ε#4119. isogloss ʤ heterogloss ([2020-08-06-1]) ǡisogloss Ф heterogloss ȤؾγǰѸƳФȤʤ륭ɤˤĤƤϡŪ˹ͤƤ٤Ȥꤽ
Chambers and Trudgill (104--05) ˤȡξԤϸߤǽǤꡤʬ˴ؤۤʤɡ줬ͥ줿ȤǤϤʤȵƤ롥μݤ⤹ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ܤƤ2Ĥΰ۷ꡤȤơ¾ȤϿ˥ץåȤ뤳Ȥͤ롥¤ʬۤܤˤơؼԤʬΤ˶Ȥ뤬κݤ2̤ΰǽǤ롥1ĤϡκޤΤ褦˰۷2ΰδ֤ζ֡ʡӶ֡פȸƤǤˤ1⤦1Ĥϡơΰ۷ΰβ¤Ⱦ¤δѻǤ2ܤǤ롥Ԥ isoglossԤ heterogloss ιͤȤȤˤʤ롥
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(dialectology) Ǥϡΰ۷ (variants) ʬۤϿ˥ץåȤƤߤŪɽФѤ롥۷֤Ĥ礦ȤϡʤϿˤ϶餷ΤФ롥ϡˤʤ館 (isogloss) ȸƤФ롥
㤨С˾ͭ̾1ĤȤơ#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) Ǽɥĸ maken maxen ˴ؤΤ褦Ͽޤܸʬ̤ꡤ2Ҳ (sgcs) ФȷФƤʤ줤ʬ䤵褦˰ܰƤ롥
פϰ츫ʬ䤹ǰѸ¤ϤʤΤԤǤ롥1Ĥˤϡɤñܤ뤫ˤΰۤʤäƤ뤫#1532. ȾóȻްռ (1) ([2013-07-07-1]) ɽǼȤꡤ嵭2Ҳܤ˴ؤϡmaken/maxen ˤȤϿȤʤ뤬ik/ich ˤȤФޤ̤ξ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1]) ƱͤǤ롥ɤñŻ뤹٤ȤˤĤƤϡ#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) 褦ˡ٤λɸϤȤϤǽŪˤؼԤŪȽǤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
⤦1ĤϡñܤǤ顤Ϥ꤭줤1Ͽ˰Ȥϸ¤ʤȤǤ롥㤨Сmaken ǤϤޤäѻʤȤСǤϤʤΤ鷺¦ǤѤƤƱ褦 maxen Τ鷺¦ǤѤƤϤǤ롥ϿǤΤʤ1ƤȤƤ⡤ζϸ¤ˤƤäӤȤ¸ߤƤϤǤ롥ĤޤꡤȤ϶ΰȤäۤ褤ɤ̤ȤơζΰǤξ۷ѤƤ롥
maken maxen λʬۤʬ1ĤȤϡ۲줿Τˤʤ¤ˤ make ¤ maxen ̸¤Ρ碌2ܤꡤξԤ˶ޤ줿Ӥ¸ߤǰƬˤʤФʤʤСӤ֤ɤĤ֤1ܤΤ褦˸ΤȤȤؼԤϡư۷¤̸¤ơΤȤ"isogloss" 椵̣ "heterogloss" ȸƤǤ롥ˤĤơѸؤθ Williamson (489) ˼Ƥߤ褦
An isogloss is a cartographic construct, intended to show the geographical boundary between the distributions of two linguistic features. But the isogloss is problematic: it often distorts what typically happens when the bounds of two distributions meet, by sanitizing or idealizing the co-occurrence of the bounds. There is rarely a clear-cut line between the distributions of features. Rather, they may often overlap, so that there are areas when both forms are used to a greater or lesser extent in neighboring communities or used by the members of one community and understood by those of another. Where the boundaries of features meet, we find zones of transition. It is these zones of transition, shifting across space, which define the dialect continuum.
. . . . An isogloss makes assumptions about what is or is not there. . . . I have resorted to a variant of the isogloss --- the "heterogloss". A heterogloss is a line which attempts to demarcate the bounds of the distribution of a single feature. Where the bounds of the distributions of two features meet, there will be two boundary lines --- one for each feature. Heteroglosses allow us to see where there are overlaps between the distributions.
Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤϢ³ (dialect_continuum) θ¤Ǥ⡤"heterogloss" ȤǰѸƳϽפǤ롥Ϣơ#4114. äѸˤɤȤ館뤫 ([2020-08-01-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Williamson, Keith. "Middle English: Dialects." Chapter 31 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 480--505.
(dialect) ɤߤ뤫ȤϡʼҲ˸ؤθŵŪʥơޤǤ롥ˤϡζ̤Ȥ¦̤⤢СɤζʬȤ¦̤⤢cf. #4031. ָ줫פεåȡ ([2020-05-10-1])#1501. Ϣ³Τϰ褫 ([2013-06-06-1])ˡ⤽ȤϸŪˤǤΤȤܼŪ䤤⤢롥
Ѹ˸ǤѸ (me_dialect) ĴƤߤʬθҤ1ͤȤäƤ褤 Williamson (481) ѸȤϲȤ˿Ū˸ڤƤ롥νȯȤʤꤽƶ٤Ŧ¿ΤǡĤѤƤ
The most significant and paradoxical finding of dialect geography has been the non-existence of dialects, the objects which it purports to study. A "dialect" is a construct: a reification of some assemblage of linguistic features, defined according to criteria established by the dialectologist. These criteria may be linguistic, extra-linguistic, or some combination of these two kinds.
A (Middle English) dialect can be considered to be some assemblage of diatopically coherent linguistic features which co-occur over all or part of their geographical distributions and so delineate an area within the dialect continuum. Adding or taking away a feature from the assemblage is likely to alter the shape of this area: addition might reduce the area's size, subtraction, increase it. Any text which contains that assemblage of features can be considered as having its provenance within that area.
