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bilingualism - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-28 00:27

2016-05-31 Tue

#2591. ťΥɸϤĤޤǥ󥰥ɤǻȤƤ [old_norse][bilingualism][emode][language_death]

ɸˤĤƤϡ#1149. The Aldbrough Sundial ([2012-06-19-1]) ǿ줿 Page ʸΤۤĤͤ롥μˤΤʷФʤȤ¿ƤԤˤäưոϤޤޤǤ롥ǤϡBaugh and Cable (92--93) θ򼨤

Although in some places the Scandinavians gave up their language early, there were certainly communities in which Danish or Norse remained for some time the usual language. Up until the time of the Norman Conquest the Scandinavian language in England was constantly being renewed by the steady stream of trade and conquest. In some parts of Scotland, Norse was still spoken as late as the seventeenth century. In other districts in which the prevailing speech was English, there were doubtless many of the newcomers who continued to speak their own language at least as late as 1100 and a considerable number who were to a greater or lesser degree bilingual. The last-named circumstance is rendered more likely by the frequent intermarriage between the two peoples and by the similarity between the two tongues. The Anglian dialect resembled the language of the Northmen in a number of particulars in which West Saxon showed divergence. The two may even have been mutually intelligible to a limited extent. Contemporary statements on the subject are conflicting, and it is difficult to arrive at a conviction. But wherever the truth lies in this debatable question, there can be no doubt that the basis existed for an extensive interaction of the two languages upon each other, and this conclusion is amply borne out by the large number of Scandinavian elements subsequently found in English.


Danelaw ϰˤƤ1100ǯ餤ޤǸťΥɸ줬äƤȿ¬Ƥ뤬θˤĤƤϸڤʤҲŪХ󥬥ˤĿŪХ󥬥ˤ衤٤κä٤䤷̤褦ľܡܤʸʤȤʤȡ٤Ƥϲ¬ΰФʤȤˤʤ롥
ΰѤˤϥåȥɤΰˤťΥɸλѤˤĤ17ޤǷ³ƤȤθڤ뤬Ϣơ#828. Shetland ([2011-08-03-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿Shetland ǤϡťΥɸ줫1Ѽ錄 Norn λѤ18ޤ³Ƥ褦Ǥ롥

Page, R. I. "How Long Did the Scandinavian Language Survive in England? The Epigraphical Evidence." England Before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy Whitelock. Ed. P. Clemoes and K. Hughes. Cambridge: CUP, 1971. 165--81.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2015-12-18 Fri

#2426. York Memorandum Book ˤߤʩ¿¿ͤʺ [code-switching][borrowing][loan_word][french][anglo-norman][latin][bilingualism][hybrid][lexicology]

Ѹ code-switching macaronic ʸˤĤơ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1])#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤϢơʩκߤ15ηбġȤεϿʸĴ Rothwell ʸɤΤǡƤҲ𤹤롥
ĴоݤȤʤäʸ York Memorandum Book ȸƤФΤǡϼΤ褦ʸǤ (Rothwell 213)

The two substantial volumes of the York Memorandum Book provide some five hundred pages of records detailing the administrative and commercial life of the second city in England over the years between 1376 and 1493, setting down in full charters, ordinances of the various trade associations, legal cases involving citizens and so on.


York Memorandum Book ˤϡʩκߤ뤬ߤμ͡Ǥ롥Rothwell ʬˤС11κߤΤ롥Rothwell (215--16) ʸϤȴФơվ񤭤

(i) "English words inserted without modification into a Latin text"
(ii) "English words similarly introduced into a French text"
(iii) "French words used without modification into a Latin text"
(iv) "French words similarly used in an English text"
(v) "English words dressed up as Latin in a Latin text"
(vi) "English words dressed up as French in a French text"
(vii) "French words dressed up as Latin in a Latin text"
(viii) "French words are used in a specifically Anglo-French sense in a French text"
(ix) "French words may be found in a Latin text dressed up as Latin, but with an English meaning"
(x) "On occasion, a single word may be made up of parts taken from different languages . . . or a new word may be created by attaching a suffix to an existing word, either from the same language or from one language or another""
(xi) "Outside the area of word-formation there is also the question of grammatical endings to be considered"

3Ĥθ줬ؤꡤξ "dressed up" ̵̣ͭαʤɤθȡΤ褦ˤ٤ʬबȤȤ롥(x) Ϥ뺮 (hybrid) ˴ؤǤ (see #96. Ѹȥե󥹸Ǻ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1])) Τ褦˸ȡüѡαƶˤ뿷ʸȯạ̃θ򴹡code-switching ʤɤν˸ߤ̩ܤ˴ϢƤ뤫ڤʬ˺񤫤롥
Rothwell ϷȤơΤμαʩκߤϡ̵Τʼ̻ˤλʪȤ "recognised policy" (230) äȤߤʤ٤ȼĥƤ롥ޤ14--15ˤϡȼפγˤбġȤεϿʸǰƤ¿ͲȼäŪʸä礷Ƥˤơ񤭼ϸߤθñߤڤꤹɬפ줿˰㤤ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Rothwell (230) ۩

Before condemning the scribes of late medieval England for their ignorance, account must be taken of the situation in which they found themselves. On the one hand the recording of administrative documents steadily increasing in number and diversity called for an ever wider lexis, whilst on the other hand the conventions of the time demanded that such documents be couched in Latin or French. No one has ever remotely approached complete mastery of the lexis of his own language, let alone that of any other language, either in medieval or modern times.


