤĤζŪʸθ줬ĤȤȤˤʤ롥
줯餤ȡϢƹͤ뤢븽ݤܿȤʤ롥ѸΥХȤ뤤ϵΤ褵ε ([2014-10-26-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬ̵¤γƤȤȤ⤷ʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1]) εǡǯѲθܿ (language contact) ˵ͤƤƤ롥ܿˤ1970--80ǯϤषƤ1990ǯʹߡɤᤷƤ褦ؤǤθܿθˤϰƳȸŤϡȤ Drinka (325--28) γ˰͵ơܿάˤ
άˤΥȤȤơJohannes Schmidt (1843--1901) ̾#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ʤɤεǸ褦ˡSchmidt ϡ֤δطȤ館뤿Ȥƻվ August Schleicher (1821--68) 1860ǯ Stammbaumtheorie (Family Tree Theory) й1872ǯ Wellentheorie (wave_theory) Schmidt ΤƤϸŪ濴դؤŪȵڤƤȤƤꡤܿ˴ŤƸѲ褦ȤǥȤʤä
λǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) 뤬Τʤǰۺ Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927) ޤܿν鵤ŤƤ1ͤǤ롥Schuchardt ϡԥ䥯쥪ʤɺθüʪǤ⤢롥
20ȡեؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ˤؤ롥1930ǯˤ Kristian Sandfeld ˤХ륫 (linguistique balkanique) ϻϤ졤ϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ܤĤꥢǤϡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡMatteo Bartoli ˤ꿷 (Neolinguistics) 졤Ѳˤ濴ȼդΩطɵ椵줿1940ǯˤ Franz Boaz Roman Jakobson ʤɤθؼԤ춭ۤγȻˤĤ
ܿʬǺǽηŪŪʸȤСWeinreich Languages in Contact (1953) Weinreich ϡܿξϸǤҲǤʤ2üԤĿͤˤ뤳ȤȤǡ˾̾ĤƤ롥Weinreich ϡվ André Martinet ι¤ؤθȤʤ⡤Ҳؤ俴ؤδŻ뤷θθܿ˳ΤͿ1970ǯˤϡPeter Trudgill ŪγȻΤ⤦1ĤΥǥȤ "gravity model" cf.#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡ
1970ǯȾϡ˸ؤΥץȤʤäƤۤĿͤ뤤ϼҲ2 (bilingualism) ˴ؤ뿴Ūʴθ¿ʤäƤߤǤϸܿ͡ʬؤʬƤꡤʲϤ¿ɤĤΤǤ롥 (language_shift)ײ (language_planning)2ѤˤǾƯȽcode-switchingѤ亮ι¤ŪѲԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) ʤɤܿ (contact language)ϰ (areal linguistics) (linguistic_area) (Matras 203)
ǸˡǯθܿˤƵǰṲ̄Ƥ븦1褦Thomason and Kaufman ˤ Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) Ǥ롥θθܿʬΤۤܤ٤Ƥθ椬¿ʤȤ⤳αƶƤȤäƤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ĥε (cf. Thomason and Kaufman) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) ޤᡤ2;Τ˸ܿѲˤ쳰ŪװνˤĤʣεƤ (cf. [2014-09-25-1], [2014-09-26-1], [2014-10-04-1]) ϡΥХ뤿ˡ쳰ŪװФ뿵ߤƤHickey (195) ϡ餬ܿԤǤۤɤҤ"Language Change" ꤹʸϤǡܿˤѲˤĤŤʸƤ롥
Already in 19th century Indo-European studies contact appears as an explanation for change though by and large mainstream Indo-Europeanists preferred language-internal accounts. One should stress that strictly speaking contact is not so much an explanation for language change as a suggestion for the source of a change, that is, it does not say why a change took place but rather where it came from. For instance, a language such as Irish or Welsh may have VSO as a result of early contact with languages also showing this word order. However, this does not explain how VSO arose in the first place (assuming that it is not an original word order for any language). The upshot of this is that contact accounts frequently just push back the quest for explanation a stage further.
Considerable criticism has been levelled at contact accounts because scholars have often been all too ready to accept contact as a source, to the neglect of internal factors or inherited features within a language. This readiness to accept contact, particularly when other possibilities have not been given due consideration, has led to much criticism of contact accounts in the 1970s and 1980s . . . . However, a certain swing around can be seen from the 1990s onwards, a re-valorisation of language contact when considered from an objective and linguistically acceptable point of view as demanded by Thomason & Kaufman (1988) . . . .