Linguistic variation across space exists because languages undergo change as a natural consequence of use and transmission from generation to generation of speakers. A linguistic change takes place in a community and subsequently becomes disseminated through time and across space as the next generation of speakers and neighboring communities adopt the change. A "dialect continuum" emerges from the language contacts of speakers in neighboring communities as they share some features, but not others. A continuum is thus made up of a set of overlapping distributions of linguistic features with varied geographical extents --- some extensive, some local. A continuum is not static and is constantly shifting more or less rapidly through time.
ä2Ĥ3ĤΰѤϡϢ³ (dialect_continuum) ΤȤʤäƤ롥Ѥϡ#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1]) Ȥ̤
Williamson, Keith. "Middle English: Dialects." Chapter 31 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 480--505.
轵αѸءʼҲءˤΥ饤ȤǼҲؤθŵŪǤָ줫פˤĤƵѼ (variety) "language" ʤΤ "dialect" ʤΤϲˤäƷޤΤȤˤĤ hellog åȤޤȤƤߤ
ָ줫פεå
ΰθդΰʤΤΰʤΤԤǤܸȤϡʴϢ뤬Ω1ĤθȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤳ȤˤʤꡤԤǤܸΤʤ1Ȥ֤ŤȤʤ롥̤ˤΰȤƲᤵƤȻפ뤬κϤä
ԡ˲ǽȤबޤפ⤫֡ߤǽɤϡġͤθǽϤ촷Ǥ롥ʹƥĤĤǤ褦ˤʤäƤȤ¦̤⤢롥ĤޤꡤҴŪʴȤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ιڤäƤνѼϡߤˤۤȤԲǽʤۤɤΥƤΤ⤢뤬ȤưƤ롥Υ륦ȥǥϸߤˤ褽̤Ȥ뤬̲ΥΥ륦ǥʤɤȸƤФ뤳ȤϤʤޤǥΥ륦ǤꥹǥǤ롥
Ūʹ¤ΰ㤤ȤƤС̡θȤ뤳ȤӤѼϡԡ˲ǽϤˤ衤ߤӸŪƱ²Ǥꡤ칽¤Ϥʤ٥ѥǤ롥ܸȥ̸ʤɤ٤ȡ칽¤ŪˤޤˤΥƤ뤳Ȥ餫ǤꡤȤиԤԤȰ֤Ťˤ̵롥äơ칽¤δϴְ㤤ʤ¸ߤ롥
ޤΥ륦ȥǥ㤫ϡѼ郎줫ϡȤȤҲХåˤĤƤ뤫ɤǷޤȤȤʬäƤӥȥߤ̤칽¤̤äƤ뤬ۤʤȤХåˤĤƤ뤬椨ˡۤʤǤϤʤˤȸƤФΤǤ롥ҲؤζȤΤƤ褦ˡ"Language is a dialect with an army and a navy" ʤΤǤ롥
ꥹѸȥꥫѸۤ100%ߤ̤칽¤ۤƱȤäƤ褤Ǥϡ2ƱϤ̤ϥꥹ䥢ꥫȤϸƤФʤޤDZѸȤ1ĤθΤʤ2ĤȤ֤ŤǤȤ館Ƥ롥
̱ۤ²佡ʤɤδ˵Ȥո⤢ɸ¸ߤ濴˿⤢ˤ衤ͤϤȡָ줫פ꤬¤Ǥ뤳ȤʬäƤ롥
εåȤȰŤʤ뤬language_or_dialect γƵɤ
¸űѸʸ¿å˴äȥ (West Saxon) ǽƤ롥9ʹߥåɤΩˤꡤäۤǤ롥ϤŪʰҿϰ̤夵ΡɸפͭϸȤʤäƤϡźǷ֤Ƥ8Ⱦˤ̾祢եå粦 (Alfred the Great) Фƥå̾ʡ#4012. եå粦αѸ˾ΰյ ([2020-04-21-1]) ȡˡ1ˤϸűѸκȤȤäƤ褤եå (Ælfric) ФƸűѸ컶ʸΥǥϰۤʤ뤬ȥǽƤꡤϤĤ¾κȤƱ١ȤդǤΤȥϡűѸӤνդΥǥȤ롥ʤָűѸɸפȸƤ֤Ȥˤ꤬롥ˤĤƤϺε#4013. ָűѸɸפβ ([2020-04-22-1]) ȡ
ƱåפȤƤȸΤΡեåɻ Early West Saxon ȥեå Late West Saxon ȤñľǷӤĤ櫓ˤϤʤξѼδطϡľȤϼФζʤ꤯ͤäɽ蘆٤ΤʤΤˤĤ Mengden Kastovsky Ȥʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Kastovsky (1992: 346) points out that the traditional distinction between "Early West Saxon" for the language prototypically represented by the Alfredian translations and "Late West Saxon", prototypically represented by Ælfric's texts, is misleading, as it suggests a mere diachronic distinction between two varieties within only a little more than a hundred years. Rather, it should be assumed that the differences between the two groups of documents are diatopic at least to the same extent as they are diachronic.
