khelf-conference-2022 ʡ߹ɡˤǡ콤ؤε eWAVE ֽ@khelf-conference-2022ƤޤŪˤҲ𤤤ؤٶˤʤޤʵ꤬Ȥޤˡ
eWAVE 3.0 (= The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English) ϡαѸѼθŪħǼƤǡ١ǤߤޤǤ77Ѽ˴ؤŪʼ˷Ū˾طʾƤޤǡϡѼˤĤƤεŪ桤ѥ84ͤȤΥեޥȤǤ

Ѽ֤оȤΤꤵƤܤ235ηŪħǡAttestation, Pervasiveness, Area 3ĤΥѥˤȤ뤳ȤǤ̤ưפϿ˥ץåȤǤͤȤʤäƤޤ
eWAVE ΥȥˤȡΥǡ١Ѥ뤳ȤǡΤ褦䤤ФȤǤȤΤȤǤ
Which features are most/least widespread across varieties of English worldwide?
How many varieties of English worldwide share feature X?
Is feature X restricted to or characteristic of a particular part of the English-speaking world?
Is feature X restricted to or characteristic of a particular group of varieties?
Does variety A have feature X?
In which area of grammar does variety A differ most from variety B?
Ѹ (world_englishes) 椹ǡְ㤤ʤפʥġȤʤޤѤäդ٤⤢ޤܺ٤ϢˤĤƤϡeWAVE ֽ@khelf-conference-2022λͭѤǤҤäؤǤߤƤ
eWAVE ԻԤ1 Kortmann ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤѸȴϢơʲǿƤޤΤǡ碌Ƥɤ
#4509. "angloversals" --- ѸˤߤŪʡܡ ([2021-08-31-1])
#4763. ¿ѸѼˤߤɸŪʸܥȥå11 ([2022-05-12-1])
Kortmann, Bernd, Kerstin Lunkenheimer, and Katharina Ehret, eds. The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English. Zenodo, 2020. Available online at http://ewave-atlas.org.
ᴩظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١罤ۡ2022ǯˤĤơܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ǡ͡˾Ҳ𤷤ƤޤʤޤȤεåɤˡ

ܽϡ5ɸಽˤ̤Υơޤ˿ơоȸˡ (contrastive_language_history) Ȥʥץ˵Ԥɤĥå߹礦Ȥüʥ쥤Ȥ̤ƳȯƤƸ褦ȻߤޤδƤƤ뤫ɤϡɼԤγȽǤ˰Ѥͤۤޤ
ΤӹԻʥɥĸˡˡϺܸˡˡδʱѸˡˤԼ3̾ä礤ơΩ줫ܽҲ𤹤ʸϤ褦ȤäˤʤޤơξϡͤεĤ⤤Ρhellog~Ѹ˥֥פˤ褦ȷޤޤ̤ȤơѸʻˡˤ˴ؿäܥ֥ɤߤγռʸϤˤʤäȻפޤ
Ϥ1ƤȤơޤĤʸϤϤޤ
䤿ؽоݤȤƤֱѸפ̾ɸѸפؤѤƤѸˤϥꥫѸ졤ꥹѸ졤ɱѸϤ͡ʼब뤬ؽΥåȤȤƤΤϺǤι⤤ɸѸפȤФ롥ɸѸפȤϲʤΤ¤ϳɸѸפϤʤŪ褯Ȥ˽ȡȤƳؽоݤȤƤतαѸؤΤȤ롥餫˽۴ˡ˴٤äƤ롥
Ĥޤꡤ䤿ϡɸѸפȤåȤʤΤΤʤޤޤˡͤʤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ȤϤɸѸפȤǰѸơΤƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ䤿ϡɸѸפޤޤƤ褦ʤΤǤ롥
¤ΤȤɮԤϡɸѸפȤʤǼƤȤΩ˻Ǥ롥ŪˤɤưåȡפäŪ¸ߤȤǤ褦ʤΤǤϤʤȸƤ뤫ɸѸפ1600ǯۤɤαѸˤΤʤɤƤ켫ȤüȺ֤ƤơѸ줬21θߡɸѸפϲˤޤɤưåȤȲƤ褦˻פΤǤ롥
ˤ̤ơɸѸפɤưåȤäȤϡܽ6Ϥ7Ϥ餫ˤ롥6ϡֱѸˤˤɸಽססδˤǤϡѸ줬ˤ̤ɸಽæɸಽΥ֤ƤȡɸѸ¸ߤ켫ΤäȤ⤫롥ƱϤǤϡḽѸˤƤɸಽ꤬ܸɸಽ1¦̤ǤθʸפӤ뤳ȤŦ롥ϡҲ夬ۤʤäƤƤ⡤ɸಽȤˤϲΤǤϤʤȤ䤤ˤĤʤ롥
7ϡֱѸɸಽν20ʹߤ濴ˡסʻ߷ˤǤϡޤɸಽǰƬ֤ѸˤλʬƳ졤³ơɸಽפ첽סֵϲסѲפ3ʬव졤Ǹ20ʹߤɸಽư⤵롥ɸಽǤϡ첽סֵϲפο̤ǻä20ʹߤˤϡѲפή줬ȤʤäƤƤȤơαѸɸಽħ⤭Ħˤ롥
ܽϡоȸˡפȤˡäʩ5ɸಽˤɤäƤ롥ѸʳθɸಽˤįƤɸפϾɤưåȤäȤ֤ǧǤ롥ƸˤȤԤѤƻǡ֥ĥåߡ礤ƤͻҤϡƼưʤɤưåȤͷ⤷Ƥ뤫Τ褦˸ΥǤ롥ŪɷϤ褤Ǥ롥
ƬΡɸѸפɸѸפɤưΤǤСɸѸȤϲȤŪ䤤ȯ뤳ȤǤϤʤषѸɸಽȤưŪ¦̤ܤۤͭյѸؽοΥåȤϲʤΤˤĤƺƹͤ¥ȤʤСԤΰͤȤƴӤǤ롥
ԼԤξҲʸǺܤޤ
礦1ΤȤˤʤޤ2022ǯ101ڡ15:30--18:45ˡī㡼ɶˤ4ΥֱѸˤѸפ3ֺ¡ֱƤαѸפ֤ޤ̡饤Υϥ֥åɹֺ¤ȤƳ֤ͽǤؿΤϡһäƤֺ¤ǤϤޤΩֺ¤ȤʤäƤޤΤǡ12˻äƤʤ⤴¿ܺ٤Ȥߤθڡɤ3ֺ¤γפϰʲ̤Ǥ
ΡѸפ뤵ޤޤѼϡѸνȤߤ뤳ȤǤޤºݡѸˤˤϾ¿ͤʷ¸ߤ³ƤƤꡤ褷ƸͭθݤǤϤޤꥫѸˤ¿ꥹѸˤϤ¿ޤ⤢ޤĤޤѸפϡŪʱѸαĹˤ븽ݤʤΤǤӽжˤˤɸˤܤޤ
21Ѹ (World Englishes) ⡤Ѹˤ̤¸ߤ³ƤѸ⡤͡ʱѸνΤȤǤѤꤢޤ¿Ÿ椳֥ƥ礫鹭ϵؤȳȤäƤޤܼŪ˿ȤƤ櫓ǤϤޤDZѸƤϡŪˤɬ̤ʤΤǤϤʤΤǤ
ȤϤ٤ƤƱ櫓Ǥ⤢ޤΤ褦ʰƱͤ뤳ȤǡѸ츽ݤü⤭ĦˤƤȻפޤĤƤαѸ¿֤äơ2ѸǤƤν˾Ƥޤ
3ֺ¤ˤĤƤ⤦ܤΤꤿϡͽԤȤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פ̤#454. īֺ¤3ֱѸˤѸ --- ƤαѸסۿƤޤΤǡİ
ֺ¤12ˤĤƤϡʲ hellog heldio Ǥ夲Ƥޤ⻲ͤޤǤˤɤ
hellog #4775. ֺ¡ֱѸˤѸ --- ѸפΥϤޤޤ ([2022-05-24-1])
heldio #356. Ѹ --- ī뿷ɶǡֱѸˤѸפΥϤޤޤ (2022/05/22)
heldio #378. īǡѸפ֤ޤ (2022/06/13)
hellog #4813. īֺ¤2ֱѸˤѸ --- ˤƱѸϳ礷ΤפΤ ([2022-07-01-1])