ܿϡѲʤǤϤʤѲɤ餭ˤˤθˤĤƤϲäƤʤȤȽˤθ˴ؤ¤ꡤΤˤȽŪͤƤ褦ˤפ롥θѲľܤΡָפȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤Ū˰ˤʤäƤꡤǤ̤θǻϤޤäƤѲ˰첡äʤɡ餫ηǻͿװפȤơ꿵ŤˤСֽװ1ġפȤơٵҴŪ˻Ŧ뤳ȤΤǤܿλϤ롥ιʰ̣ˤָ쳰ŪװפʸĬϡΰѤˤ⤢Ȥꡤ1990ǯ夫ƤҤ줿̡ܿ쳰Ūװ°פ˷뤭餤Τˤ褦˻פ졤ηǰ狼ʤǤϤʤεǸ褦˸ŪװǥեȤȤƤѲˤĹפСܿʸɤιϤ褦䤯ϤޤäФΤ褦ˤ⸫롥
˰Ѥ Hickey "Language Change" ϡ¤줿ʤ⡤Ѳݤ褯ޤȤɼβʸǤ롥ʲͤޤǤܼƤ
Introduction
Issues in language change
Internal and external factors
Simplicity and symmetry
Iconicity and indexicality
Markedness and naturalness
Telic changes and epiphenomena
Mergers and distinctions
Possible changes
Unidirectionality of change
Ebb and flow
Change and levels of language
Phonological change
Morphological change
Syntactic change
The study of universal grammar
The principles and parameters model
Semantic change
Pragmatic change
Methodologies
Comparative method
Internal reconstruction
Analogy
Sociolinguistic investigations
Data collection method
Genre variation and stylistics
Pathways of change
Long-term change: Grammaticalization
Large-scale changes: The typological perspective
Contact accounts
Language areas (Sprachbünde)
Conclusion
Hickey, Raymond. "Language Change." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 171--202.
Ѳˤ쳰ŪװȸŪװˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ ##443,1232,1233,1582,1584,1977,1978,1986 ʤɤεǵǶǤϡ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) Ǥƹͤ쳰ŪװνŦرĤˡ˯1 James Milroy 롥Milroy ϡΤˤС쳰ŪװŻ뤹ȤϡѲˤüԤä˽Ż뤹ԤǤ롥ָѲפȤηϤΤȤʤ褦ʸϤޤ깥ޤüԤˤפȤʹ֤ΤȤʤ褦ʸ֡"On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change" ꤹ Milroy ʸɤ
Milroy (144) ϡ褪ӸԤθѲˤơŪװǥեȤװǤȤǧ꤬ŪǤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
The assumption of endogeny, being generally the preferred hypothesis, functions in practice as the default hypothesis. Thus, if some particular change in history cannot be shown to have been initiated through language or dialect contact involving speakers, then it has been traditionally presented as endogenous. Usually, we do not know all the relevant facts, and this default position is partly the consequence of having insufficient data from the past to determine whether the change concerned was endogenous or externally induced or both: endogeny is the lectio facilior requiring less argumentation, and what Lass has called the more parsimonious solution to the problem.
ԶѹդʴطơŪװȸ쳰ŪװƱ̤֤ȤǤʤ뤤Ϥ˿ʤƸ쳰ŪװǥեȤȤ뤳ȤǤʤȤΤ Milroy λǤºݤΤȤξԤΥХɤ٤ΤΤʤΤʬʤΥХ϶ŪʸѲλˤĤƤʬʤȤ¿ŪˤϤʤʬʤǡΥХǤѤ뤿ˡMilroy ξװδͿȤȤΩΤäƤ褦˻פ롥Milroy (148) ۩
. . . seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. It seems that we need to clarify what has counted as 'internal' or 'external' more carefully and consistently than we have up to now, and to subject the internal/external dichotomy to more critical scrutiny.
ΤϡǤ롥ʤʤƱͤ˻ŪʼήɤΡҲ˸ؤȼҲؤȤŪǤꡤߤʬβǽȸ³ʬθ³ȲǽľܴؤȹͤƤ롥
Milroy (156) ʸνǡ쳰ŪװνŻϡɬ⤽켫ΤʳŪ˱뤳ȤϤǤοǰǤȼäƤ롥
There may be no empirical way of showing that language changes independently of social factors, but it has not primarily been my intention to demonstrate that endogenous change does not take place. The one example that I have discussed has shown that there are some situations in which it is necessary to adduce social explanations, and this may apply very much more widely. I happen to think that social matters are always involved, and that language internal concepts like 'drift' or 'phonological symmetry' are not explanatory . . . .
ѤκǸ˼Ƥή (drift) ʤüԺߤθѲؤȽˤĤƤϡǽŪεȴϢơ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
ܿʬǤϡѤ䤹Ϥ뤫ȤꡤʤѼ (scale of adoptability, or borrowability scale) äƵ깭ƤThomason and Kaufman ϼѤʤϤʤƤ뤬ȤƤѤ䤹ܤȤǤʤܤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ʤɤǵΰüߤƤŪʴˤ٤ä褽ɽȤ뼫Ωι⤤֤ǤѤ䤹ǡǤʤɤι«줿֤³ȤäΤʤ˲졤̣ʤɤμѤ⺮äƤ뤬ϽȤƤŪΤۤǤ롥
Ω줬ǤѤ䤹ŪʸˡܤǤѤˤȤŪʼ٤ϡľŪˤ䤹ġ㳰ŪʻϤˤ衤褽ƱդƤȤäƤ褤ȤǡŪʴǤϤʤǽŪʴˤѼ٤ȤΤϤˤĤ Matras (209--10) ̣ŦƤ롥
. . . it was proposed that borrowing hierarchies are sensitive to functional properties of discourse organization and speaker-hearer interaction. Items expressing contrast and change are more likely to be borrowed than items expressing addition and continuation. Discourse markers such as tags and interjections are on the whole more likely to be borrowed than conjunctions, and categories expressing attitudes to propositions (such as focus particles, phrasal adverbs like still or already, or modals) are more likely to be borrowed than categories that are part of the propositional content itself (such as prepositions, or adverbs of time and place). Contact susceptibility is thus stronger in categories that convey a stronger link to hearer expectations, indicating that contact-related change is initiated through the convergence of communication patterns . . . . In the domain of phonology and phonetics, sentence melody, intonation and tones appear more susceptible to borrowing than segmental features. One might take this a step further and suggest that contact first affects those functions of language that are primary or, in evolutionary perspective, primitive. Reacting to external stimuli, seeking attention, and seeking common ground with a counterpart or interlocutor. Contact-induced language change thus has the potential to help illuminate the internal composition of the grammatical apparatus, and indeed even its evolution.