Early West Saxon Late West Saxon 1ۤɤδֳ֤ƱȤߤʤΤǤϤʤŪˤŪˤ⤺줿ľŪˤϷӤĤʤѼȤߤʤۤŪΤȤŦξѼθűѸɤ٤Ƥߤȡ1λ֤ηвȤƤ⡤Ʊ "West Saxon" ̾ƤˤϳΤ˰ۤʤäѼΤ褦ˤߤ롥դϡűѸΡɸפդΥǥˤäդƤʤФʤʤ
Mengden, Ferdinand von. "Periods: Old English." Chapter 2 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 19--32.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
ѸˤˤơָťΥɸפ뤤 "Old Norse" (old_norse) Ȥ̾ȤȤդʤФʤʤΤϡ̾2ĤΰۤʤؼоݤȤȤ
1Ĥϡ̥ޥ췲Τ¸ǸŤλȤƤθťɸ12ʹߡˤƱ췲ɽȤƻؤˡ⤦1ĤϡȤ櫓Ѹ˸ʸ̮ˤơ8ȾФ11ˤƱѸȤ륢ͤ쥤ɤܿؤˡǤ롥
2ĤλؼоݤϡޤäƻʤȤ1ʾۤʤ롥ޤŪˤԤϥɡԤ̥ޥ췲Τʤξ롼פˤޤΤΡ§ȤƥʥӥȾǤ롥OED οǤǤϤѸκ뤿ˡԤʸȤǡ˶Ū "Old Icelandic" ȡԤʸʤȤǡˤŪ "early Scandinavian" ȸƤʬƤ褦θ̩ʻȤʬϳΤΤפѸˤʤΤǡʸ̮ΤǤС⤳ޤ̤ "Old Norse" ȸƤǤƤ⺹٤Ϥʤ̤ռƤɬפϤ
Durkin (175) Ū˻ŦƤ伫ȤϤޤ2Ĥ "Old Norse" ΤȤ̤ƤȻפŪ˶̤٤ȤʹƥϥäȤ
One important, albeit slightly arcane, initial question concerns terminology. Traditionally, the term 'Old Norse' has been used to denote two different things: (i) the language of the earliest substantial documents in any Scandinavian language, namely the rich literature largely preserved in Icelandic manuscripts dating from the twelfth century and (mostly) later; and (ii) the language that was in contact with English in the British Isles. In fact this is somewhat misleading, since English was in contact with the ancestor varieties of both West Norse (Norwegian and Icelandic) and East Norse (Danish and Swedish), but at a time earlier than our earliest substantial surviving documents for any of the Scandinavian languages, and at a time when the differences between West and East Norse were still very slight. Thus it is only rarely that English words can be attributed to either West or East Norse influence with any confidence. In this book I follow the terminology used in the new edition of the OED, using 'early Scandinavian' as a catch-all for the early West Norse and East Norse varieties which were in contact with English, and distinguishing this from 'Old Icelandic' denoting the language of the early Icelandic texts, and from 'Old Norwegian', 'Old Danish', 'Old Swedish' denoting the oldest literary records of each of these languages.
̾ȤΤϤȤ˥ȥåǡդƤʤФʤʤ롥Ϣơ#3558. ȸ̾ε ([2019-01-23-1])#864. Ʒ줿̾ ([2011-09-08-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
2֤ε ([2019-12-26-1], [2019-12-27-1]) ǡˤ ifפˤĤƹͤƤߤȿ²ۤ˴ŤˤθƤ1ĤȤ alternative history 뤬ɽʹƻפФΤϡ̾ʼҲؼԤˤäƽ줿Ѹˤ Alternative Histories of English Ǥ롥
ܤϡºݤΤȤȿ²ۤ˴ŤեαѸ˽Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤष¤εҤ˴Ť¤ʱѸ˵ҤǤ롥߹ή̤Ƥ롤ɸѸΥᥤܤɡפαѸˤФơƼɸѸ졤ʤ "Englishes" ˤ˸ƤȤݤǤΡ֤⤦1ĤˡפȤ櫓Ǥ롥
ܽϡʲǤϤʤ̤˴ؤ뤢ۤ˻٤ƤȤǡȿ²ۤȶܤʬΤˤ롥ΤȤϡ2ͤԼ Watts and Trudgill ɮ "In the year 2525" ꤹˤƳǧǤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ褦
If the whole point of a history of English were, as it sometimes appears, to glorify the achievement of (standard) English in the present, then what will speakers in the year 2525 have to say about our current textbooks? We would like to suggest that orthodox histories of English have presented a kind of tunnel vision version of how and why the language achieved its present form with no consideration of the rich diversity and variety of the language or any appreciation of what might happen in the future. Just as we look back at the multivariate nature of Old English, which also included a written, somewhat standardised form, so too might the observer 525 years hence look back and see twentieth century Standard English English as being a variety of peculiarly little importance, just as we can now see that the English of King Alfred was a standard form that was in no way the forerunner of what we choose to call Standard English today.
There is no reason why we should not, in writing histories of English, begin to take this perspective now rather than wait until 2525. Indeed, we argue that most histories of English have not added at all to the sum of our knowledge about the history of non-standard varieties of English --- i.e. the majority --- since the late Middle English period. It is one of our intentions that this book should help to begin to put that balance right. (1--2)
ɤ°ŪʱѸˤжʸȽİͤʸϤǤ롥"alternative history" ϡ2֤Ƥ褦ˡõ˸̤ȯǤʤή̤ƤˡʴѡˤвȤǤפ̤Ƥ
ܽνǤ2002ǯʹߡѸɸŪѼ¦̤ܤ¤˰äƤƤ롥Ϣơ#1991. ˸ȯŸطʤˤؤ "paradigm shift" ([2014-10-09-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿ʤΤ褦ʻѸˤŬѤߤϡޤ¿ʤΤǤ롥
Watts, Richard and Peter Trudgill, eds. Alternative Histories of English. Abingdon: Routledge, 2002.