heldio #393. īֺ¤2ֱѸˤѸ --- ˤƱѸϳ礷Τס (2022/06/28)
1860ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Marsh ˤѸ˹ֵϿѥѥäƤ롥Marsh ˤС졤ʤűѸϡΦ֥ƥ˻ޤ줿κΤǤꡤΰ̣ˤƥ֥ƥ "aboriginal" ʸȤϸʤΤ "indigenous" ʸǤϤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤƤϺΤʤǤϤ "diversity" "obscure", "confused", "imperfect", "anomalous", "irregular" ǤȤʲϢսѤ롥
§15. It has been already shown that the Anglo-Saxon conquerors consisted of several tribes. The border land of the Scandinavian and Teutonic races, whence the Anglo-Saxon invaders emigrated, has always been remarkable for the number of its local dialects. The Friesian, which bears a closer resemblance than any other linguistic group to the English, differs so much in different localities, that the dialects of Friesian parishes, separated only by a narrow arm of the sea, are often quite unintelligible to the inhabitants of each other. Moreover, the Anglo-Saxon language itself supplies internal evidence that there was a great commingling of nations in the invaders of our island. This language, in its obscure etymology, its confused and imperfect inflexions, and its anomalous and irregular syntax, appears to me to furnish abundant proof of a diversity, not of a unity, of origin. It has not what is considered the distinctive character of a modern, so much as of a mixed and ill-assimilated speech, and its relations to the various ingredients of which it is composed are just those of the present English to its own heterogeneous sources. It borrowed roots, and dropped endings, appropriated syntactical combinations without the inflexions which made them logical, and had not yet acquired a consistent and harmonious structure when the Norman conquest arrested its development, and imposed upon it, or, perhaps we should say, gave a new stimulus to, the tendencies which have resulted in the formation of modern English. There is no proof that Anglo-Saxon was ever spoken anywhere but on the soil of Great Britain; for the 'Heliand,' and other remains of old Saxon, are not Anglo-Saxon, and I think it must be regarded, not as a language which the colonists, or any of them, brought with them from the Continent, but as a new speech resulting from the fusion of many separate elements. It is, therefore, indigenous, if not aboriginal, and as exclusively local and national in its character as English itself.
űѸ˴ؤ Marsh ΤƶͥƤȻפɾˤꡤιֵϿꥹĺ˽Ǥ줿ȤطʤǰƬ֤Ƥ٤ѤκǸˤ "exclusively local and national in its character as English itself" ⡤ʸ̮Dz᤹ɬפ褦˻פ롥
űѸˤĤƤϡ#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1])#2868. ˤƸűѸޤ줿 ([2017-03-04-1])#4439. űѸϺȤƻϤޤä ([2021-06-22-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Marsh, George Perkins. Lectures on the English Language: Edited with Additional Lectures and Notes. Ed. William Smith. 4th ed. London: John Murray, 1866. Rpt. HardPress, 2012.