ղûϤȤɸ (discourse_marker) ٤ɽ魯ʤɡʹռߥ˥εǽɽΤۤ̿ŪؼŪʵǽɽѤ䤹ȤŦǤ롥ɸϤƤʸ¾ǤΩƤ롤뤤ϴΩƤϤʤȤ⡤٤ʬΥǽݻƤ롥ĤޤꡤεǽŪʴˤ٤ϡŪΩ伫ͳ٤ȴϢƤ¤ˤơηŪʴˤ٤Ȥ̷⤷ʤषηŪʴΤʤ˼ޤʹˤʤΤǤϤʤ
ȡޤǹͻȤǡΰѤθȾǽҤ٤Ƥ첻˴ؤѼ٤ΤǤϡʬ֤֤겻פǤαΧŪǤΤۤѤ䤹Ȥ롥ηŪʴǤϡʬ䲻ǤμѤؤθڤϤäΧŪǤμѤϤۤȤˤ줿ȤʤΤǤϤʤʺε#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1]) (6) ȡˡΧŪǤŪ˼Ѥ䤹ȤŦȹ碌ơѤȾʬƤɾȡǽŪʼѼ٤Ƥ˰롥äʹΥߥ˥ľܴͿࡤСʴ֡˼ޤबǤʤΤѤ䤹ȤΤϡεǽȤߤơΤ˹Ūοʲ (evolution) ؤƶˤڤǤꡤɷŪǤ롥
Τ褦˰츫ʤۤɤȻפ碌ǤϤ뤬Ѥ줿ܤοȤߤȡdiscourse marker μѤϡʳ̿ŪؼŪʵǽɽŵŪˤ̾ưˤ٤ơŪ˾ʤȤϵ褦ʤŪʴȵǽŪʴबߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطǺѤѼ٤ƤΤ¿λ㸦椬ɬפˤʤäƤ
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Treffers-Daller μѤ˴ؤʸ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸɤߡ#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) դ٤ܤ¿뤳ȤΤäʲˡĤƤߤ롥
(1) ѤˤϸѲβ1ĤȤƹͻ٤¦̤뤬θǤϼȤƸŪ¦̤ܤƤܿǤˤ⤫餺쳰Ū¦̤ιͻҲŪʻʤäΤǤϤʤŪˤϡѤηȻɾθ椬٤Ƥ롥Treffers-Dalle (17--18) ΰʲλŦ狼䤹
. . . researchers have mainly focused on what Weinreich, Herzog and Labov (1968) have called the embedding problem and the constraints problem. . . . Other questions have received less systematic attention. The actuation problem and the transition problem (how and when do borrowed features enter the borrowing language and how do they spread through the system and among different groups of borrowing language speakers) have only recently been studied. The evaluation problem (the subjective evaluation of borrowing by different speaker groups) has not been investigated in much detail, even though many researchers report that borrowing is evaluated negatively.
(2) ѸΤߤʤ餺ܿΥơΤ˴ؤ뤬ǯϥͥåȤϤȤǥȯŸˤꡤѤεʪŪʾ¸ߤȤʤʤäƤĤޤꡤܿμѤäƤȤȤǤꡤѲϼѡʸˤμ̤ˤƶڤܤ
Due to modern advances in telecommunication and information technology and to more extensive traveling, members within such groupings, although not being physically adjacent, come into close contact with one another, and their language and communicative behaviors in general take on features from a joint pool . . . . (Meeuwis and Östman 38)
(3) Ūʸ桥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ "scale of adoptability" (or "borrowability scale") βˤĤơ2ѼԤäեѥѤƸڤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤOttawa-Hull ΥեˤѸѤ䡤եȥ2쥳ѥˤѤηڥȥ奢2¸女ѥˤʬϤʤɤϤƤ롥
(4) ˤѤȤʥ뤬ڤ곫ĤĤ롥ޤοϾʤ2ѼԤˤɸ (discourse marker) õǽμѤλ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥
(5) 嵭 (3) (4) Ȥط뤬2ѼԤμѤ˺ݤ뿴ŪʥץŪʬǤ롥#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡcode-switching ȤδϢȤʤ롥
(6) ȥ͡ꥺʤɱΧŪǤμ̡
ƺǿμѸϡηϤȤδϢˤƸȤϡüԸĿͤ뤤ϼҲȤδϢˤƸؿܤƤƤ褦ޤ̤ȤƤμѸ (loanword) ܤȤϡȤƤμ (borrowing) ܤȤؿѲ⤢褦
ĿͤȤƤϡ跿θηϤȤδϢˤƤμѤθˤƤ⡤ޤʤȤϤȹͤƤ롥㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ʤɤϡ¿;ϤĤƤȻפäƤ롥
Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. "Borrowing." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 17--35.