ꥫѸ̱²Ѽ1ĤȤ "Lumbee English" ȸƤФѼ郎뤳Ȥ Smith and Kim (296--97) ˤäΤä
ߥå¦ˤΥꥫ轻̱Ȥӡ² (Lumbee) 濴Ϥϡ줿̱ϤȤͭ̾ Roanoke 餵ۤɱʤNorth Carolina Robeson Ǥ롥äϡ轻̱²ͭθǤϤʤޤǥꥫѸǤ롥Ʊ̱²ȷӤĤƤäʥꥫѸǤꡤLumbee English ȾΤΤǤ롥Robeson οʣŪǤꡤ40%ϥꥫ轻̱35%ϥ衼åѷϥꥫ͡25%ϥեꥫϥꥫͤȤ롥3Ԥ3ͤΥꥫѸѼäƤꡤ1Ĥ Lumbee English Ȥ櫓
Ʊ¾ѼȽŤʤħ⾯ʤʤLumbee English ˤɸѸȤϰۤʤ뼡Τ褦ʹܤѻ롥
be ư was/is ε§were/are Ѥʤ: they was dancin' all night.
ʬƬ a- դˡ my head was just a'boilin.
were ε§ she weren't here.
λ be I'm been there.
á ellick ʥꥳҡ
㤤üԤˤ Lumbee English ϡƱäƤ륢եꥫϥꥫͤαѸѼȽŤʤʬ¿褦Ǥ⽽ʬΩݤäƤ뤿ˡȼѼȤߤʤƤ롥ʣ̱²θʣŪʸܿޤ줿äΥꥫѸѼȤƶ̣
Smith, K. Aaron and Susan M. Kim. This Language, A River: A History of English. Peterborough: Broadview P, 2018.
#3576. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ȯ ([2019-02-10-1])#3577. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ʸˡ ([2019-02-11-1]) ³McArthur AAVE θŪħҲ𤹤롥ϸáˡ¾ˤĤơ
(1) goober (peanut), yam (sweet potato), tote (to carry), buckra (white man) ʤɤեꥫθä̤롥
(2) ⽸Ĥ homeboy / homegirl ʼʬζпȤμ͡ˡhomies (homegirls) ʤɤѤ롥
(3) 뽸ĤΤƸƤ̾ΤȤ honkie / whitey (͡ˡredneck / peckerwood ļˤϤΡ͡ˤʤɤѤ롥
(4) ¯Ȥ bad / cool / hot (ɤ)crib ʲȡˡshort / ride ʼ֡ˤʤɤѤ롥
(5) ŪʸˡȤơstepped-to ʡʷޤǡͭʡˡupside the head ƬΤȤǡʲˡˡashy ʡ椬æơˤʤɤѤ롥
(6) ¿ AAVE ɽꥫѸθˤȤäƤ롥hip / hep ʥݥԥ顼㡼̤Ƥ͡ˡdude ˡ
(7) եꥫθƬͳ褹͡ɽϤꥢꥫѸθ˳ȤäƤ롥the dozens ƤФȯˡrapping ͺۤǹߤʸոˡshucking / jiving ͤչߤˤ餫äꡤޤꤹ뤳ȡˡsounding ʸդˤзˤʤɡ
Ȥ櫓äɽΰǸʤΤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡ̤ΥꥫѸθ졦¯ˤ¿Ǥ뤳ȤꥫѸǡʤȤȤϡ٤ɸѸǤˡAAVE ̵Ǥʤ餤¸ߴäƤΤǤ롥Ȥ櫓 AAVE Υݥåץ㡼θؤαƶϤ礭
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ε#3576. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ȯ ([2019-02-10-1]) ˰³McArthur ˰͵ AAVE θŪħˤĤơʸˡܤ롥
(1) ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬¿̤Ѥ롥No way no girl can't wear no platform shoes to no amusement park.
(2) ¸߹ʸ there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It ain't no food here.
(3) ʣͭʷ3ñ -s -ed ʤɤά뤳Ȥ롥He got three cent. / That's my brother book. / She like new clothes. / They talk all night.
(4) ʸ֤ʤʤȤ롥What it is? / How you are?
(5) be ư do Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥It don't all be her fault.
(6) be νˡThey be fightin. / He be laughing.
(7) Τ been ˤνŪʹ٤ɽ魯I béen see dat movie. / She béen had dat hat.
(8) ˾ a ˤջ֤ɽ魯I'm a shoot you. (= I'm going to shoot you.)
(9) steady ʹԷ֤䡤ʸΰ֤ˤƶȼäŪʰ̣ɽ魯We be steady rappin. / We steady be rappin. / We be rappin stéady. (= We are always talking.) / They steady be high. / They be stady high. / They be high stéady.. (= They are always intoxicated.)
(10) Come ˽ưȤѤ롥He come tellin me some story. (= He told me a lie.) / They come comin in here like they own de place. (= They came in here like they owned the place.)
(11) like ֤ۤȤɡפΰ̣ŪѤ롥I like to die(d). (= I almost died.) / He like to hit his head on that branch. (= He almost hit his head on that branch.)