Rothwell ȤԤˤĤƤϡ#1212. 󥰥ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ (2) ([2012-08-21-1])#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1])#2349. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1])#2374. Anglo-French Ȥ (1) ([2015-10-27-1])#2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) ([2015-10-28-1]) Ǥ⿨ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ

Rothwell, William. "Aspects of Lexical and Morphosyntactical Mixing in the Languages of Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. D. S. Brewer, 2000. 213--32.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-06-1]

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2015-10-02 Fri

#2349. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) [reestablishment_of_english][language_shift][french][loan_word][borrowing][bilingualism][borrowing][lexicology][statistics][contact]

ɸˤĤƤϡʲΰϢεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ

#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1])
#1638. ե󥹸ȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥ󥰤ζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])

˴ϢơRothwell ʸɤRothwell (50) ˤȡѸΤ˸ŪʵϿθ줬ƥ줫ե󥹸ءե󥹸줫Ѹܤޤ뤷ڤؤä (language_shift) ȤҲŪʻθʤФʤʤȤ

If the English language appears to embark on a far more extensive campaign of lexical borrowing from the later fourteenth century, this is because French had become the second official language of record in England, alongside and often in replacement of Latin. This means in effect that from the thirteenth century onwards French is called upon to cover a much wider range of registers than in the earlier period, when it was used in the main for works of entertainment or edification. This change in the role of French took place at a time when English was debarred from use as a language of record, so that when English in its turn began to take on that role in the later fourteenth century, it was only to be expected that it would retain much of the necessary vocabulary used by its predecessor --- French. . . . For successive generations of countless English scribes and officials the administrative vocabulary of French had been an integral part of their daily life and work; it would be unrealistic to expect them to jettison it and re-create an entirely new Germanic set of terms when English came in to take over the role hitherto played by French.


13--14ˤơե󥹸줬ˡΧطϤȤŪʸȤƤ򶯤ƤȤϡ#2330. 13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) ǤߤΤ褦˥󥰥ɤˤƥե󥹸ǸŪʵϿ봷ˤ錄äƳΩƤȤˡ14ȾѸ줬ƤΤǤ롥񤭸վΥХ󥬥äȤϤ¿μ̻ˤȤäơ餳θؤˤϸǤääˡΧ˴ؤѸ¿ϡޤǥեñǤޤʤäƤƤꡤбѸϷ礱ƤΤ褦ʾǡ̻񤭸դѸؤȥեȤݤˡ񤭴줿ե󥹸Ѹ¿ѤȤϼä
ѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤Ťȡ֤θüѤϡΤ褦̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥ϢǶȤơ#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia ([2015-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.

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2015-10-01 Thu

#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching [code-switching][me][emode][bilingualism][contact][latin][french][literature][borrowing][genre][historical_pragmatics][discourse_analysis]

ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤε񤤤ƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)

CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)


鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" 󤲤ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ򸦵椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻񤹤2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ򿼲뤳ȤǤ롥

Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.

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2015-09-28 Mon

#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia [diglossia][sociolinguistics][bilingualism][oe][me][latin][french]

ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. 󥰥ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ񲽡 ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])

ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥󥰥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽ󥰥Ҳ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС

. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.


פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
Ѹȡ󥰥ɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥

This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.


ΤȸѸˤƥե󥹸λѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥ󥰥ɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥

Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-02-1]

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2015-09-17 Thu

#2334. ѸȵIJȯŸ [law_french][register][french][bilingualism][latin][reestablishment_of_english][history][parliament][hundred_years_war]

Υޥ (norman_conquest) Ǥäϰ̤βѸ줬ѸȾФե󥹸ƥ˹ƽƤˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵǼ夲ƤѸϿˤ錄ʲǤ뤿ᡤγʳǤζŪʾȤ館ˤǡƱ˿ʹԤ#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) Ȥ롥μŪ褯򤹤뤿ˤϡƱ͡ʳ٤įᡤΩŪ夲Ƥʤ
ϢȤơ#2330. 13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) 夲ϡǤ줿ФΡɤߤ䤹ľδˤ륤ꥹ˳ꡤƱˡΧޤλѸȤ顤ѸˤĤƿƤս꤬ΤǡѤ

֥Υޥװʸ塤󥰥ɵ²ϥե󥹸Ǥꡤʸʤɤˤϥƥ줬ѤƤ줬ˤ֥ΥޥӼװʹߡ²δ֤ǤѸ줬Ū˻Ȥ졤ɥ3ΰ컰ϻǯϵIJǤ˱Ѹ줿̱ˤϥե󥹸줬Ǥʤؤ¿ȤȤؤäƤ
IJθʸΤۤϡȾޤǤϥƥȤȤ˥ե󥹸줬ȤƤȬǯˡƤѸȤʤäʵIJˡΤϥƥΤޤޡˡŪˡȤǧֹ񲦤ˤ۲ġסʥ롦ȡˤ⡤켷ȾޤǤϥե󥹸줬ȤƤʰϻͶǯˤȤȤ˱Ѹľ졤ʸ庣ޤ³Ƥ롥 (134--35)


ѤǤ⼨ƤȤꡤѸϡIJȯŸȾʤ餺¹ԤƤ롥13ʹߡ󥰥ɤβϡJohn μäΦϤåԤ٤ʩ򤷤Ƥ椯Ѥ롥ä14ɴǯ˺ݤơEdward III ĴãΤ˹̱ФǤ׵ᤷǤˤλޤǤˤϡ񲦤ǤǼԤɽޤIJξǧʤƤϼ¸ˤƷȤʤäƤˤIJ䤬礭ʤꡤơ³ʤɤƤΤEdward III μ (1327--77) äλˡѸ줬ŪʻѤǧƤ椯褦ˤʤȤΤϡǤϤʤ
äդǤϾ嵭Τ褦˱Ѹ塹ȿʤ񤭸դǤϤޤޤʪե󥹸ȥƥ줬Ф餯ѸȤƤϰ̤³뤳ȤˤʤäǤ⡤ñ̤ǤߤСϤŪʱѸĬήϡѸȾФˤϤǤޤƤȤߤƤ褤

ľδʪ졡ꥹˡʾˡ١ҡӡ2015ǯ

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2015-09-13 Sun

#2330. 13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸ [law_french][register][anglo-norman][french][bilingualism][latin][norman_conquest][reestablishment_of_english]