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
ε#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) ǻȤ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸˡָܿˤŪʱƶ (indirect influence in language contact) Ȥä (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (contact-induced interference) ˤƤϡABز餫θबư뤳ȤȤʤäƤ뤬ΰưɬȼʤ֤αƶȤΤ⤢ꤦ롥ŵŪȤƸܿȤʤäƴ¸θबפüꤹ븽ݤꡤѸˤǤťΥɸȤܿˤηϤοȤ꤬Фм夲롥Ǥϲ餫ζŪʸबťΥɸ줫űѸذư櫓ǤϤʤޤܿȤƸűѸŪʸѲʹԤˤʤΤ褦ʥϡִŪʱƶפȸƤ٤#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǽˤ Thomason "Loss of features" ȸƤ֤ȤǤꡤ̤ñ㲽 (simplification) ² (neutralization) ʤɤȸڤǤ⤢ (cf. ##928,931,932,1585,1839)
ִŪʱƶפϡθܿʤФθѲʤäȤǡѲθˤäơľŪʱƶ˾Ȥ̽פäƤ롥ָܿȤŪװ˿ȯ줿ŪѲפȤڤӲϰΤʤƤꡤ줾ʬʬ뤳ȤϤǤʤäơŪŪװΤɤ餬פȤ䤤ϰ̣ʤʤǤϡMeeuwis and Östman θ褦 "multiple causation" 뤤 "synergy" Ȥɬפ롥
. . . there is a host of generalization, avoidance, simplification and other processes at work in second-language acquisition, language shift, language death and other types of language contact, which show no isomorphic or qualitative correspondence with elements in the donor language or in a previous form of the recipient, affected language. These seemingly internal 'creations' of previously non-existent structures occur simply due to the contact situation, i.e. they would not have occurred in the language unless it had been in contact . . . and could thus not be explained without reference to a linguistic and cultural contact. Also, in all these fields, the phenomenon of 'multiple causation' or, as it is also called, 'synergy' has to be taken into account. Synergy refers to changes that occur internally in a language but are triggered by the contact with similar features, patterns, or rules in another language. Here, some qualitative resemblances to features in the donor language or in a pre-contact state of the affected language can be observed: the contact has given rise to a change in existing features. . . . '[S]ynergy' is a widely observable phenomenon that is too often slighted by keeping the distinction between internally and externally motivated language change too rigidly separate. (42)
Τ褦ʸݤФƤ "synergy" ̡ˤȤѸϽ鼪äƤͤ˶䤹Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվǵ
(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳ȤŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥ХθĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳ȤƤ
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
ε#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѤ Drinka Ʊ Companion ˼ϿƤ Luraghi ʸ˴Ť롥
ʸˡˤѲϡ֤Դʸã (imperfect language transmission from one generation to the next) ˿Ԥ롥Ҷθ콬κݤ˥ѥͤȤϰۤʤͤꤵ뤳ȤˤꡤʸˡȤͤLuraghi (359) ϡΤ褦ʡֻҶײפ2κŪʵꤲ롥
In spite of various implementations, the 'child-based theory' . . . leaves some basic questions unanswered, i.e., in the first place: how do children independently come up with the same reanalysis at exactly the same time . . . ? and, second, why does this happen in certain precise moments, while preceding generations of children have apparently done quite well setting parameters the same way as their parents did? In other words, the second question shows that the child-based theory does not account for the fact that not only languages may change, but also that they may exhibit no changes over remarkably long periods of time.