hellog Ǥϡ5罤۽ŹǤ줿ظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١罤ۡ2022ǯˤĤơӤӹƤޤ
٤73111:00--12:00 ˤԼ3̤ͤVoicy ˤͽǤμʤɤդƤޤΤǡ Google Forms ꤪܺ٤ϡ#4836. 73111:00--12:00 ظɸಽͤ٤ᤰԼŤ2ơ ([2022-07-24-1])

ܽǤϱѸɸಽ (standardisation) ˤ6Ϥ7Ϥˤ錄äƾܽҤƤޤȤ櫓7ϤǤϡֱѸɸಽν20ʹߤ濴ˡפꤷơ20--21αѸΡɸಽס¼ŪˤϱѸŪʡѲפȤ䤿ˤȤäľܴؤΤ꤬ƤޤɮԤ߷ĻرءǤ
ξϤȾǤϡNorman Blake ˰͵ɸಽǰƬ֤Ѹˤή줬⤵ޤơĺθȾǤϡ1900ǯʹߤαѸɸಽˤĤơȤ櫓̤ѸΤˤĤơBasic English, Special English, Globish, Nuclear English, World Standard Spoken English ȤŪʡѼפȤʤʤޤ
߷εμݤϡܰ¤Ȥ1900ǯ˱ѸɸಽΤƤȤȤǤǯɸಽϡդΡ첽סֵϲפȤȥåץɸಽܤǤǯʹߤϡäդΡѲפȤܥȥॢåפɸಽʤǤƤȤȤǤ
伫Ȥɮ6ϡֱѸˤˤɸಽספȹ碌ơŪʸȤʤäѸΡ̣ǤΡɸಽפˤĤơ͡ʴƤȤ⤷Ǥ͡
߷ ⡡ֱѸɸಽν20ʹߤ濴ˡסظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡٹ ԡ Ϻ δˡ罤ۡ2022ǯ
ѸȴϢơRubdy and Saraceni Tom McArthur ˥ӥ塼ɤ2006ǯεʤΤǡȤʤäƤϸŤȤиŤȻפ뤫⤷ʤMcArthur ռͽŪʱԤäƤꡤαѸˤƤ⽽ʬ˻ͤˤʤ롥
ݥȤϡѸȤоݤ (1) ֱѸ (the English language)(2) ֱѸʣΡ ('the English language complex')(3) ֽѸ ('the Englishes', 'the English languages') 3ĤؤǹͤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȤƤRubdy and Saraceni (29) 顤ӥ塼ʹƤߤ褦
Q9 In some countries of Asia and Africa, English has become 'nativized' and begun to be considered an Asian or African language, and not one that is owned exclusively by any one speech community. For this reason some sociolinguists are of the view that it may be more realistic to recognize a plurality of standards. Given this view, if 'the English language' needs to be pluralized into 'the English languages', what does ELT stand for?
A9 I'm glad you raised this one. It fits my own observations over many years, as summed up in The English Languages (Cambridge, 1998). English is such an immense language that for me it has been essential to have at least three models. First there is English as a 'conventional' language ('the English language'), useful on a day-to-day basis but for me only the starting point for the second model ('the English language complex'), which has many varyingly distinct subentities, and finally to the third model of English as a continuum of recognizably distinct languages ('the Englishes', 'the English languages'), dominated by the educated standards of various countries that provide basis (particularly through the norms of the US and UK) of a 'World Standard English'. Most learners have no interest in all of this. If, as I hope, they are lucky, they will learn an English appropriate to their needs and situation, and expand (perhaps creatively) as and when they feel the need.
䤿ѸȤˤĤȤˡ3ؤΤؤαѸˤƤΤפǤ롥λüԤδ֤ȤƤؤƤȡѸӤˤʤ뤫줯餤Ѹ̯ˤʤäƤƤȤΤǤ롥
ϡؤ̾αѸμȤǶȤˤ (1) ǰƬ֤Ƥ롥ѸˡѸؤμȤǤϤ⤦ѸѼκʬΰռ⤯ʤꡤΤ (2) ȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿ȻפռŪˡѸפŪʸ̮Ǥϡʤ (3) ªȤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ʬϤγ٤ߤ礭ۤʤˤ⤫餺դˡֱѸפ English ȤƸڤ줬ʤΤޤʤΤǤ롥ѸΤΤ
McArthur αѸѤˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ#427. ѸüԤˢ֤ǥ ([2010-06-28-1])#4501. αѸѼˡ --- McArthur "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ ([2021-08-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥȡ
Rubdy, Rani, and Mario Saraceni. "An Interview with Tom McArthur." English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles. Ed. Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni. London: Continuum, 2006. 21--31.
McArthur, Tom. "The English Languages?" English Today 11 (1987): 9--11.
McArthur, Tom. "English in Tiers." English Today 23 (1990): 15--20.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (1991): 12--21.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
McArthur, Tom. The English Languages. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 94.
ε#4776. оȸˤܤǤޤظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١ ([2022-05-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ǤϡѸɸಽˤĤ2ܤͤǺܤƤ롥1Ĥϻ߷Ļرءˤˤ7ϡѸɸಽν --- 20ʹߤ濴ˡפǡ⤦1ĤΡ6ϡѸˤˤɸಽ١פǤ롥
⤽ɸѸ (Standard English) ȤϲȤŪˤĤƤϻ⤤ͤ³Ƥޤˤ褯ʬäƤʤʲεʤɤϡǺߤפȤ⤤롥
#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ ([2013-02-21-1])
#3499. "Standard English" "General English" ([2018-11-25-1])
#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ ([2012-09-15-1])
#3232. ۲줿ŪѼȤƤɸ ([2018-03-03-1])
#4277. ɸȤͥ줿ΤȤǤϤʤҲŪʼΤȤǤ ([2021-01-11-1])
#1275. ɸѸȯȼҲкѡ ([2012-10-23-1])
#1228. ѸˤˤɸѸȯŸȳΩäơ ([2012-09-06-1])
衤ɸѸȤϡֳ̤Ѹפۤɤ̣Ѹ줫ϤޤäȻפ뤬ˤβǤĤΤޤˤҿ (prestige) ɤҲŪʼ깤ΤĤ֤餤ѸפȤϰ̤ˤؤäƤޤäΤ褦˻פ롥ɸפΰ̣ΩŪʤΤդΤΤƤƤޤäΤǤϤʤ餯Ƥ濴ϡѸ鸽ѸˤƤ
ƤHorobin (73--74) Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) Henry Cecil Wyld (1870--1945) ؤήΤʤ˸ƼäƤ롥
The application of the adjective standard to refer to language is first recorded in the eighteenth century, a development of its earlier use to refer to classical literature. A desire to associate English literature with the Classics prompted a wish to see the English language achieve a standard form. This ambition was most clearly articulated by Jonathan Swift: 'But the English Tongue is not arrived to such a degree of Perfection, as to make us apprehend any Thoughts of its Decay; and if it were once refined to a certain Standard, perhaps there might be Ways found out to fix it forever' (A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue, 1712). By the nineteenth century, the term Standard English referred specifically to a prestige variety, spoken only by the upper classes, yet viewed as a benchmark against which the majority of native English speakers were measured and accused of using their language incorrectly.