ΤˤΤ褦ʱѸäС狼ϤʸʹʤȻפ롥ۤʤȤۤɤεΥǤϤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥AAVE ΰ֤ŤǮӤӤ櫓
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ܸǡֹͱѸפȸ蘆ƤѸѼϡҲؤǤ AAVE (= African American Vernacular English) ȸƤ֤Ȥ¿¾ˤ Black English Vernacular, African-American English, Afro-American (English), (American) Black English, black English ʤ͡ʸƤԤʤƤ뤬ʲ AAVE ̤
ܥ֥Ǥϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ޤ aave γƵ AAVE θŪħ䵯ˤĤƾҲ𤷤ƤǯΤ褦 AAVE ˴ؿΤߤʤɤ˸뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤˤ錄ꡤ⤦ηŪ AAVE θŪħҲ𤷤ƤMcArthur αѸŵ BLACK ENGLISH VERNACULAR ι (133--35) ˰͵ʤ顤ȯʸˡáѤʤɤ̤˾Ҳ𤷤ƤͽǤ롥
ϥȥȤ AAVE ΤΤǤϤʤѰ (variation) ħŤѼǤ뤳ȤޤĴǡȯħؤȿʤߤAAVE ϡƹιͤ¿ȤѸѼǤ롥ˤϼβѼ郎ꡤҲؤˤäƤۤʤ뤷Իԡļˤ̤ˤäƤۤʤ롥ŪɸŪʡפΤ顤Ƥ餺ޤäĶ鳰˽ФʤϤͤˤää¤ΤĤפΤޤɸŪ AAVE ȤäƤ⡤ɸѸƱͤϰˤ뺹ۤ¸ߤ롥 AAVE ϡͤäѸθˡǤ뤷 AAVE ƱͤǤ롥ĿͤˤäƤ⡤¤ζ AAVE ѼɸѸ˶ᤤѼȤθ (style-shifting) Фи졤ʼҲ˸ŪΤʵҤϺˤ롥
ǤϡŵŪ AAVE ȯħĤƤ
(1) ŪʥꥫƱͤˡnon-rhotic Ǥ롥car "ca" Τ褦ˡparty "pahty" Τ褦ȯ롥ޤҲ˵ /l/ æhelp "hep" ˡself "sef" ˤʤ롥r l ϡWe're coming We'll be here ʤɤˤƤæ"We comin" "We be here" Τ褦ˤʤ롥
(2) -ing ˤơ/ŋ/ /n/ ִ롥coming, running ϡä "comin", "runnin" Ȥʤ롥
(3) λҲϽ̸롥desk, test, cold Ϥ줾 "des", "tes", "col" Ȥʤ롥
(4) /d/ Ҳˤæ롥looked, talked ϡ"look", "talk" ȤʤäƤޤ
(5) Ƭ /ð/ ϤФ /d/ ȯ졤that day, this house "dat day", "dis house" Ȥʤ롥
(6) /θ/ ϤФ /f/ ȯ졤booth, south "boof", "souf" Ȥʤ롥
(7) 2ˤơФ1˶롥ȤСɸѸȰۤʤ "pólice", "défine" ʤɤȯ롥
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ȸƤ֤뤤Ϥ̾ɽ蘆ƤϲȤϡҲŪ˿Ǥ롥̾ȡ줬ɤθؼ뤫ȤŪطǤ롥
ܤξ硤̸ȬŻʤɤξ줬Ĥ뤳ȤϾΤǡ¾ָ̾ü̱̾̾²̾פΤ褦˽ǰ̾ܡפǤ줤˰פΤǡܸפȸƤ֤Ȥ˲꤬ʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤcf. #3457. ܤξǴ졦 ([2018-10-14-1])ˡΤ褦˽ǰ̾ۤܰפϡǤȤȤΤäƤɬפ롥
եꥫʿϰϤȤꡤճ˻פ뤫⤷ʤ衼åѽǤ졤üԡȡ̱²ϰפäƤȸƾΤ뤫ȤϡȤ˿ˤʤΤcf. #1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1])ˡȤСܥ֥Ǥϡ#1659. ޥɥ˥μҲء ([2013-11-11-1]) #3429. ޥɥ˥ο̾ ([2018-09-16-1]) ǥޥɥ˥ʸˤˤĤƤ#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]) Ǥϵ桼ν̾夲Ƥ
ܥ֥δؿǤȶʤȤǤСֱѸפȤƾΤؤΤȤȤѲƤűѸˤϡ"English" ϥɤäƤޥ췲νŪ˻ؤƤѸˤϡθüԤϥɰʳǤ⡤ʬŪˤǤϤ쥹åȥɡ륺ɤǤѤ褦ˤʤꡤ"English" λؼоݤŪŪˤޤä˶ѸˤƤϡѸϥ֥ƥ礫ӽФơ͡Ѽޤ "English" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤꡤǤϥꥫѸ䥤ɱѸϤȤϤǹԤʤƤԥѸޤǤ⤬ "English" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ֱѸפεŪطǯȺȤǤۤʤäƤ롥
ʤ "English" Ȥ̾λؤϰϤѲˤĤƤ semasiological ʹͻդ A ȸƤФƤѼ郎Ȥ B ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäȤ onomasiological Ƥ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤåȥ˺դѸѼϡ15ˤϤޤ "Inglis" 1ѼȤߤʤƤ15Ⱦ "Scottis" ȾΤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥 "Scottis" Ȥϡ衤ѸȤϱ椫ʤȸɤ°륲ؤƤˤ⤫餺Ǥ롥ʿ (57) Ŧ̤ꡤΤ褦ʸ̾θطʤˤϡɬ䤽ôΥǥƥƥѲ롥
ťåĸϡ졻ǯ켷ǯޤǽåĸ졤åĸˤĤäȤ礭Ѳϡ˸Ƥ̾ѤäȡʤꥹƥScottis Scottish θťåĸ۷Scots Scottis ֲάˤȸƤФ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ĤƥƥȤդϤ餫˥ϥɡʤȥɡˤΥؤƤåȥϥȷӤĤƤȤɿͤϡθѼθƤ̾ϥƥǤȼĥϤϤäȤǧžǤäƥϤʸϥʳθؤ褦ˤʤäϥåȥɤθŪʥǥƥƥžȤƤΤǤ롥
ȸ̾εۤɡƼҲŪϤʤ
ʿ رѸθ1500ǯˡ١̼ҡ2016ǯ
źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ
#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ
there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.
Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.
쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ߡǸϲѸ줬ѤƤꡤΤ "Englishes" ȸƤФƤ롥Franglais, Singlish, Taglish ʤɤ̾ΤƤΤ¿"nativized Englishes" 뤤 "hybrid Englishes" Ȥ롥"nativized Englishes" "hybrid Englishes" Ȥ2ĤθƾΤδ֤ˤϡ̯ʥ˥奢ΰ㤤롥Gramley (360) "hybrid Englishes" ˤĤơΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
Hybrid Englishes are forms of the language noticeably influenced by a non-English language. Examples include Franglais (French with English additions), Spanglish (ditto for Spanish), Singlish (Singapore English --- with substrate enrichment), TexMex (English with Spanish elements), Mix-Mix (Tagalog/Pilipino English), which may be more English (Engalog) or more Tagalog (Taglish). Such Englishes do not have the extreme structural change typical of pidgins and creoles. Rather, the non-English aspect of these hybrids depends on local systems of pronunciation and vocabulary. Marginally, they will also include structural change. The are likely, in any case, to be difficult for people to understand who are unfamiliar with both languages. In essence hybrid forms are not really different from the nativized Englishes . . .; the justification for a separate term may best be seen in the fact that hybrids are the result of covert norms while nativized Englishes are potentially to be seen on a par with StE.
"nativized Englishes" "hybrid Englishes" ܼŪˤƱΤؤȹͤƤ褤ԤҲˤɸѸƱ뤤Ϥ˽ऺͤĤȤߤʤƤѼްդΤФơԤϤΤ褦ʲͤ⤿ʤѼްդ롥#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) #2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) ǻȤäѸǤСԤ endonormative ѼԤ exonormative ѼؤȤäƤ褤뤤ϡԤϰҿȷӤĤ overt norms η̤ǤꡤԤķȷӤĤ covert norms η̤ǤȤ⤤롥ޤκۤϡɸѸʤ Standard English) äɸѸʤ General English) ΰ㤤ȤʿŪǤ褦˻פ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Ѹˤˤɸಽ (standardisation) ȤС1Ū˽դɸಽǰƬ֤Ƥ褦˻פ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤դɸಽˤĤƤ͡˾Ҳ𤷤ƤäդɸಽˤĤƤϰä#3356. ɸȯ18Ⱦ ([2018-07-05-1]) Ǥȯɸಽ夲ƤꡤäդɸಽΰϤΤΡäաפȡȯפȤƱǤϤʤäդˤϡȯʳʸˡäʤɤ¾¦̤⤢롥
äդɸಽˤĤơϲۤΡɸѸγΩ (93) ˵Ƥ복פѤ롥
դɸѸϴ15ȾޤǤˡɥ濴˷졤θ嶵ڤˤȤʤäƵ®˹ޤäȹͤƤ뤬äդɸϤޤκˤϤʤEModE ˤʤäƳΩ16ˤʤäƵ濴˾ή顤ʸ͡ǻȤ줿äդɸȤƳΩϥɥdz۳θդǤ뤫鳬ǤäơƱɥǤ⡤سθդɸȤʪǡ˥åˡ (Cockney) Ȥȯãޤʸˡ⼭ʤΤȤǡɸϡ줫ߤȯʸˡξ̤˷礱̣ǼͳʱѸǤ⤢äΤ褦ʱѸξطʤо줷ΤޤǤʤʸػ˾κȥԥ (William Shakespeare, 1564--1616) Ǥ롥ͤαѸϡάͶ¤ǡѸ2ĤθȸƤФƤ롥
ݥȤϡäդɸಽդɸಽ1ۤ٤ƻϤޤäȤǤ롥ޤδפȤʤäѼ郎ɥλ۳θäȤפǤ롥ɸಽκǽˤϡѼȤưͤǤϤʤ٤ѰۤƤִˤפΤäȤäƤ褤ʤȤ⸽ɸѸθ˸ФȤǤ롥䤿γؤǤֱѲáפϡ500ǯΥɥξήΤ٤˵ĤȤȤǤ롥
ϲ ͭ ԡ λҡ ¹̾ ԡرѸˡ١罤۽Ź1995ǯ
ε#3444. ѸˤϡѸλ̵餷ǤȤ١ ([2018-10-01-1]) ƤϡΤޤܸˤˤƤϤޤ뤷ˤ¾¿θ̸ˤˤƤϤޤܸˤˤĤơ (4) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ʸˤߤܸ줬ɤΤ褦ܸȿǤƤΤΤȤܸˤͤݤ˺ǤפʤȤǤ롥ʸϹ˸夫鸽ޤǻĤäƤΤΡˤϤ줾λʸȿǤƤդŪȤθդôȤĤǤ뤳ȤαդʤФʤʤ