ҶײԤϡ2ܤεФƼΤ褦ĤޤꡤƤȻҤȤǤϤȤʤ PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) ۤʤäƤꡤѥͤΰȤʤΤۤʤΤȡʤ֤ϤۤʤΤ̤ΤޤޤǤ롥֤ϤۤʤäΤˤʤ뤿ˤϡ콬ʳηѰۤѲƤʤФʤʤϤĤޤꡤͤüԤѰۤѲƤȤͤʤ
ҶײΤ⤦1ĤȤơ"the serious problem that there is no positive evidence, in terms of real data from field research, for language change to happen between generations" (360) 롥ҲؤǤ Labov ĴʤɤˤѲθ줬ͤߤƤꡤиŪդ롥ѲγȻϿƤ롥⡤ѲγȻ˱ƶϤäƤΤϡۤȤɤ٤ƤΥˤơҶǤϤʤͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥
ʾȿäǡLuraghi ϸѲʤ켫ȤϺȳȻʤˤθϡŪˤϤ٤ƸܿˤǤ롥ξ硤ܿȤϤäƤ2Ĥθ֤ȤϤܿǤϤʤ2ĤѼ֡뤤2ĤθĿ (idiolect) ֤ȤϤܿޤࡥǾϤȤƤäʹΤߤδ֤Ÿ accommodation κѤ٤ƤθѲθǤ롤Ȥĥ
. . . in spite of varying social factors and different relations between social groups in case of language contact and in case of internal variation, mutual accommodation of speakers and hearers is the ultimate cause of change. The fact that an innovation is accepted within a community depends on the prestige of innovators and early adopters, and may be seen as a function of the willingness of a speaker/hearer to accommodate another speaker/hearer in interaction, and thus to behave as she/he thinks the other person would behave . . . . (369)
Luraghi ϡѲʤθˤäơŪ (innovation) ͤͤؤȳȻ (diffusion) Ƥ椯Ȥ櫓Ż뤷Ƥ롥ѲȤϲȤ˱ơʤ餽θѤäƤ뤬⸶§Ȥ Luraghi Drinka Τ褦˸ѲˤüԵڤüԶƱΤȤδطˤªȹͤƤ롥
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
˸ؤΥϥɥ֥åꡤDrinka ˤܿɤܿؤҲ𤷤ΰյĥȤŪǽ줿ʸϤǤꡤͽ̤Ѳˤ볰ŪװνĴƤΡ褯ͤƤȤݤ
Drinka ϡܿؤʬǿʱƶϤ Thomason and Kaufman μĥˤ褽褤ʤ顤ܿξ̤ͻˤäƺǽפΥѥϡɤθŪǤϤʤܿμ̤Ǥ롥ޤMilroy Mufwene μĥ˱äơѲüԸĿʹ֤ܿüȯ줬ƱΤعޤäƤ椯ΤǤȤΩȤ롥ˡ̾θѲ⡤ (linguistic_area) ⡤ԥ䥯쥪ˤߤ㤷Ѳ⡤ᥫ˥ƱǤȸƤꡤѲˤܿϰ̤˿Ƥ礭Ĥդ줿ΤǤȼĥ롥Τ褦Ωϡ¾ Normalfall "[contact . . . viewed as] potentially present in some way in virtually every given case of language change" ȰѤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
Drinka ͤηѤ褦
In conclusion, contact has emerged in recent studies as a more essential element in triggering linguistic innovation than had previously been assumed. Contact provides the context for change, in making features of one variety accessible to speakers of another. Bilingual or bidialectal speakers with access to the social values of features in both systems serve as a link between the two, a conduit of innovation from one variety to another. When close cultural contact among speakers of different varieties persists over long periods, linguistic areas can result, reflecting the ebb and flow of influence of one culture upon another. When speakers of mutually unintelligible languages encounter one another in the context of social symmetry, such as for purposes of trade, contact varieties such as pidgins may result; in contexts of social asymmetry, such as slavery, on the other hand, creoles are a more frequent result, reflecting the adjustments which are made as the contact variety becomes the native language of its users. As Mufwene points out, however, the same principles of change appear to be in operation in contact varieties as in other varieties---it is in the transmission of language and linguistic features from one individual to another, through the impetus of sociolinguistic pressure, where change occurs, and these principles will operate whether the transmission is occurring within or across the boundaries of a variety, as long as sufficient social motivation exists. (342--43)
ºݤΤȤ伫ȤѲˤäƸܿνФмĥƤΤǡڤˤ Drinka ΰոˤϻǤ롥ä Drinka Keller (invisible_hand) ؤθڤʤɡȤ¿
. . . self-interested individuals incorporate new features into their repertoire in order to align themselves with other individuals and groups, with the unforeseen result that the innovation moves across the population, speaker by speaker. (341)