Υޥ (norman_conquest) Υ󥰥ɤǤϡˡΧϢѤʣäˡΧθȰˤäƤ⡤񤭸դäդȤä (mode of discourse) Ȥѥ᡼⤢äˡʸȽϿʸƬʤɤȤäξ (field of discourse) Ȥѥ᡼⤢äѸϡɥȤǤϰۤʤäƤ⤷ʤȽεˤäƤѰۤƤǽ롥ơȤȤˡƥե󥹸ءƥե󥹸ѸؤȤĬή⤢äѸˤˡΧʬǤ塦ʩѸλȤʬμ֤ϡĤ줿˴Ťơ餫ˤ뤳Ȥϲǽ¿οɬפȤʤ롥
#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ƭ˵褦ˡάȤƤϡ13ˤϥƥäƥե󥹸줬ˡΧطɽˤͥȤʤäƤ椯ե󥹸ˡʸˤƤƥȶ礤14ˤͥȤʤ롥15ˤϡLaw French Law English ˽˼äƤ椯˻ޤǥե󥹸ΰ仺ϼѤ줿פȹͤƤ褤Brand ϡˡΧޤäλѰʬǡ13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸĴƤ롥
Υޥ塤ˡΧطʸˤƥƥ줬Ǥ̤θǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤȽѤˤĤƤϤɤäΤBrand (66) ϡHenry II (1133--89) ΩȽΩ餫顤ǤλѸϱѸǤϤʤե󥹸äȤߤƤ롥

It seems much more likely that French had been the language of the royal courts from the very beginning of the system of central royal courts established by Henry II and that French was their language because in that period it was the first language of the men appointed as royal justices and of many of the litigants. French seems then to have remained the language of the courts in part because of cultural conservatism, the absence of any really compelling reason for changing accepted practice; in part because there were advantages to the professional elite who came to dominate legal practice in using a language which needed to be learned and mastered by outsiders and which enhance their mystique; in part also because the courts had developed a technical French vocabulary that was not easily translatable into English.


Ǥϡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤ12ȾˤϥΥޥϵ²ޤ।󥰥ɹ̱¿ѸȤƤȹͤ뤬ˡΧȽȤŪʻѰˤƤϡե󥹸ѤŪ˻³ƤȤꤵƤ롥
1314ˤƤ³षȯŸ餷ե󥹸ˡʸˤƥƥȶ礷1275ǯ˽ƥե󥹸ˤŪꤵ줿ˡʸ񤬸ȡ1300ǯʹߡե󥹸 "the language of the future in 1300 for English legal instruction" (Brand 72) Ȥʤä
ե󥹸αɸĹ³ʤä14ȾФˤϡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) #131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ줬ˡΧʬؤ⿯ƤǤ롥
Brand (75--76) ϡ1314Ⱦˤơե󥹸줬ˡΧʬѤ줿ˤĤơΤ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

The languages of English law in the thirteenth and fourteenth century were primarily Latin and French. Latin was and remained the language of formal record at all levels of the court hierarchy. It was also the language of some of the thirteenth-century instructional literature of English law and even perhaps of some of the actual instruction. Its status as the language of formal legislation appears to have gone unchallenged prior to the last quarter of the thirteenth century but thereafter was increasingly challenged by the Anglo-Norman French of the common lawyers. Anglo-Norman French was the language actually used in pleading not just in the royal courts but also in county and city courts and came to be the invariable language of the law reports which recorded such pleading and which were also used to teach the following generation of law students. Anglo-Norman was also the language of oral legal instruction and of the legal literature which grew out of such instruction and of some other instructional literature as well. Anglo-Norman may always have been the language for the drafting and discussion of legislation but was also from 1275 onwards one of the two languages used for the formal enactment of legislation as well. The third language used in thirteenth- and early-fourteenth-century England, English, is little in evidence here. It may have been used in the local proclamation of legislation, but it was not for the most part one of the written languages used in legal contexts.


ϢơLaw French ˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ڤ law_french γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

Brand, Paul. "The languages of the Law in Later Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 63--76.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-02-1] [2015-09-17-1]

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2015-09-12 Sat

#2329. ѸμѸ [borrowing][loan_word][me][lexicology][contact][latin][french][greek][italian][spanish][portuguese][welsh][cornish][dutch][german][bilingualism]

ѸθüѤȤСޤե󥹸줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬󤬤 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾󤲤뤬ե󥹸졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥե󥹸ͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ򹭤̣ǼСѸ쥤󥰥ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)

LANGUAGESDirect IntroductionIndirect Introduction
Latin--- 
French--- 
Scandinavian--- 
Low German--- 
High German--- 
Italian through French
Spanish through French
Irish--- 
Scottish Gaelic--- 
Welsh--- 
Cornish--- 
Other Celtic languages in Europe through French
Portuguese through French
Arabic through French and Spanish
Persian through French, Greek and Latin
Turkish through French
Hebrew through French and Latin
Greek through French by way of Latin


#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) ǰѤ̤ꡤ"French acted as the Trojan horse of Latinity in English" Ȥ⤤ϻ¤ե󥹸ѸˤϡƥΤߤʤ餺äȤä¿θ줫μѤΡפȤƵǽƤΤǤ롥
Ϣơ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-22-1]

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2015-09-11 Fri

#2328. Ѹ¿ [me][bilingualism][french][latin][contact][sociolinguistics][writing][diglossia][register]

Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲ򻲾ȡ

#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. 󥰥ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])

Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤򡤤֤޼ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

LANGUAGERegisterMediumStatus
LatinFormal-OfficialWrittenHigh
FrenchFormal-OfficialWritten/SpokenHigh
EnglishInformal-ColloquialSpokenLow


Crespo (25) Ϥޤ3 (trilingualism) ֤ȤȤ2 (bilingualism) ءƺǽŪ1 (monolingualism) ؤȲäƤʳ򡤼Τ褦˿޼Ū˼Ƥ롥

ENGLANDLanguagesLinguistic situation
Early Middle AgesLatin--French--EnglishTRILINGUAL
14th--15th centuriesFrench--EnglishBILINGUAL
15th--16th c. onwardsEnglishMONOLINGUAL


ºݤˤϡ3Ѥ2ѤƤĿͤοΤ鸫и¤ƤȤդ٤Ǥ롥Crespo (25) 2ܤɽˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ"The initial trilingual situation (amongst at least certain groups) developed into oral bilingualism (though not universal) which in turn gradually resulted in vernacular monolingualism" ȤȤǤ롥ɽ⡤ѸΥޥҲŪΰ̤򤦤ޤɽƤޤǤϤ롥

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-09-28-1]

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2015-07-16 Thu

#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ [code-switching][me][bilingualism][latin][register][pragmatics]

Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ񡤤 macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) ε񤤤ʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸ񡤤Ȥ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ

I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.


ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲򤵤ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.


macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥

Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.

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2015-06-18 Thu

#2243. ʥѸȤϲ [variety][canadian_english][bilingualism][language_planning][sociolinguistics][history][sobokunagimon]

ε#2242. ʥѸβŪħ ([2015-06-17-1]) ǥʥѸħΰü˿줿ʥѸȤϲȤϡѼ (variety) ܼŪޤǤ (cf. #415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1])#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1])) Brinton and Fee (439) ϡʥѸγܤϤκǸǡʥѸȤϲȤ䤤ˤĤơΤ褦ʲͿƤ롥

Canadian English is the outcome of a number of factors. Canadian English was initially determined in large part by Canada's settlement by immigrants from the northern United States. Because of the geographical proximity of the two countries and the intertwining of their histories, economic systems, international policies, and print and especially television media, Canadian English continues to be shaped by American English. However, because of the colonial and postcolonial history of the British Empire, Canadian English is also strongly marked by British English. The presence of a long-standing and large French-speaking minority has also had an effect on Canadian English. Finally, social conditions, such as governmental policies of bilingualism, immigration, and multiculturalism and the politics of Quebec nationalism, have also played an important part in shaping this national variety of English.


ǤΥʥѸϡŪħ˴ŤΤǤϤʤʥ֤ƤҲŪĶŪаޤƧޤΤǤ롥ʥѸ̤ꤦΤǤСꥫѸαƶϤϳμ¤ǡҲŪ¿ѤȤƤʸȤΰռοƩˤꡤʥѸ¾μפʱѸѼ٤ƽѲƤ椯ǽ⤤
ޤǤ˥ߤǻƳƤ´ʸߤƤ⡤ܿͱѸؽԤΤʤˤϡʥѸʤơȥꥢѸ졤˥塼ɱѸˤ˴ؿļԤʤʤƤ2Ѽ˰­ʤȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤܿͤϤι񤬴Ū˹ʤΤȻפΤˤϡǤϤαѸѼθ椬ʤCanadian English ϡҲŪˤäȤäܤƤ褤ѸѼǤ롥

Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .

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2015-06-04 Thu

#2229. ޥ륿αѸ (2) [esl][new_englishes][diglossia][bilingualism][sociolinguistics][history][maltese][maltese_english]

ε ([2015-06-03-1]) ˰³ޥ륿αѸˤĤơޥ륿 ESLǤȤäƤ⡤ɤʥꥢΤ褦ŵŪ ESLȤϰۤʤꡤĤðäƤ롥衼åѤ˰֤ESLǤ뤳ȡ衼åѤͣѼαѸĤȤϺεǿ줿̤Mazzon (593) Ϥ˲ä3ޥ륿θðŦƤ롥Ȥ櫓ꥢȤ diglossia Ĺˤȥޥ륿Ωˤβ⤬פǤ롥

There are various reasons for the peculiarity of the Maltese linguistic situation: 1) the size of the country, a small archipelago in the centre of the Mediterranean; 2) the composition of the population, which is ethnically and linguistically quite homogeneous; 3) its history previous to the British domination; throughout the centuries, Malta had undergone various invasions, its political history being intimately connected with that of Southern Italy. This link, together with the geographical vicinity to Italy, encouraged the adoption of Italian as a language of culture and, more generally, as an H variety in a well-established situation of diglossia. Italian has been for centuries a very prestigious language throughout Europe, since Italy has one of the best known literary traditions and some of the oldest European universities. Maltese is a language of uncertain origin; it was deeply "restructured" or "refounded" on Semitic lines during the Arab domination, between 870 and 1090 A.D. It has since then followed the same path as other spoken varieties of Arabic, losing almost all its inflections and moving towards analytical types; the close contact with Italian helped in this process, also contributing large numbers of vocabulary items.


ߤΥޥ륿ȱѸ2ѾطʤˤϡåʸȤƤαѸؤοƶᴶ롥¿ESLϰˤơѸФ븫ɬ⹥ŪȤϸ¤ʤޥ륿ǤϾۤʤäƤ롥ˤϡ̱ "integrative motivation" ͿƤȤ

The role of this integrative motivation must always be kept in mind in the case of Malta, since the relative cultural vicinity and the process through which Malta became part of the Empire made this case somehow anomalous; many Maltese today simply deny they ever were just a "colony"; young people seem to partake in this feeling and often stress the point that the British never "invaded" Malta: they were invited. There is a widespread feeling that the British never really colonialized the country, they just "came to help"; the connection of the Maltese people with Britain is still quite strong, not only through the British tourists: in many shops and some private houses, alongside the symbols of Catholicism, portraits of the British Royal Family are proudly displayed on the walls. (Mazzon 597)


Τˡޥ륿ESLϰΤʤǤðۤ¸ߤΤ褦Ǥ롥ޥ륿θʱѸ˻ϡҲ˸Ū˶̣Ǥ롥

Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.