ŪȤΤϡɻˤäƤθաʿ»ʹǯϵθաͻȾʹߤˤäƤϹ͡θդȤ褦ˡʸ濴Ϥ¨ưưƤ뤳ȤǤ롥äơˤȤʤСήϰϢ³礯ˡϢʤȤȤήˤΤϤʤʤǤ롥
դô˴ؤƤ?ʿ»ˤϵ²ηθաһˤΤθաĮˤϾĮͤθաͻˤϲĮͤθդä뤳ȤȤʤꡤҤȸȤäƤ⤽¤ŪʤΤǤϤʤΤǤ롥
λФĹݤ줿ԤԸդϡϤθդˤä礭ѹ뤳ȤϤʤäΤ¤Ǥ롥ȤϤλܸˤҤ˽פǤ롥
ѸˤǤǯǤ The Stories of English Alternative Histories of English ʤɤνѼˤҤ褦ˤʤäƤŪ˱ѸˤȤСפ˵ҤԤȤ礭ѤäƤʤѸˤˤƤפ϶ŪˤŪˤϢ³礤ƤȤȤϸ¤ǤꡤõƤɬפ
ơ̸ˤϻ̵餷ǤȤ٤ʤΤǤ롥
ˡ1ϡܸ˳ѡ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ1--21ǡ
Ѹ˸ˤơФиᤴ뤬ƴŪʻ¤Ȥơ¸ʸΥ꤬롥ˤäʸ̤礭ʺȤ¤
κȤäƤ⡤켫Τˤ͡ʥפ롥ˤäơʸƤۤʤ⤢СΩäꤿγʤɡҲŪ°ۤʤ⤢롥ˤäơΤȯŸƤʸϤΥäƤɽμˤ⡤ˤäư㤤ߤ롥
¸ʸθ줬ˤä¿¿ͤǤȤȤϡθˤ̤ƤΡ¬פȤȤǤ롥ϰ˸ꤷƹͤƤ⡤礿ʤפϡűѸǤϥȥǤꡤѸǤ¸ߤѸʹߤϥɥǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ1ĤΩӤưӤѸˤȤϤǤʤ
头Ȥ˽դôѤäƤǤϤΤΤϡۤԤ䲦²˸¤Ƥϡ깭¯ο͡ˤΤˬ褦ˤʤꡤḽˤƤ϶ȯŸȤȤ˽դϽ̱˳ƤäդôȤ¦̤ˤƤ⡤¬αѸˤȤ
ǤϡΤ褦˻ȤֱѸˡפȤϲؤΤֱѸפΤΤƱ褦ˡֱѸˡפ⡤ʤ١եʤΤȻפѸˤϡñʤѸȤ˴ؤ¤λŪʵҤǤϤʤϸߤ˷ӤĤˤ̵Τ̵٤θɤΤؤȲȤӤĤİ٤ʤΤǤϤʤݥȤϤ˷֤櫓ǤϤʤȤȤˤϡ˸뤿ιפۤ˸ȤȤϡ餯¤β˿ȿǤƤϤȤ˾ʤ顥
ɸ the Falkland Islands ʥեɽ; Falklands Ȥ) ȤС1982ǯΥեʶ褬۵롥ξ塤Φ480ۤβ⤫֤νϥꥹο̱ϤŪͭĥ륢를ǯ˷ŪߤȤȯʶǤ롥ꥹϥå㡼ΤȤǥ를ȹ䤷ǡä를ݤꥹ̱ռ줿ΤȤ¦ͥꥹٻλफΤ褦ʻݤ᤺θɬ⥤ꥹˤȤä˧ʤξɤ˿ɴͤλԤФä

եɽˤƤߤ褦ˤ West Falkland East Falkland 2Ĥμ礿礬롥˥ꥹϽ̱2100ͤۤɽǤ롥1690ǯꥹĹ John Strong ˾ΦȤεϿĤäƤ롥̾ϡ Strong Ĺ Viscount Falkland ˤʤ̾դΤȤ1765ǯ˺ǽεサϤߤΤ de Bougainville Ψ줿եͤǤꡤꥹ͵サϤηߤϤ줫1ǯ٤줿1767ǯˤϥڥեサϤθŪ˥ꥹͤɤʧäꥹͤ櫓ǤϤʤä1811ǯ٤ϥڥサϤűह뤳ȤȤʤä
θ塤1816ǯ˥ڥΩ̤를1820ǯ˥եɽͭʥ를ǤϽ Las Islas Malvinas ȸƤǤ롥ϡˬ줿 Saint-Malo пȤΥ֥ȥ͵դˤʤǥե Les îles Malouines ̾դ줿ΤΥڥ̾Ǥˡ1831ǯ˥ꥫηϤ East Falkland Υ를サϤ⤷1833ǯˤϥꥹƥ를ͤɤʧä1841ǯꥹϥեɽĤǤ̿1885ǯޤǤ2Ĥ1800ͤۤɤΥꥹͼҲ夲ơ1892ǯ˥ꥹ̱ϤȤʤä
ʹߡԤǤ East Falkland Port Stanley Ǥϡȥꥢ˥塼ɤαѸȤ֤̤äѸѼ郎ȯãƤߤ˿ܿäȤϻפʤӴϫƯԤȥꥢ˥塼ɡեɽΤƤȤ¤ꡤη̤ȤƸߤαѸѼ˻ƤʬȤȤ⤷ʤޤWest Falkland θġ¼äѼϡĤνпϤǤ륤ꥹȷӤĤȤʤեɽѼǤ non-prevocalic r ˴ؤƤ non-rhotic Ǥ롥
ʾ塤Trudgill and Hannah (123--24) McArthur (397) εҤ˰͵ƽCIA: The World Factbook ˤ Falkland Islands Ethnologue ˤ Falkland Islands ⻲ȡ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.
ΤȤѸɸಽ (standardisation) ˤΤߤʤ餺ɸಽˤĤưŪ˹ͤ뵡¿äƤ롥˴ϢѸȳǰ褦ȡҲؤѸ콸 (Trudgill) Ƥߤ齸ĤνѸȤ˺Τ˵Ƥ
ޤϡѸ˴ؤƤФ "Standard English" ȤѸ줫ʡ#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ ([2013-02-21-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
Standard English The dialect of English which is normally used in writing, is spoken by educated native speakers, and is taught to non-native speakers studying the language. There is no single accent associated with this dialect, but the lexicon and grammar of the dialect have been subject to codification in numerous dictionaries and grammars of the English language. Standard English is a polycentric standard variety, with English, Scottish, American, Australian and other standard varieties differing somewhat from one another. All other dialects can be referred to collectively as nonstandard English.