ϢơѲˤŪŪװʲε⻲ͤˤ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
ƶϤ礭 Thomason and Kaufman θܿˤĤƤϡʲȡ
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) κǸDzʤĤäˡʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤפȤΤäĴ٤ƤߤȡʸˡӸݤʤΤ뤤Ϥ켫ȤưϸʤΤȤϡºݡʸˡθԤδ֤Ǥ褯ƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äϴϢʸˡθưäˤΰΰȯŸȳˤĤơTraugott εҤ˰͵Ƴ⤷
ʸˡϡ30;ǯۤɤƸؤ礭ʥɤȤĹƤ礭ͤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥߤ븫Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤष "the expansion of various kinds" Ȥߤ븫Ǥ롥ξԤȤˡ̣ȲѲʸˡѲΩĤĤⲿ餫ηǴؤäƤȤߤƤ롤ä˷ŪѲȤδطɤȤ館뤫ˤäΩ줬ʬƤ롥
Ūˤϡʸˡ "reduction and increased dependency" ȤߤƤ̣ɺ (semantic bleaching) Ȳθ (reduction) åȤˤʤäȤǡ"unidirectionality from more to less complex structure, from more to less lexical, contentful status" (Traugott 273) Ȥθĥ롥θ Givón "Today's morphology is yesterday's syntax." ΰ⤤ŵŪ˽Ƥ뤬˰̲ǡΤ褦ʰΥǥƤƤ롥ǤϡΧ (autonomy) ¾Ǥؤν° (dependency) ٹ礤ʤ顤ĤˤϾäƤޤȤʸˡΥ饤ե뤬ɽƤ롥
discourse > syntax > morphology > morphphonemics > zero
θϡ1990ǯȾаʹߡ¿Ƚˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäǤϤʤޤӸݤȤߤ븫ΨŪʷˤʤȤ븫Ф졤ȤȤˡæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ָò (lexicalisation) ʤɤΩǰŦ褦ˤʤäȿΰĤȤæʸˡȤϲòȤϲȤɵ椵褦ˤʤꡤʸˡȤޤΥեɤϳ礷Ƥä
ʸˡΤ⤦1Ĥθϡreduction ǤϤʤष expansion ǤȤΤʸˡܤ줿ϡƤޤˤäɽ줿ꡤˡʡʤɤ˴ؤΤäܤܤ³ɸʤɤܤȡʸˡȤϤष¤ŪʳĥǤŬϰϤγǤϤʤȤפƤ롥㤨Сؼ줬괧ؤʸˡ뤳Ȥˤꡤͭ̾ˤ³褦ˤʤꡤŬϰϤ̤Ȥʤäʸˡ̣ΰ̲ݲǤ뤳ȤͤСŬϰϤȤϼǤ롥 (productivity) γȸƤ褤ܸΡ֤Ȥǡפξɽɸؤȯãʤɤ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥª줺ष autonomy ͭƤȤͤ롥ˤơʸˡϸѲ (pragmaticalisation) βȤӤĤ褦ˤʤä
ʸˡ2ĤθҲ𤷤ǯǤʸˡϿäơʤȯŸȳ뤲Ƥ롥㤨С1990ǯιʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) оˤꡤʸˡθǤ̣ȷ֤ΥڥռʬϤܤ褦ˤʤä㤨Сñפ A lot of fans is for sale. ʣפ A lot of fans are for sale. ؤѲ A lot of our problems are psychological. Τ褦ɽƤΤߤȡʸˡȤȤΰʬϤȤ狼롥ۤˡgive an answer make a promise ʤɤΡַڤư괧ܹ̾פʣ⡤ʸʸˡʸˡδ뤳ȤǤ
ʸˡΰˤĤƤˤʤäƤ̤ϡȤͶƳ (invited inference) ŦƤ롥ޤ (analogy) ʬ (reanalysis) Τ褦ʸŤǰФƤ⡤ʸˡΰ⡤ưŤᥫ˥Ȥ顤ƲλߤʤƤƤ롥ȤΤϡʸˡȤϰʬϤǤȤͤ졤ʬϤȤϴ¸ι¤ȤȤ٤ʤƤʤΤȹͤ뤫ǡΥǥȤʸˡꤹȡŬ (Optimality Theory) ˤʬϤȤƤ롥ܿʬϡʸˡμѤȤⰷ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʸˡΰϸ¤ʤȤäƤƤ롥
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Grammaticalization." Chapter 15 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 271--85.
ε#1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ǰä̾Ʊ餤ťΥɸ줫αƶȤƤΤˡɤ̾롥ˤĤƤϡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) ϿޤǤƾҲ𤷤ΤʤǤȤ櫓¿ΤťΥɸ -by ղä Derby, Grimsby, Rugby, Thoresby, Whitby ʤɤ̾Ǥ롥600ʾ -by ̾ǧƤꡤʬۤ the Danelaw ФäƤ뤳Ȥ顤ťΥɸ "farm; town" ̣ by αƶ餫ʤ褦˸ (Baugh and Cable 98) ޤ6ä the Five Boroughs ˽椷ƤȤ (Miller 103)
ԤȤ Miller (102--04) ˤС餬ťΥɸϢ -by Ѥ̾Ǥ뤳ȤϳΤʤ⡤̾ΥѥƱΥǥʥǰŪʤΤǤϤʤäȤ10--11˺줿 the Danelaw -by ̾ˤǤȤƿ̾ΤĤΤ¿ǥʥǤϡֿ̾ -byפΥѥϸߤ˻ޤǤۤ¿ʤĤޤꡤ̾ the Danelaw ˤ Anglo-Scandinavia ȼΤΤǤꡤषǥʥˤƱ̾ the Danelaw ε͢ǤϤʤȡMiller (104) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥
Personal names are rare as satellites of -by names in Sweden, but more common in Norway . . . and in southern Denmark and south Schleswig. Fellows Jensen . . . argues that since most of the -by formations with personal name in Sweden and Norway postdate christianization, and those in south Schleswig postdate the Viking period, the name-type spread back to Denmark from the Danelaw, as suggested by Hald . . . . In any event, the Danelawl type seems not to have been based on a pre-existing Scandinavian type. Moreover, of 207 place names for which an Old Norse cognate existed, the substitution of the cognate for the native English form was close to perfect . . . . Anglo-Scandinavian settlements thus have an identity of their own . . . .