Referrer (Inside): [2026-01-20-1] [2021-12-06-1]

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2015-06-03 Wed

#2228. ޥ륿αѸ (1) [esl][new_englishes][bilingualism][diglossia][language_planning][sociolinguistics][history][maltese][maltese_english]

ޥ륿¹ (Republic of Malta) ϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衼åǤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ιǤ롥Ʊ衼åѤǤϢˮ˽°ƤǤ⤢ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ˥衼åѤͣȤäƤ褤ѼαѸ줬äƤǤ⤢롥ޥ륿ȱѸȤζ̩ʴؤˤϡ1814ǯʻ礵줿ȤŪطʤ (cf. #777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1])ˡŪˤŪˤ⡤¾ ESL ϰȤϰۤʤäƤȤܤͤ뤬ޥ륿αѸˤĤƤξܤϤޤ긫ʤϢʸ1ɤൡ񤬤äΤǡ˴Ťƥޥ륿αѸάҤ

Map of the Mediterranean Map of Malta

ޥ륿泤⤫ٹǡ¿ʸ̤ƻǤꡤŪˤ׾פǤäEthnologue Malta ˤȡ̱42ͤΤۤȤɤȤƥޥ륿 (Maltese) äĤ⤦1ĤθѸǤѸȤʤ2ѼԤǤ롥ޥ륿ϡӥΥåѼפȤ뤬ꥢѸȤܿˤ̤ơäμѤ䲻äƤѲħŤ롥ˤȤäơۤʤʣθ¸ˤ̤̾ΤȤǤꡤߤΥޥ륿ȱѸȤι2Ѿ⤽Τ褦Ūʸ̮Τʤ˰֤Ťɬפ롥
1814ǯ˥ꥹ˳ϡιˤƼҲŪ˰ҿϡˤ錄ꥤꥢäˡΧʤɸŪʾѤֹ̤Ρ׸ (H[igh Variety]) ϥꥢǤꡤʳŪӤѤ̤Ρ׸ (L[ow Variety]) ȤƤΥޥ륿ΩƤҲŪˤϡŪ diglossia ߤƤȤ롥19˹̤θ줬ꥢ줫ѸؤȽڤؤʤǡ triglossia ξ褷θ塤Ѹȥޥ륿 diglossia ι¤ؤȰܹԤ20ˤƥޥ륿줬ҲŪǽߤޤǤ diglossia ϲä줿ߤ2ѤϡŪ diglossia ǤϤʤҲŪ˾դ줿 bilingualism ؤȰܹԤȤdiglossia βä˴ؤŪˤĤƤϡ#1487. diglossia ФȽ ([2013-05-23-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ߡޥ륿ΰ̱ϡѸؤοƶᴶˡʥ䥪ȥꥢʤɤظΤ¿ήΥ꡼ؤϡήΥ꡼ؤʸȤƥꥢؤΰ򼨤ΤФơѸλѤ򹥤ࡥޥ륿켫ΤβͤŪ徺ȥʸȤƤαѸΰ֤Ťˤꡤޥ륿θˤϿʳäȤ롥Mazzon (598) ϡΤ褦˸Υޥ륿θ礹롥

[S]ince the year 1950, the most important steps in language policy have been in the direction of the promotion of Maltese and of the extension of its use to a number of domains, while English has been more and more widely learnt and used for its importance and prestige as an international language, but also as a "fashionable, chic" language used in social gatherings and as a status symbol . . . .


Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.

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2015-03-15 Sun

#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ [bilingualism][french][diglossia][popular_passage]

ѸҲ񤬱Ѹȥե󥹸ˤ diglossia ƤȤϡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) #1203. 󥰥ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ񲽡 ([2012-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǸƤȤǤ롥2Ѿ֤ľܸڤ褦ʵҤõΤɬ⤿䤹ʤޤƤ䡤2ˤĤɾ򲼤褦ʥȤϸĤˤΤʤǤ⤳λ˸ڤͭ̾ʰ᤬롥Robert of Gloucester (fl. 1260--1300) Chronicle ΰǡʲCorpus of Middle English Prose and Verse The metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester 곺սѤ褦

& þe normans ne couþe speke þo / bote hor owe speche (l. 7538)
& speke french as hii dude atom / & hor children dude also teche
So þat heiemen of þis lond / þat of hor blod come (l. 7540)
Holdeþ alle þulke speche / þat hii of hom nome
Vor bote a man conne frenss / me telþ of him lute
Ac lowe men holdeþ to engliss / & to hor owe speche ȝute
Ich wene þer ne beþ in al þe world / contreyes none
Þat ne holdeþ to hor owe speche / bote engelond one (l. 7545)
Ac wel me wot uor to conne / boþe wel it is
Vor þe more þat a mon can / þe more wurþe he is


Υޥͤϥ󥰥ɤˤäƤȤˤϥե󥹸ΤߤѤƤꡤλ¹ "heiemen" ե󥹸ݻƤȡΰ "lowe men" ϱѸΤߤѤƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϥޤ diglossia ˤ H (= High variety) L (= Low variety) ζ̤ؤľܤθڤǤ롥ޤե󥹸ΤʤȼҲŪ㤯ȤȤƤ롥ˡѤνΤۤǤϡξΤäƤۤ褤ΤۤҲŪ˲ͤ⤤Ȥߤʤȡʩ bilingualism ʸ륳ȤդƤ롥
ºݤΤȤChronicle 񤫤줿13ˤϡ²λǤ⤢ƳؽʤХե󥹸˻ȤʤʤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ²λΥե󥹸Ϥοꤨϡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ13ޤǤˤϤǤ˸ˤʤäƤ褦ե󥹸μҲŪϰ̤ϰȤƹ⤫äᡤ;פ˥ե󥹸ؽ夵줿ȤȤˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤ Robert of Gloucester ϡξ뤳Ȥڤ⤤ΤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-25-1] [2015-09-28-1]

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2015-01-05 Mon

#2079. fusion mixture [contact][borrowing][loan_word][loan_translation][bilingualism][substratum_theory][typology][register][lexical_stratification]