The identification of Standard English with the elite classes was overtly drawn by H. C. Wyld, one of the most influential academic linguists of the first half of the twentieth century. Despite embarking on his philological career as a neutral observer, for whom one variety was just as valuable as another, Wyld's later work clearly identified Standard English as the sole acceptable form of usage: 'It may be called Good English, Well-bred English, Upper-class English.' These applications of the phrase Standard English reveal a telling shift from the sense of standard signalling 'in general use' (as in the phrase 'standard issue') to the sense of a level of quality (as in the phrase 'to a high standard').
From this we may discern that Standard English is a relatively recent phenomenon, which grew out of an eighteenth-century anxiety about the status of English, and which prompted a concern for the codification and 'ascertaining', or fixing, of English. Before the eighteenth century, dialect variation was the norm, both in speech and in writing.
Horobin ¾ͤˤƤ⤽ʤΤWyld ȽĴǻդˤ⤷ʤȻפ
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
褿611ڡˤ 15:30--18:45 νڤˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤѸ --- Ѹꤹ륷ֺ¤Ϥޤޤ4ΥǡȤѸ (world_englishes) ơޤ˱Ѹˤδ餪äƤͽǤ
ؿΤϡҤäֺ¾Ҳ𤪤ӻäߤɤ̤Τۤ饤Ǥλä٤ޤޤ1֤Υ쥳ǥۿͽꤵƤޤΤǡԹΤ褤ˡǤäޤ
ΤγפʲžƤޤ
ޤǤʤѸϸˤƺǤͭϤʸǤѸŪη̡̾䤿ؤǤɸѸװʳˤ͡ʱѸ줬ȯãƤꡤǯϤΤѸ (World Englishes) ȸƤ֤ȤƤޤ
4ΥǤϡѸȤϲѸϤˤƤޤdz礷ΤѸεϤɤˤΤƺαѸϤɤʤäƤΤȤä˱ѸˤȤޤ
4Υȥͽˤϰʲ̤Ǥ
1Ѹ611
2ˤƱѸϳ礷Τ86
3ƤαѸ̤
421αѸΤ椯̤
ȤʤѸפǤäƤϤ褽̤Ȥʤ븫ߤǤ
̾䤿ؤǤɸѸפϱƱѸפȤƤޤѤƤѸϥɱѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ޥѸʤɤȼ¤¿ͤǤǯϡѸסʱѸǤʣ "World Englishes"ˤȤƸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäƤޤֵܹǤϡΡѸݤȤϲʤΤƳȤȤˡʤɤΤ褦ˤθݤƤΤˤĤơ˱Ѹˤδޤ
ܥΰϡhellog λǡǤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤۿƤޤΤǡҤ⤪İ
ѸȴϢơʲ hellog heldio ɤ
hellog #4558. ѸˤѸ ([2021-10-19-1])
hellog #4730. World Englishes γؤӻϤ˲ܤҲ ([2022-04-09-1])
heldio #141. ̡Ѹ X ݱѸkhelfʷѸ˥ե˸ǤྰȤ̡
heldio #173. Ω̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲ
heldio #314. ߷ͧȤ̡ʤѸؤδؿޤäƤΤ
ͤܥؤλäԤƤޤ
#4509. "angloversals" --- ѸˤߤŪʡܡ ([2021-08-31-1]) "angloversals" ȤѸ졦ǰ˿줿αѸѼϤȡŪŪľܤδطʤѼ֤ˡ褯ܡʤȤ櫓ɸŪʸܡˤ̤ƴѻ뤳Ȥ롥̣ǡֱѸפ֤ʤΤǡȤ⤢Ȼפ뤫⤷ʤܤΤʤˤ9ʾαѸѼ˳ǧȤ˥С˶ᤤΤ⤢롥줬 angloversals ȸƤФΤ
Kortmann ϡ76αѸѼĴ¿Ѽ˶ͭƤ angloversals Υȥå11ϤФɸŪǵŪʸˡȤƤϥȤŪʹܤǤ롥Kortmann Υɽ (639--40) 䤹褦˲Ѥưʲ˼ "No." Ĵֹ桤 "AR" "attestation rate" ؤ
| No. | Feature | Absent in | Total | AR worldwide |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| F229 | no inversion/no auxiliaries in main clause yes/no questions (You get the point?) | North, SE, AppE, ChcE, NigE, TP | 70 | 92% |
| F34 | forms or phrases for the second person plural pronoun other than you (e.g. youse, yinz, y'all, you guys, yufela) | O&SE, SE, TznE, UgE, HKE, FijiE, Saramaccan | 69 | 91% |
| F221 | adverbs other than degree modifiers have the same form as adjectives (Come quick!) | PakE, SLkE, HKE, FijiE, BelC, Bislama, TP | 69 | 91% |
| F7 | me instead of I in coordinate subjects (me and my brother) | FijiE, EMarC, Saramaccan, TorSC, PalmE, Bislama, Norf'k, TP | 68 | 89% |
| F159 | never as preverbal past tense negator (She never came this morning) | O&SE, ChcE, JamE, UgE, NigE, IndE, SLkE, EMarC, Saramaccan, Sranan, RRC, Bislama, TP | 63 | 83% |
| F154 | multiple negation/negative concord (He won't do no harm) | NigE, TznE, PakE, SLkE, MalE, FijiE, RRC, TP, Bislama, GhP, NigP | 61 | 80% |
| F220 | degree modifier adverbs have the same form as adjectives (This is real healthy) | . . . | 60 | 79% |
| F147 | was for conditional were (if I was you) | . . . | 58 | 76% |
| F78 | double comparatives and superlatives (That's so much more easier to follow) | . . . | 56 | 74% |
| F172 | existential/presentational there's/there is/there was with plural subjects (There's three people in the garden) | . . . | 54 | 71% |
| F228 | no inversion/no auxiliaries in wh-questions (What you doing?) | . . . | 54 | 71% |
#4738. եꥫѸˤ "swamping" ([2022-04-17-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǯѼηˤĤƤδؿޤäƤƤꡤ͡ʳ⤬о줷Ƥ롥
Millar (40--54) ϡΩ3ĤοѼǥǰƬˡĤοѼλҲ𤷤Ƥ롥Tristan da Cunha English (cf. #2311. Tristan da Cunha ([2015-08-25-1])), Falkland Islands English (cf. #3249. The Falkland Islands ([2018-03-20-1])), Newfoundland English (cf. #4490. ꥹƿ̱2Ƥ3ơ ([2021-08-12-1])), Glaswegian Scots, Milton Keynes and 'Estuary English', Scottish Standard English (cf. #1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1])) Ǥ롥η̤狼äȤϡοѼǥˤĹûꡤˤäƤޤǤꡤǤʤäꤹȤȤMillar (55) Ѥ롥
The formation of new varieties of a language does appear to follow set patterns, based in particular upon the original inputs derived from the linguistic backgrounds of early settlers. A number of scholars --- most notably Trudgill --- are convinced that it would be possible to predict the outcome of this mix from the proportion of different origins in the initial settlement. Others are unconvinced by this argument, in particular in relation to a 'mindless' application of proportions, without reference to personal and group identities and the shifting linguistic attitudes found in all societies. Nevertheless, analyses of this type are useful in making us think about both origins and evolutionary change.