βޤȤС̾Ϣ -by ΤϸťΥɸǤֿ̾ -byפȤ̾Υѥ the Danelaw ȼȯãΤǤꡤΥѥϸ˥ǥʥڤص͢줿ȤȤˤʤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
#813. Ѹο̾ˡ ([2011-07-19-1])#1673. ̾¿ȿ̾ء ([2013-11-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ̾ˤ褯 -son (ex. Johnson, Tomson, Williamson, Wilson) ϸťΥɸ (patronymy) ͳ褹ȤΤѸˤǤ롥κϡ8Ⱦ˽졤줿 the Danelaw ˡȤ櫓 -son Ŀ̾ǻʬۤƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ʲˡCrystal (26) ʬϿޤǺܤ롥

Ͽοϡ줾νޤФȹͤۤʤοɽ魯ɤ˽椷Ƥ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥä Yorkshire Lincolnshire Ǥ6Ķ̾ťΥɸαƶΤǤ뤳ȤѸνο̾Ͽ狼äƤˡʬۤʤȤϡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) ˷ǺܤťΥɸͳ̾ʬۤɽ魯ϿޤɤŨ롥Baugh and Cable (99) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It may be remarked that a similarly high percentage of Scandinavian personal names has been found in the medieval records of these districts. Names ending in -son, like Stevenson or Johnson, conform to a characteristic Scandinavian custom, the equivalent of Old English patronymic being -ing, as in Browning.
©Ҥ̣̾ son ϸűѸ sunu Ȥ¸ߤƤꡤޥˤ¾Υɥ衼åѽˤƱ줬롥ΤϢȤѤ뽬ϸűѸˤϤʤä̲ǤϸťΥɸƱ sunr ϢȤѤ̾Ǥ Amundsen, Andersen, Jacobsen, Jespersen, Nielsen ʤɤ̾¿ߤ줿Ѹ̾ -son ղäϡűѸθťΥɸȤܿˤäƳ줿ŤǤѤäȤߤʤȤǤ롥
Ѹ줫 -son դο̾˽ФȡAcheson, Anderson, Cookson, Davidson, Dickinson, Dodgson, Edison, Ellison, Emerson, Harrison, Henderson, Hudson, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Jonson, Larson, Madison, Magnusson, Robinson ʤ¿롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1925. ɴ֤δطɥ衼åѸ²ηޡ ([2014-08-04-1]) ǿƤ褦ˡθޤμȤơܿ (language contact) Ūܴط˴Ť (linguistic area; cf. #1314. [2012-12-01-1]ˤޤɽǤʤȤ꤬äǡޤΤʤ¾줫αƶ˴ؤळȤԲǽǤϤʤMiller (3) Τ褦ʻߤԤäƤΤǡ䤹˺ޤΤ

οޤǤϡѸ줬Ū˷иƤܿŪʾ郎ޤɽƤ롥äˡפʸȤܿϡ褽狼褦Ƥ롥ޤƥ졤ե졤ꥷ줫αƶ٤κϤŪǤꡤŪʤΤ˸¤뤳Ȥ鸫Ƽ롥ťΥɸ (ENorse) ȤθܿˤĤƤƱͤΰ뤬ˤꡤ¤Ūʳˤƶ̹ξʤʤȤƤ롥ȸ (Brythonic) ȤδطˤĤƤϡǯȯƤƤ뤬ϰŪΥͥˤäƼƤ롥
οޤѸȽȤαƶδط˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨СǿƤΤϼ礿ܿΤߤǤμȿ䤷ƿޤ̲뤳ȤϤǤˡޤեȤܿˤĤơѸʹߤη³ŪʴͿϤޤƤʤǤ⡤οޤ̤ξޤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤѸˤγѤȤƤΩĤΤǤϤʤ
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
#1884. եѸʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) ǡΥɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäפȤȽŪ˾Ҳ𤷤θ Miller (234--35) ˾嵭ȾߤĤMiller Ȥⲱ¬ (speculation) ȤƤ뤬¾ʸˤƤѶŪƤ褦
It is reasonable to speculate that gender was strained by scandinavianization but not abandoned, especially since Danish only reduced masculine and feminine later and in Copenhagen under a different contact situation . . . . Miller . . . suggests that the final loss of gender would most naturally have occurred in the East Midlands, a BUFFER ZONE between French to the south and the Danish-English amalgam to the north, the reason being that the gender systems were completely incongruent. In French, for instance, soleil 'sun' was masculine and lune 'moon' feminine, in stark contrast to Scandinavian where ON sól 'sun' was feminine and máni 'moon' masculine. Like other buffer zones that give up the conflicting category, the East Midlands had little recourse other than to scrap gender.