#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1]) ǰ򲡤褦ˡμ (borrowing) ϲǤꡤѸ (loanword) Ϸ̤Ǥ롥Weinreich Ūˤζ̤ĤԤϾʤäȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Roberts ȤԤ᤯ζ̤ˤĤƤ롥Roberts (31--32) ϡܿβ "fusion" ȸƤӡ̤ȤƤξ֤ "mixture" ȸƤʬޤRoberts "fusion" "mixture" 򤽤줾ʬȤȤˡΤ褦ʲ̤ʳˤ2ѾΥפ2ĤʬΤȤƸܿ෿Ȥ٤Τ󵯤Ƥ롥ʲRoberts (32) ο޼Ƹ褦

Roberts' Typography of Bilingualism and Contact


ľʸɤߤʤ򤷤ˤ޼ȴ¿Ѹ줬Ω¤Ǥ뤬줾ŪʻȤδ֤ߤδطȤ館ˤΤBILINGUALISM FUSION MIXTURE ȤŪ󼨤ȸ2ν̤ɾǤȤƤ⡤ʳˤĤƤѸ줬äƤݤǤꡤƤɤδطƤRoberts (31--32) ˤΤޤ޸äƤ餪

   When a bilingual situation ends, the surviving language (that is, the language whose grammar prevails) is colored in greater or less degree by the perishing language (that is, the language whose grammar succumbs). The extent of this coloring depends upon the relationship of the two languages during the antecedent bilingualism. Subordinative bilingualism results in admixture; a portion of the weaker language is added to the stronger, which still retains both its grammatical and its lexical integrity. Co-ordinative bilingualism results in intermixture; virtually the entire vocabulary of the weaker language is swallowed up by the stronger, which thereby loses its lexical, though not its grammatical, integrity.
   The words admixture and intermixture, as here used, denote accomplished situations, the results of processes. To designate the generative processes, the terms affusion and interfusion, corresponding respectively to admixture and intermixture, are proposed. Affusion has three modalities: infusion, suffusion, and superfusion. Interfusion has three stages or temporalities: diffusion, circumfusion, and retrofusion.


Affusion 鸫ƤȡInfusion ̾θμѤ롥Suffusion ϡظƶ (substratum_theory) ξظ줫θŪƶ롥Superfusion (loan_translation) 롥importation substitution ȤΩȡռŪʴĤ̵ռŪʴĤȤΩޤˤʤä褦ʬ
Interfusion ܤȡDiffusion äȼѸäѰ˴ؤʬؤƤ롥Ѹäˤ̤λع¤ʤɤˤߤФ褤 Interfusion ʳ餵˿ʤȡCircumfusion ʳȤʤ롥Ǥ㤨ƸϤ٤ƥե󥹡ƥѸǤäƤ⡤괬ǽȤʤ褦ʾ߽Ф롥ˡRetrofusion ϥ줫ΰΡפβǤꡤե󥹸θˡαƶ house beautiful, knights templars, sufficient likelihood, nocturnal darkness ʤɤɽ߽Ф롥
Roberts 2 (bilingualism) δǤΩƤ褦ȤŪǤʸ񤤤褦ǰʤ餦ޤäƤ褦ˤϻפʤϤΤܿ෿ȤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Thomason and Kaufman ˤǥ뤬ǯǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
Ѥ˴ؤȷ̤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ⻲ȡޤϢơ#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) εȤĥä󥯤⻲Ȥ줿

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Roberts, Murat H. "The Problem of the Hybrid Language". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939): 23--41.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-18-1]

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2014-12-18 Thu

#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳 [contact][borrowing][bilingualism][loan_word][lexical_diffusion][terminology][language_change]

μ (borrowing) ȼѸ (loanword) Ȥϰۤʤ롥ԤϲǤꡤԤϷ̤Ǥ롥ξԤ̤ɬפˤĤơ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǰäƤ̤Ǥ롥
ܿʬ᤯餳ζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤĥƤԤ1ͤˡWeinreich (11) 롥

In speech, interference is like sand carried by a stream; in language, it is the sedimented sand deposited on the bottom of a lake. The two phases of interference should be distinguished. In speech, it occurs anew in the utterances of the bilingual speaker as a result of his personal knowledge of the other tongue. In language, we find interference phenomena which, having frequently occurred in the speech of bilinguals, have become habitualized and established. Their use is no longer dependent on bilingualism. When a speaker of language X uses a form of foreign origin not as an on-the-spot borrowing from language Y, but because he has heard it used by others in X-utterances, then this borrowed element can be considered, from the descriptive viewpoint, to have become a part of LANGUAGE X.


ȤƤμѤȷ̤ȤƤμѸϸ촳 (interference) 2Ĥΰۤʤ̤Ǥ롥Ԥ parole ˡԤ langue °ȸƤ褤⤷ʤ³ Weinreich Ʊڡεǡζ̤νǧƤԸϾʤȤʤ顤ʲθ˿Ƥ롥

The only one to have drawn the theoretical distinction seems to be Roberts (450, 31f.), who arbitrarily calls the generative process "fusion" and the accomplished result "mixture." In anthropology, Linton (312, 474) distinguishes in the introduction of a new culture element "(1) its initial acceptance by innovators, (2) its dissemination to other members of the society, and (3) the modifications by which it is finally adjusted to the preexisting culture matrix."