Equally useful, but also suspect, are the concepts of founder effect and swamping. The primary issue with these explanations is that they are very effective in some contexts, but do not seem to have much effect elsewhere . . . . The fact that the two apparently antagonistic views are actually sometimes similar and may well work together under certain circumstances needs to be borne in mind. Whatever their full applicability, both are useful metaphors for how some parts of a population can affect the development of a new variety even when they are not in the majority.
ߤΩǥȤϡषŪˤȤ館ۤ褤ΤǤϤʤȤƤɤ
Millar, Robert McColl. Contact: The Interaction of Closely Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2016.
̱̱ˤ뿷ѼϤˤƷΤ϶ǯ˼ҲؤǤܤƤǤ롥Trudgill Mufwene ɽҤ͡Ƥΰ̱ʤΨǤɤΤ褦ѼȤƤȤä׳ŪװŪ˽פǤȤ⤢СŪüԽġʤ "founder" äƤѼ盧θѼȤ⤢ʸԤˤĤƤϡ#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡˡ
Millar (38--40) ˤȡޤ̤θȤ "swamping" ȤͤȤߤեꥫѸνħϡΰ̱ˤȤƤ⡤ޤ뤳ȤǤʤΰ̱ˤˤäħϡ1850ǯοʰ̱ˡֿספƤޤߤޤǺפĤƤʤȤΤ "swamping" μݤ
ߤեꥫѸˤ¿ʬɱѸθħޤޤȤ뤬ñ˰̱ˤɤǤĤʤȤMillar (39)
There is some evidence which suggests . . . that this South-Eastern English predominance does not represent well the history of the first English-speaking immigrants of the 1820s, when the Cape and its surrounding districts had newly been brought under British control. (English speakers would have been regular visitors to the Cape during the period of Dutch rule; they would have been unlikely to have made a lasting impression on the linguistic history of the region, however.) The settlers of the 1850s in KwaZulu-Natal may be more representative of the later speech patterns of South African English . . . . Practically all evidence for any local variety of English predating this central event has been expunged from the present dialect. Thus the nature of an initial variety is swamped.
ѼħŤħΡֿספʤ븽ݤˤΤΤǤСʤǵΤ
Millar, Robert McColl. Contact: The Interaction of Closely Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2016.
(dialectology) ʹСνϰˤĤĴ줾ħƼʬʤΤȻפϻ¤ʤΤǤϤʤޤפˤϰ (regional dialect) ǤϤʤҲ (social dialect) ȤΤ⤢롥ޤ伫ȤΤ褦˸ؤδߤؤϡ˻֤ȤưŪʥѥθ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ŪˤäƱѸˤؤݤ碌ȹͤʤСʤȤ֡֡ҲȤ3ĤΥѥͿΤ
ˤĤơ#4168. λʬʬϥեǤ ([2020-09-24-1]) ǰѤ Laing and Lass ͤɤߤʤäĹѤ٤äȸä"On Dialectology" (417) ȤƬ1嵭λ𤬤ޤɽƤ롥
There are no such things as dialects. Or rather, "a dialect" does not exist as a discrete entity. Attempts to delimit a dialect by topographical, political or administrative boundaries ignore the obvious fact that within any such boundaries there will be variation for some features, while other variants will cross the borders. Similar oversimplification arises from those purely linguistic definitions that adopt a single feature to characterize a large regional complex, e.g. [f] for <wh-> in present day Northeast Scotland or [e(:)] in "Old Kentish" for what elsewhere in Old English was represented as [y(:)]. Such definitions merely reify taxonomic conventions. A dialect atlas in fact displays a continuum of overlapping distributions in which the "isoglosses" delimiting dialectal features vary from map to map and "the areal transition between one dialect type and another is graded, not discrete" (Benskin 1994: 169--73).
To the non-dialectologist, the term "dialectology" usually suggests static displays of dots on regional maps, indicating the distribution of phonological, morphological, or lexical features. The dialectology considered here will, of course, include such items; but this is just a small part of our subject matter. Space is only one dimension of dialectology. Spatial distribution is normally a function of change over time projected on a geographical landscape. But change over time involves operations within speech communities; this introduces a third dimension --- human interactions and the intricacies of language use. Dialectology therefore operates on three planes: space, time, and social milieu.
˼ҲŪʴߤ뤳Ȥ˴ƤǤԤˤȤäƤϡؤϥääƤ롥̻ѲߤǤưŪؤȤȤǤ롥
Laing, M. and R. Lass. "Early Middle English Dialectology: Problems and Prospects." Handbook of the History of English. Ed. A. van Kemenade and Los B. L. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. 417--51.