ǻȤƤ "polycentric" ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#2384. polycentric language ([2015-11-06-1]) ȡ#2402. polycentric language (2) ([2015-11-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
ˡ"standardisation" ȤѸ줫Ť뼰ˤĤѸɤäƤߤ
standardisation The process by which a particular variety of a language is subject to language determination, codification and stabilisation. These processes, which lead to the development of a standard language, may be the result of deliberate language planning activities, as with the standardisation of Indonesia, or not, as with the standardisation of English.
status planning [language determination] In language planning, status planning refers to decisions which have to be taken concerning the selection of particular languages or varieties of language for particular purposes in the society or nation in question. Decisions about which language or languages are to be the national or official languages of particular nation-states are among the more important of status planning issues. Status planning is often contrasted with corpus planning or language development. In the use of most writers, status planning is not significantly different from language determination.
codification The process whereby a variety of a language, often as part of a standardisation process, acquires a publicly recognised and fixed form in which norms are laid down for 'correct' usage as far as grammar, vocabulary, spelling and perhaps pronunciation are concerned. This codification can take place over time without involvement of official bodies, as happened with Standard English, or it can take place quite rapidly, as a result of conscious decisions by governmental or other official planning agencies, as happened with Swahili in Tanzania. The results of codification are usually enshrined in dictionaries and grammar books, as well as, sometimes, in government publications.
stabilisation A process whereby a formerly diffuse language variety that has been in a state of flux undergoes focusing . . . and takes on a more fixed and stable form that is shared by all its speakers. Pidginised jargons become pidgins through the process of stabilisation. Dialect mixtures may become koinés as a result of stabilisation. Stabilisation is also a component of language standardisation.
focused According to a typology of language varieties developed by the British sociolinguist Robert B. LePage, some language communities and thus language varieties are relatively more diffuse, while others are relatively more focused. Any speech act performed by an individual constitutes an act of identity. If only a narrow range of identities is available for enactment in a speech community, that community can be regarded as focused. Focused linguistic communities tend to be those where considerable standardisation and codification have taken place, where there is a high degree of agreement about norms of usage, where speakers tend to show concern for 'purity' and marking their language variety off from other varieties, and where everyone agrees about what the language is called. European language communities tend to be heavily focused. LePage points out that notions such as admixture, code-mixing, code-switching, semilingualism and multilingualism depend on a focused-language-centred point of view of the separate status of language varieties.
diffuse According to a typology of language varieties developed by the British sociolinguist Robert B. LePage, a characteristic of certain language communities, and thus language varieties. Some communities are relatively more diffuse, while others are relatively more focused. Any speech act performed by an individual constitutes an act of identity. If a wide range of identities is available for enactment in a speech community, that community can be regarded as diffuse. Diffuse linguistic communities tend to be those where little standardisation or codification have taken place, where there is relatively little agreement about norms of usage, where speakers show little concern for marking off their language variety from other varieties, and where they may accord relatively little importance even to what their language is called.
Ǹ˵2 "focused" "diffuse" ϸ춦ƱΤѼˤĤѤеηƻǡ¤ʳǰȴȿͤȤȻȤľŪɽǡɸಽ٤ιؤƤ롥Ѹˤʸ̮ǤСѸ a diffuse variety Ǥꡤʶ˸ѸűѸ focused varieties ǤȳɽǤ롥"focused" ΤʤǤ٤ꡤ٤ι⤤Τ "fixed"㤤Τ̣Ǥ "focused" ȤʤСʶ˸ѸԡűѸϸԤɽǤfixed focused ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
18--19 Industrial Revolution ʻȳ̿ˤϡѹҲι¤礭ѤμҲŪʵϡüŪˤ (traditional dialects) ԻѼ (urban varieties) ؤΰܹԤȤäƤ褤̡͢ʤȯãˤꡤ͡ιưͼҲŪͥåȥѤꤷϰˤŪʿʹִطλޤꡤοʿ (dialect_levelling) ȶ̸첽 (koinéization) ʹԤǡϤ˸줿巿ԻԤϰҲεῴϤȤʤꡤʤԻѼ郎ޤƤԻѼϰ°Ҳ궯ȿǤ뷹ǡȤϰۤʤ¸ߤǤ롥
Gramley (181) դλʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
[The Industrial Revolution and the transportation revolution] were among the most significant social changes of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Partly as a prerequisite for and partly as an effect of industrialization there were fundamental changes in transportation. First, in the period after 1750 there was the establishment of turnpikes, then canals, and finally railroads. Among their consequences was the development of regional and supra-regional markets and, concomitant with this, greater labor force mobility in a money rather than barter economy with the potential for consumption. It hardly seems necessary to point out that this led to a weakening of the rural traditional dialects and an upsurge of new urban varieties in the process of dialect leveling or koinéization.
As industrialization continued, new centers in the Northeast (mining) and in the Western Midlands (textiles in Manchester and Birmingham and commerce in Liverpool) began to emerge. Immigration of labor from "abroad" also ensured further language and dialect contact as Irish workers found jobs in the major projects of canal building in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and then in the building of the railways. Enclaves of Irish came into being, especially in Liverpool. Despite linguistic leveling the general distinctions were retained between the North (now divided more clearly than ever between the English North and Scotland), the East Midlands and the now industrializing West Midlands, and the South. The emergence of a new, mostly working-class, urban population in the North in the nineteenth century was accompanied by a literature of its own. Pamphlets, broadsides, and almanacs showed local consciousness and pride in vernacular culture and language. As the novels of Elizabeth Gaskel demonstrate, language --- be it traditional dialect or working-class koiné --- was a marker of class solidarity.
Τ褦ˡѹζḽŪʼҲŪѼΤϡȤƻȳ̿λʪȤäƤ褤
ϢȤơ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])#2028. ܤȥɤˤξ ([2014-11-15-1])#2023. England θѸʬ (3) --- Modern Dialects ([2014-11-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
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