ä˿ؼ Linton ΰʬܤʸޤȹͤʸŪǤƳˤ3ʳ̤ȤŦ뤬ϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ (1) potential for change, (3) diffusion, (2) implementation ˴ˤ䤫бƤ褦˻פ롥ѤϡѸμơ硤ȤʳФʤʹԤƤȤμѤˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʣŪưŪʤȤ館ɬפǤ롥"dissemination" "diffusion" ΥơȴϢơóȻ (lexical_diffusion) γƵȤ櫓#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-08-1] [2015-01-05-1]

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2014-11-12 Wed

#2025. 󥰥ɤϾ¿ä [history][bilingualism][sign_language]

#1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1])#1608. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ (2) ([2013-09-21-1])#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ǸƤ褦ˡΤۤܤ٤Ƥϰʣθ줬ѤƤ롥ΤȤ¿쾯ʤŪˤƤϤޤ롥
ѹǤѸΤۤȽ줬äƤȤ櫓ḽǤϤΰ̱Ĥ줾θѤ褷Ƥϰʤäƥ󥰥ɤ˸¤äƤ⡤5Ѹ줬ͥǤ뤳ȤϵʤȤϤϤŪˤ¿¾θ줬ԤƤԤƤ롥㤨СߥɥΤߤʤ餺͡ĮǡPanjabi, Gujerati, Bengali, Italian, Greek, Maltese, Chinese, Turkish ޤ¿θ줬äƤ롥ޤBritish Sign Language Τ褦ʼø⥤󥰥ɤθ¿˹׸Ƥ롥
ˤȤɤޤ餺夫Фƶ˻ޤǤΥ󥰥ɤθˤ򿶤֤äƤߤȡι񤬤¿ѹǤä狼롥Ƚ줬äƤ󥰥ɤϤ˸¿˾ܳŪƳΤϡ޿ͤäϥ󥰥ɤ˥ƥ⤿餷2Ѿޤ줿ˡ5ȾСѸ줬⤿餵줿8ȾФϥ󥰤ˤťΥɸ줬ޤ졤11ȾФˤϥΥޥơ󥰥ɤǤϥΥޥ󡦥ե󥹸줬Ѥե󥹸줬ä褦ˤʤ롥
ˤϡΤ褦ˤɽ˴Ф褦ʼήɤθˤȤɤޤ餺澮θޤ󥰥ѤƤ㤨12 Norwich ˤϡεϤγͼҲ񤬳ΩƤꡤѸ¤ǥե󥹸졤ǥޡ졤졤ޤ Ladino ȸƤФͤѤڥѼ郎ԤƤä16 Norwich ǤϿ͸1/3üԤǤꡤξ200ǯʾ³Ȥ
ޤˤϥޥˡ (Romany) ä른ץ (the Gypsies) ήߡ󥰥ɤˤ뤽αƶ Anglo-Romany ȸƤФѸѼ˸ˤʤ륺衼åѽƤǤ Romany ϤޤĤäƤ롥
ȡŪ̱ȤƥüԤե󥹸üԤ󥰥ɤ̤ή˸Ū˽ƱƤäΤΡФ餯δ֤¿Į˽߹Cornwall ǤϥȷϤ Cornish äƤ16衤ѸοƩˤ18ȾˤϾǤ20Υɥ East End ˤ¿Υ Yiddish üԤƤθϸߤǤ⥤󥰥ɤǷߤǤ롥
ʾ塤Trudgill (18--19) 򻲹ͤ˵Ҥ奤ꥹ¿ˤĤƤϡBritain ԤʸܳŪǤ롥

Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Britain, David, ed. Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-09-11-1] [2015-05-25-1]

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2014-10-27 Mon

#2009. ؤˤܿ2 [contact][borrowing][bilingualism][terminology][code-switching]

ɸ˵󤲤ѸϡܿʬѽФѸǤꡤͤŪˤⶦͭƤ褦˻פ롥٤ߤФϸԤˤۤʤäƤꡤŪ˵뤿ˤϡǧƤɬפΤѸ췲Ǥ⤢롥㤨 (borrowing) ȤѸ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡ񤷤ϤǤ롥
ε#2008. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡܿʬζ1ĤȤ Weinreich Languages in Contact 󤲤롥ƬˡɸѸͿƤ롥

   In the present study, two or more languages will be said to be IN CONTACT if they are used alternately by the same persons. The language-using individuals are thus the locus of the contact.
   The practice of alternately using two languages will be called BILINGUALISM, and the persons involved, BILINGUAL. Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be refereed to as INTERFERENCE phenomena. It is these phenomena of speech, and their impact on the norms of either language exposed to contact, that invite the interest of the linguist. (Weinreich 1)


ΰѤ³ǡ¤Ω줫顤"interference" Ϲ¤ȤؤްդΤǤȤΤ褦ʴްդĤȤϸ¤ʤ "borrowing" Ȥ϶̤٤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥¤ȤؤȼʤɽŪʸäμѤʤɤؤ "borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤȤƤ⡤äμѤȤƴ¸θạ̈ι¤˱ƶͿ뤳Ȥꤦʾ塤"borrowing" ȤѸλѤˤϿŤǤ٤Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
ܽκμĥ1Ĥ嵭Ѥ2ʸʤʤܽ2ʸˤ˽󤵤Ƥ롥ܿξϡХ󥬥ĿͤǤȤȤޤХ󥬥ȤѸϺ¤˹ᤵƤ뤳Ȥˤդ줿̤鷺2ĤѼ˰ۤʤ줫˶ᤤޤˤ餫ͼǺ礷ؤꤹѤ bilingualism ǤꡤĿͤ bilingual Ǥ롥äơˤСñʤΡּѡפ⡤츫ȹ٤ʵѤˤߤ code-switching ⡤Ȥ bilingualism ȤȤˤʤ롥ơΰĤҤȤĤζŪʸθ줬ĤȤȤˤʤ롥
줯餤ȡϢƹͤ뤢븽ݤܿȤʤ롥ѸΥХȤ뤤ϵΤ褵ε ([2014-10-26-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬ̵¤γƤȤȤ⤷ʤ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2014-10-26 Sun

#2008. ܿά [history_of_linguistics][contact][sociolinguistics][bilingualism][geolinguistics][geography][pidgin][creole][neogrammarian][wave_theory][linguistic_area][neolinguistics]