Benskin, M. "Descriptions of Dialect and Areal Distributions." Speaking in Our tongues: Medieval Dialectology and Related Disciplines. Ed. M. Laing and K. Williamson. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1994. 169--87.
34θˤơ2021ǯ٤´ʥ饤ˤŤޤ1ǤԤǤ4ǯϤkhelf ˽°γ2ǯ3ǯ¾ʤȤʤޤ
ǯ٤13´Ф졤ΰϡ#4665. 2021ǯ٤Ф줿´ʸܡ ([2022-02-03-1]) ǵޤΤǤǷ֤ޤƱѸˡѸؤϰϤιǧ뤳ȤǤޤǯ٤⡤Ķƿ͵Υơޤ⤢СȿǤŪʥơޤ⤢ޤǤ⤳ǯ´ܤįʤĤҤȤĤ´פФƤߤȡޤʷ⸫Ƥ褦˻פޤ
㤨СǯˡȤŻһѤ븦椬ȤʤäƤޤ켫ΤͽۤǤ뤳ȤȻפޤȤ櫓2ǯ֤ϳʲҤ㤴;ʤ줿ˡη֤ä褦˻פޤƼΥѥ OED ʤɤμѤϤޤޤ¿ʤäƤޤͥåȾβưѤ븦桤־DZѸüԤʤɤ˥Ȥ»ܤ륱Ƥޤ
⤦1ĤηȤơ͡ʱѸѼȤ櫓Ѹ (world_englishes) ؤδؿ餫˹ޤäƤޤϱѸѼ˴ؤ븦ȤбƺΤ¿ޤ˥ʥѸ䥪ȥꥢѸ줬ƤȤäդ˼פ ENL ѼåȤȤ꤬¿äȻפޤäˤǯǡפǤʤ ENL ѼESL Ѽԥ졤쥪ޤ͡ʱѸѼؤδؿޤäƤޤǯ֤ѲȤϡ˶ޤäƤƤޤ
ǸˡκƲDZŦäΤǤҲŪʻθ椬ΩäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤϡĬήȤȤ⤢ޤĥߤʸħʥХˤȿǤƤ⤷ޤǤΤǡȤޤǯ٤Τ褦ʻ´¿äȤΤϻ¤Ȼפޤ
ơǺǯ٤θʥ߳ưϰޤǤ˿ǯ٤ˤƤ͡ʴ褬ưФƤޤ㤨Ф45ˤϡ1ǯƱͤˡֱѸƳפǤ夲ͽǤcf. #4417. ֱѸƳ2021פλޤ ([2021-05-31-1])ˡ4ꡤޤꤤޤ
ͤޤǤˡޤǤ´ʸܤˤĤƤεåˤޤȤޤϢ sotsuron 뤤 khelf СơҲˤ⻲ͤˤʤޤ1ǯΡ#4330. դΥ߹ɤˤ´Ťޤ ([2021-03-05-1]) ɤ
Ƶ̾ (reflexive_pronoun) ϱѸ˸ˤơĤδפȤʤäƤ롥㤨СŪˤϡʤֽͭ + selfפΤΤȡŪ + selfפΤΤߤƤΤϸŵŪǤcf. #47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1]) #2376. myself, thyself ˤ my- thy- ([2015-10-29-1])ˡñ -self ȤζʬȤˡ⤢cf. #2322. I have no money with me. me ([2015-09-05-1])ˡޤ̣ŪȯãˤĤƤⶽ̣¦̤cf. #2379. Ƶ̾γŬ ([2015-11-01-1])ˡ
ɸѸϤȡˤ⤷¤롥㤨ХꥫѸθ졤ޤ¾ѼǤ hisself, theirselves ʤɤη֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ뤬ξ硤Ƶ̾ηϤϡֽͭ + selfפǰӤ뤿ᡤɸѸ§ŪȤʤ롥դˡȥꥢѸ1Ѽ䥤Ǥ meself ʤɤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢ (Siemund 609--10)
ˡǤ⡤ѼˤäƤϼƱؼоݤƱŪȤ -self ǤϤʤñȤѼ郎롥ʲSiemund (610) ꡥ
I'm going to buy me biscuits and chocolates.եꥫ Cape Flats English)
He was looking to buy him a house for his family.ƹ Appalachian English)
Τ褦ˡľŪȤƤ⸫Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥ϸűѸθˡηΤȤͤ (Siemund 610)
He has cut him.
He went to bathe him.
Irish English Newfoundland English Ǥϡ̾˺Ƶ̾줬Ѥ뼡Τ褦㤬ߤ (Siemund 610)
I'm afraid himself [the master of the house] will be very angry when he hears about the accident to the mare.
Is herself [i.e. the mistress] at home yet Jenny?
Τ褦ɸѸ줫⳰˽ФƤߤȡƵ̾η֤ˤˡˤꥨߤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ɸѸˤ֤ȸˡ⡤Τ褦вƹͤƤߤȤ⤷
Siemund, Peter. "Regional Varieties of English: Non-Standard Grammatical Features." Chapter 28 of The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar. Ed. Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie and Gergana Popova. Oxford: OUP, 2020. 604--29.
Ѹ (world_englishes) ¿ȤСɸΤ褦ıѸѼ郎äȤƤäʤ3;ñ̾λѤˤƷŪ˽ζ̤ĤʤѼĤޤɸѸΤ褦 he she ʤ itˤζ̤ΤˤĤʤѼ郎ΤǤ롥
㤨С쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸǤϡФлؼоݤˤ餺3;ñ̾ѤȤMesthrie and Bhatt (55--56) ꡤطսѤ롥
Gender has proved --- despite its minor role in English --- susceptible to variation in New Englishes. Some varieties use gender in pronouns differently. Platt, Weber and Ho . . . report that in some New Englishes where the background languages do not make a distinction between he, she and it, pronouns 'are often used indiscriminately'. They offer the following examples:
41. My husband who was in England, she was by then my fiancé. (East Africa)
42. My mother, he live in kampong. (Malaysia)
Since Bantu languages do not make sex-based distinction with pronouns, and the spoken forms of the Chinese languages of Singapore and Malaysia do not differentiate gender in 3rd person pronouns . . . , substrate influences may well be at work here.