̩ˤСεϱѸ Norman French 2Ԥθܿ˴ؤΤǤΤФMiller ϱѸ Norman French Old Norse 3Ԥθܿ˴ؤΤʤΤǡ2Ĥ̤ɬפϤMiller βڤ뤿ˤϡξüǽ "the East Midlands, a BUFFER ZONE" ܳŪ˻ϤޤäȤɬפ롥ޤεǤȿݥȤȤƻŦ "BUFFER ZONE" ˤơɤ٤μҲŪĿŪ bilingualism 뤤 trilingualism ԤƤΤȤʤ롥
ˤ̤ǤϥեδͿǧˤǤξüʤǤ櫓顤ƤƤܿϡǤ˿ʹԤƤξü¥ȤȤǤꡤưϤä櫓ǤϤʤȤդ٤Ǥ롥ƤСMiller β¬쳵ꤷ٤ΤǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1]) εǡűѸΥƥѸϡѸ첽ֻǤϤʤƥΤޤޤֻǼ뤳ȤŦΥƥѸϱѸ첽ֻǼ뷹äȤͤȡѤδ餤СűѸ˸ä substitution ٹ礤礭ʤäɽǤΤǤϤʤȡ
ơѸȡѸֻηϤ̤Ÿ̤ΥեѸ줬ήˤĤ졤ȤȤ˥ե켰ֻƶϤαѸ˾νǶ̣Τϡե켰ֻ˽äΤϥեѸΤߤǤϤʤäȤ;äˤޤDZƶڤܤűѸ켰ֻ֤ƤäפʤΤƤ⡤űѸ <c> (= /ʧ/) ϥե켰 <ch> ִ줿<cw> <qw> , <s> ΰ <ce> ء<u> <ou> ؤִ줿椨ˡǤ⸽Ѹˤ <chin>, <choose>, <queen>, <quick>, <ice>, <mice>, <about>, <house> ʤɤ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥ֻηϾΥΥޥȤȤǤ⤤٤ΤǤꡤξܤˤСűѸΥƥ켰ֻˤ٤ substitution ʤɡ襤Ƥۤɤϡե켰ֻѸ˵ڤȤǡ#1793. -<ce> 꽤 ([2014-03-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡβ꽤 (hypercorrection) ȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤʤۤˡ#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1]) ӡ#1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1]) ⻲ȡˡ̾ hypercorrection ññ̤ñȯ˺ѤؤȤ¿嵭ξˤϹϤ˱ƶεڤǤΤħŪǤ롥ե켰ֻηŪ substitution Ȥ
Horobin (89) "rather than adjust the spelling of the French loans to fit the native pattern, existing English words were respelled according to the French practices" ȽҤ٤ȤϡѸ줬եѸ첽褦ȤΤǤϤʤѸ켫餬ե첽褦ȤƤħؤƤΤǤ롥
#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) ˤ褦ˡեαѸؤαƶϡäСֻˤǤ⸲ˡηŪ˸Ƥ롥̾ñȯλѤ substitution hypercorrection ȤѸΤ褦ηŪʸѲŬѤȿƶΤǤϤʤȤ뤬
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ε#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ˴ϢơѸǤ generic 'he' ꡤƤβȤƻ̱ƤƤ#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) ꤬פФ롥singular they ˤĤơǶᥦ־ A Linguist On the Story of Gendered Pronouns ȤĤΤǾҲ𤷤singular they 㤬 Chaucer ʤѸߤ뤳ȡgeneric 'he' 18ȾεʸˡȤˤФ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥʤɡ˱ѸŪʴäƤꡤɤβͤ롥
θȾˤǡե줬ѸʸˡξüʬŪ˴ͿƤȼƤսˤĤƵ䤬ɮԤˤСΥɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤäȤμ礿븶ȹͤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʵϰŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) 䡤Ѹ줬űѸȥեκǤȤ륯쥪첾ε ##1223,1249,1250,1251 Ȥ줿ˡ
So what you really have is an extended period of several centuries in which many people were more-or-less proficient in both Norman French and Anglo Saxon, which in actual fact meant speaking the highly intermingled versions known as Anglo-Norman and Middle English. But words that belong to one gender in one language don't necessarily belong to the same gender in the other. To use a modern example, the word for "bridge" in French, pont, is masculine, but the word for "bridge" in German, ''Brücke, is feminine. If you couple this with the fact that people had begun to stop pronouncing altogether the endings that indicate a word gender and case, you can see how these features became irrelevant for the language in general.
ޤΥɤ¿οͤ٤κϤ2üԤäȤȤɤٻ¤ȹäƤΤȤ䤬롥²Υեϥɿͤμο͡¿쾯ʤХäǽϹ⤤¿ν̱ϱѸΥΥäʡ#338. Norman Conquest ΥɤΥեüԤγ ([2010-03-31-1]) ӡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) εȡˡѸθѲĬή褷ΤϤ¿ΥΥѸüԤä˰㤤ʤҲŪʸϤϤˤ辯ΥХ뤬˸ŪƶڤܤΤϤʤϤǤ롥
ˡ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤˥եαѸؤľŪʸŪƶϺ٤ǤȤϤΤ롥äֻСե줬ѸηŪ˱ƶͿܤϿʤŪʱƶҲŪʱƶϿäɾƤ롥ϡ#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) #1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ξüȤФˤϡեˤ뤳δŪʸ̡ξüŪ¥Ȥ̤ŦǽʬǤϤʤ
ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥
Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.
McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3ΥѥȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)
i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb
| North: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -es | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| North: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -e, -ø (-en) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| Midland | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en, -e (-ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| South | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en (-e, -ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
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