#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1]) εǡǯѲθܿ (language contact) ˵ͤƤƤ롥ܿˤ1970--80ǯϤषƤ1990ǯʹߡɤᤷƤ褦ؤǤθܿθˤϰƳȸŤϡȤ Drinka (325--28) γ˰͵򤷤ơܿάˤ
άˤΥȤȤơJohannes Schmidt (1843--1901) ̾󤲤#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ʤɤεǸ褦ˡSchmidt ϡ֤δطȤ館뤿Ȥƻվ August Schleicher (1821--68) 1860ǯ󼨤 Stammbaumtheorie (Family Tree Theory) й1872ǯ Wellentheorie (wave_theory) 󼨤Schmidt ΤƤϸŪ׿濴դؤŪȵڤƤȤƤꡤܿ˴ŤƸѲ褦ȤǥȤʤä
λǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) 뤬Τʤǰۺ Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927) ޤܿν᤯鵤ŤƤ1ͤǤ롥Schuchardt ϡԥ䥯쥪ʤɺθü򳫤ʪǤ⤢롥
20ȡե󥹤ؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ˤؤ롥1930ǯˤ Kristian Sandfeld ˤХ륫 (linguistique balkanique) ϻϤ졤ϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ܤĤꥢǤϡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡMatteo Bartoli ˤ꿷 (Neolinguistics) 졤Ѳˤ濴ȼդΩطɵ椵줿1940ǯˤ Franz Boaz Roman Jakobson ʤɤθؼԤ춭ۤγȻˤĤ
ܿʬǺǽηŪŪʸȤСWeinreich Languages in Contact (1953) Weinreich ϡܿξϸǤҲǤʤ2üԤĿͤˤ뤳ȤȤǡ˾̾ĤƤ롥Weinreich ϡվ André Martinet ι¤ؤθȤʤ⡤Ҳؤ俴ؤδŻ뤷θθܿ˳ΤͿ1970ǯˤϡPeter Trudgill Ū׿γȻΤ⤦1ĤΥǥȤ "gravity model" 󵯤cf.#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1]
1970ǯȾϡ˸ؤ෿ΥץȤʤäƤۤĿͤ뤤ϼҲ2 (bilingualism) ˴ؤ뿴Ūʴθ¿ʤäƤߤǤϸܿ͡ʬؤʬƤꡤʲϤ¿򼨤ɤ򤤤Ĥ󤲤ΤǤ롥 (language_shift)ײ (language_planning)2ѤˤǾƯȽcode-switchingѤ亮ι¤Ū󡤸Ѳԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) ʤɤܿ (contact language)ϰ (areal linguistics) (linguistic_area) (Matras 203)
ǸˡǯθܿˤƵǰṲ̄Ƥ븦1󤲤褦Thomason and Kaufman ˤ Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) Ǥ롥θθܿʬΤۤܤ٤Ƥθ椬¿ʤȤ⤳αƶƤȤäƤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ĥε (cf. Thomason and Kaufman) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥

Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

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2014-10-06 Mon

#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) [loan_word][borrowing][contact][pragmatics][methodology][bilingualism][code-switching][discourse_marker]

Treffers-Daller μѤ˴ؤʸ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸɤߡ#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) դ­٤ܤ¿뤳ȤΤäʲˡĤƤߤ롥

(1) ѤˤϸѲβ1ĤȤƹͻ٤¦̤뤬θǤϼȤƸŪ¦̤ܤƤܿǤˤ⤫餺쳰Ū¦̤ιͻҲŪʻ­ʤäΤǤϤʤŪˤϡѤηȻɾθ椬٤Ƥ롥Treffers-Dalle (17--18) ΰʲλŦ狼䤹

. . . researchers have mainly focused on what Weinreich, Herzog and Labov (1968) have called the embedding problem and the constraints problem. . . . Other questions have received less systematic attention. The actuation problem and the transition problem (how and when do borrowed features enter the borrowing language and how do they spread through the system and among different groups of borrowing language speakers) have only recently been studied. The evaluation problem (the subjective evaluation of borrowing by different speaker groups) has not been investigated in much detail, even though many researchers report that borrowing is evaluated negatively.


(2) ѸΤߤʤ餺ܿΥơΤ˴ؤ뤬ǯϥ󥿡ͥåȤϤȤǥȯŸˤꡤѤεʪŪʾ¸ߤȤʤʤäƤĤޤꡤܿμѤäƤȤȤǤꡤѲϼѡʸˤμ̤ˤƶڤܤ

Due to modern advances in telecommunication and information technology and to more extensive traveling, members within such groupings, although not being physically adjacent, come into close contact with one another, and their language and communicative behaviors in general take on features from a joint pool . . . . (Meeuwis and Östman 38)


(3) Ūʸ桥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ "scale of adoptability" (or "borrowability scale") βˤĤơ2ѼԤäեѥѤƸڤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤOttawa-Hull Υե󥹸ˤѸѤ䡤ե󥹸ȥ2쥳ѥˤѤηڥȥ奢2¸女ѥˤʬϤʤɤϤƤ롥

(4) ˤѤȤʥ뤬ڤ곫ĤĤ롥ޤοϾʤ2ѼԤˤɸ (discourse marker) õǽμѤλ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥

(5) 嵭 (3) (4) Ȥط뤬2ѼԤμѤ˺ݤ뿴ŪʥץŪʬǤ롥#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡcode-switching ȤδϢȤʤ롥

(6) ȥ͡ꥺʤɱΧŪǤμ̡

ƺǿμѸϡηϤȤδϢˤƸȤϡüԸĿͤ뤤ϼҲȤδϢˤƸؿܤƤƤ褦ޤ̤ȤƤμѸ (loanword) ܤȤϡȤƤμ (borrowing) ܤȤؿѲ⤢褦
ĿͤȤƤϡ跿θηϤȤδϢˤƤμѤθˤƤ⡤ޤ­ʤȤϤȹͤƤ롥㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ʤɤϡ¿;ϤĤƤȻפäƤ롥

Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. "Borrowing." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 17--35.
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.

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