ɸѸΤߤΤäƤԤˤȤäơ϶ä٤ݤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸˤ椷ƤԤˤȤäƤϡޤää٤ȤǤϤʤѸǤϡˤ뤬Ф he Ȥ3;ñ֤̾ؼ뤫Ǥ롥ˤҤɤʡ˾ˤϡʤʣ;̾Ʊ he ɽ蘆줿ꤹ롥Ѹξˤϡ̣Ūζ̤ξüǤϤʤޤǷŪʹȤˤ̤ĤʤʤäȤȤǤꡤ嵭쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸΥȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤָ World Englishes ϹפȶˡŪʱѸѼޤפȶǤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ε#4602. Barbados Ω鶦ء ([2021-12-02-1]) ǡֳϰαѸ1ĤŵХХɥˤάҤѸȴϢƱϰ⤦1ĽפʹΤǤСְ㤤ʤޥ#1680. The West Indies θ ([2013-12-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡХХɥƱͤ˥ޥǤѸ١Υ쥪뤬ԤʤƤ롥

ޥǤϡJamaican Creole ϲظ (basilect) ȤѤƤꡤФɸʥޥ˱Ѹ줬ظ (acrolect) ȤƻȤƤ롥ξԤδ֤ˤظ (mesolect) ¿Ѽ郎ǧ졤ŵŪ post-creole_continuum) ƤҲȤäƤ褤Ϣ³ΤˤĤơSand (2125) ȤƸƤߤ褦cf. #385. Guyanese Creole Ϣ³Ρ ([2010-05-17-1]) Ȥӡˡ
| Standard (Jamaican) English | he went down there | Acrolect | |
| he wen dong de | |||
| (h)im go dong de | |||
| (h)im dida go dong de | Mesolect | ||
| (h)im neva go dong de (negative only) | |||
| Jamaican Creole | im ben go dong de | Basilect |
1120ڡˤ 13:00?14:30 ˡΩ̿عݸʸμŤֹݱѸʸ¿˴ؤغݸץץȤΰĤȤơ "English" "Englishes" ءפΥȥǤäƤޤΩ̿ؤܹޤǤΤ꤬ȤޤˡZoom ˤ뻲äǽǤΤǡؿΤΰ
ޤīǤ˥åפβ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤϡΩ̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲꤹ̤ԤʤäƤޤΤǡ⤼İƤߤƤ
ơ"World Englishes" ˴ؤֱȤȤǡΥ֥ȤƤ͡ʱѸΥץȻפޤ "Englishes" ¿ʬڤȴʥץˤޤΤǡϤλιֱǤϡʲѤäϤȻפäƤޤɤ
Northern English (Yorkshire): B. Hines, Kes (1968) [qtd. in Gramley 198]
Hey up, where's tha been? They've been looking all over for thee.
Scots Leid: Aboot William Loughton Lorimer (2009) [qtd. in Gramley 201]
Lorimer haed aye been interestit in the Scots leid (syne he wis a bairn o nine year auld he haed written doun Scots wirds an eedioms) an his kennin o the strauchles o minority leids that he got frae his readins o the nautral press durin the Weir led him tae feel that something needit daein tae rescue the Scots laid.
Tok Pisin: from Mühlhäusler (1986) [qtd. in Gramley 223]
em i tok se papa i gat sik ["he said that the father was sick"]
Hawaiian Creole English: from Bickerton (1981) [qtd. in Gramley 226]
Jan bin go wok a hospital ["John would have worked at the hospital"]
Jamaican Creole: "William Saves His Sweetheart" [qtd. in Gramley 238]
nóu wants dér wáz, a úol wíč liedi lív, had wán són, níem av wiljəm. ["Once upon a time there was an old witch, who had a son whose name was William."]
AAVE (= African American Vernacular English): A. Walker, The Color Purple (1982) [qtd. in Gramley 269]
I seen my baby girl. I knowed it was her. She look just like me and my daddy.
Cape Flats SAfE: Malan (1996) [qtd. in Gramley 300]
Now me and E. speaks English. And when we went one day to a workshop --- and uh, most of the teachers there were Africaans --- and we were there; they were looking at us like that you know. And I asked E., "Why's this people staring at us?" She said, "No, I don't know."
Nigerian English: "Igbo Girls Like Money a Lot" (2006) (qted. in Gramley 319)
Igbo girls are hardworking, smart, successful and independent so ain't nuffin wrong in them lookin for a hardoworkin, successful man. if u ain't gats the money, they aint gon want u cos u below their level of achievement.
Hong Kong English: Joseph (2004) [qtd. in Gramley 321]
However, as Hong Kong is going through an economic down turn recently, we shall have to see. . . Last year we have raised more than two million Hong Kong Dollars.
Singapore English [qtd. in Gramley 328]
The tans [= military unit] use to stay in Sarangoon.
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
̡̾ȤΤԲĻ̾Ǥ English, French, Japanese Τ褦̵Ѥ롥ˤƤؤˤƤ⡤ƸΤʤ͡ѼˤȤȤϾQŪΤƤꡤƻ American English, Old French, written Japanese ʤɤȤɽ뤳ȤϰۤλȤʤäƤ롥ǫ˥ѥե졼ʤ an American variety of English, an ancient variety of French, a written variety of Japanese ʤɤȤʤǫʥե졼顤 variety of άΤ American English, Old French, written Japanese ʤɤɽȤʤäƤȹͤ롥
Τ褦ˡޤɽΥ硼ȥåȤȤȤ館ΤǤСʾ;Ϥʤ⤷ʤصξάɽˤʤEnglishes Τ褦ɽϡƤȯۤξˤȿǤ褦ȤȤˡ롥¤ Englishes ȤʣݥȤʤΤǤϤʤan English ȤŪñפʥݥȤʤΤǤ롥פ English βĻ̾첽Τ
American English British English 碌 two Englishes ɽǤ褦ˤʤäطʤˤϡ͡αѸѤž롥ޤǤ two varieties of English ȤϤǤ櫓ǡ varieties of ʤ two Englishes ȤɽäȤȤñ˷ѲȤƺѤޤǤϤʤǧѲؤäƤΤѸĻ̾ȲᤷʤȤΥѥȤ礭
OED English, adj. (and adv.) and n. II. 2. d ˤȡEnglish βĻ̾ȤƤν1910ǯ H. L. Mencken Ǥ롥ιƸ褦
d. As a count noun: a variety of English used in a particular context or (now esp.) a certain region of the world; (in plural) regional varieties of English considered together, often in contradistinction to the concept of English as a language with a single standard or correct form.
1910 H. L. Mencken in Evening Sun (Baltimore) 10 Oct. 6/8 (heading) The two Englishes.
1941 W. Barkley (title) Two Englishes; being some account of the differences between the spoken and the written English languages.
1964 Eng. Stud. 45 21 Many people side-step the recognition of a plurality of Englishes by such judgments as: 'Oh, that's not English, that's American.'
1978 J. Pride Communicative Needs in Learning & Use of Eng. 1 The role of literature in non-native Englishes may be focal.
1984 Eng. World-wide 5 248 An overview of some aspects of various Englishes suggesting areas of possible research.
2000 Independent (Nexis) 28 June 11 It was one of the first places to be settled in the Plantations; there's an English spoken there that's unique.
㤬ꥫѸ˴ؤ̾ The American Language 路㡼ʥꥹȡɾȤ H. L. Mencken ȤΤʤäꥫѸȥꥹѸ̤ΤȸƤ Mencken αѸѤ˾Ȥ餻Сब The two Englishes ɽȤϤޤäԻĤǤϤʤ鼪ä
OED ʸӤΥϤ뤫⤷ʤؽѻ俷ʹȤΥǥΰѤ¿褦˸롥English βĻ̾ȤƤˡѸ츦ȤؽŪʸ̮ǻȤϤ졤줬İ̤ˤäƤȤɤ뤳ȤǤ
Englishes Τ褦ʣѤ롤ȤѸѤѲμ郎Ƥ顤100;ǯ¿ʤȤΤƤΤΡޤȤƳؽѤʬѤˤʤüˡȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɤդƤΤäƤ
1120ڡ 13:00?14:30 ˡΩ̿عݸʸμŤֹݱѸʸ¿˴ؤغݸץץȤΰĤȤơ "English" "Englishes" ءפΥȥǤäƤޤΩ̿ؤܹϤط˴դޤˡ̤ Zoom ˤϥ֥åɷιֱȤʤäƤޤ Zoom ˤ̻äġˡܤΰɤ *

"Englishes" "World Englishes" Ȥɽ褯ʹ褦ˤʤäƤޤ"Englishes" ȤɽϡѸ줬ʣѼȤ¸ߤȤ¤ɽ路Ƥʾˡ͡αѸФǧѤäƤƤ뤳ȤƤΤǤϤʤȻϹͤƤޤֱܹǤϡѸˤ̤͡ʱѸѼ郎ޤƤѤ߱Ѹ˺ѤƤῴϤȱϤˤĤƵޤѸ줬ˤκǽ餫鸽ߤ˻ޤǡʤơ餯̤ˤƤ˾ʣ¸ߤƤȤ͡ʶȤȤ˼ƤͽǤ
αѸѤޤǤñ "English" 顤ʣ "Englishes" ؤѤäƤˤʤΤǤϤʤȴԤƤޤ礿륪ǥȤʤΩ̿عݥߥ˥ذγȤεڤߤˤƤޤؿΤ̤⡤Ҥɤ
ε#4557. ֱѸˤؤξԡ10ס ([2021-10-18-1]) ǡرؤDZѸˤμȤôƤྰˤҲ𤵤Ƥޤ7ܤνҤǤĻҡˡعݶ̸ȤƤαѸ١ʹ̼Ҹ忷2011ǯˤճäƼ뤫⤷ޤȥ뤫ϳΤ˱ѸפǤ뤳ȤʬΤǤѸˤȤɤΤ褦˴ؤΤȤ䤬⤫֤ΤǤϤʤǤ礦ǧ٤˰³ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤƱ̤ޤ̡Ѹˡ߹ݱѸפȤǤʲɤ
ѸˤΰǤ϶ǯѸ (world_englishes) ؤδؿ徺Ƥޤ伫Ȥ餤ĤƤʤФȻפˤ狼ٶϤƤ櫓Ǥʥ饤γޤäơǤʬ˾ΤˤޤĥƤޤؿϤäƤɤϤ褤¤Τ̵⤢ޤ
ΤȤƤϡ߷ͧˡαѸ줬Ǥޤǡ١ʰ˼2016ǯˤƤޤܥ֥Ǥ world_englishes model_of_englishes ˤƴϢ뵭¿ƤޤŪǶԥååפȡΤ褦ʥ饤åפˤʤޤ
#4531. World Englishes ץ饤 --- 饤߹ɤ2ܤιֵ ([2021-09-22-1])
#4466. World Englishes ؤ6ĤΥץ ([2021-07-19-1])
#4506. World Englishes Ū3 ([2021-08-28-1])
#4507. World Englishes ؤ2ĤΥץ ([2021-08-29-1])
#4508. World Englishes Υѥ̤ ([2021-08-30-1])
#4169. GloWbE --- Corpus of Global Web-Based English ([2020-09-25-1])
#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1])
#4493. αѸѼˡ --- Mesthrie and Bhatt 12ס ([2021-08-15-1])
#4501. αѸѼˡ --- McArthur "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ ([2021-08-23-1])
#4502. αѸѼˡ --- Görlach "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ ([2021-08-24-1])
Ѹ饤ѥȤƤϡˤ줿 GloWbE (= Corpus of Global Web-Based English) ȤƤᤷޤΥѥˤĤƤϡ콤ʸѸƸزHPꡤΥڡ˴Ϣޤʤߤ˵HPõҲ𤹤륳ƥֵΥۡڡˬƤߤ褦 رäƤޤΤǡ⤪ᤷƤޤ
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