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bilingualism - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-29 18:54

2014-08-20 Wed

#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ [etymological_respelling][code-switching][bilingualism][latin][silent_letter][etymology][borrowing][grapheme]

Ѹˤϱʩδ֤Ǹڤؤ code-switching ƥȤ뤳Ȥ򡤡#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) εǤߤȤƤϽŪʱʸ件ʸޤʤʤɤλ㤬뤬餬ԤˤڤؤʤΤ뤤ڤؤ˺ݤƲ餫 "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" äΤȤʤcf. #1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]
̾嵭 macaronic code-switching ȤΤϡ硤ᡤʸȤäŪ礭ʸñ̤ǰθ줫¾θڤؤ꾮ñ̡㤨зǤ䲻ǡʸǡˤȤñ̤Ǥ macaronic code-switching ϤꤦΤ⤷ȤСˤⲿ餫 "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ؤäƤȹͤΤ
Miller (211) ϡ<doubt> (cf. ME <doute>) ˸褦ʸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ϥ⤷ macaronic code-switching ˤΤ⤷ʤȿ¬Ƥ롥

Some changes may be due to the macaronic codeswitching between Medieval Latin and Late Middle English in certain poetic texts and especially London accounting records . . . .


ο¬ɤ뤳Ȥ񤷤<doubt> <receipt> Τ褦 <b> <p> ԰٤ϡ¤˺Ĥƥ줫֤ι԰٤Ǥ롥礭ʸñ̤Ǥα֤ڤؤˤ˵äƤʤ¤ꡤκʪΤϡԤή礦2ѼԤǤϤʤƥ򳰹ȤơԽʬˡ˳ؤѸüԤȤȤƥθ츻򻲾Ȥʸ macaronic code-switching ȸƤ֤٤ɤϡɭˤäƤ롥code-switching ȤϲͤϤСbilingualism ȤϲȤƬˤˤ餶ʤޤ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) ؤäƤ褦<b> <p> 줿ȤϤϤ macaronic code-switching θʤΤ뤤ϥƥμѤʤΤơˤ衤˼ҲŪŪʰտޤϤäΤ
ٴƤȡ츻ֻʳŪĬ΢ǤơּҲŪŪʰյפղä뤳ȤˤϤʤä줿ȤˡΤ褦ʰյտޤäɤϡ¬ΰФʤ
ʾͻǡΤ褦ʴۤä(1) code-switching ʸȤñ̤ǵ뤫ɤ路(2) #653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) Ǥߤե󥹸ˤ㤬褦ˡȾüʥƥμ˴ŤѤȤߤʤȤǽʬǤϤʤ(3) ̤ȤƸˡ<b> <p> ˼ҲŪŪʰյդ줿פʤΤǤäơβ code-switching ѤʤɤϳơǤꡤۤɽפǤϤʤβ macaronic text ¸ߤͤƤߤϤʤäΤǡʿ¬ǤϤ롥

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-03 Sun

#1924. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ (2) [gender][french][old_norse][contact][bilingualism][french_influence_on_grammar]

#1884. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) ǡΥ󥰥ɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäפȤȽŪ˾Ҳ𤷤θ Miller (234--35) ˾嵭ȾߤĤMiller Ȥⲱ¬ (speculation) ȤƤ뤬¾ʸˤƤѶŪƤ褦

It is reasonable to speculate that gender was strained by scandinavianization but not abandoned, especially since Danish only reduced masculine and feminine later and in Copenhagen under a different contact situation . . . . Miller . . . suggests that the final loss of gender would most naturally have occurred in the East Midlands, a BUFFER ZONE between French to the south and the Danish-English amalgam to the north, the reason being that the gender systems were completely incongruent. In French, for instance, soleil 'sun' was masculine and lune 'moon' feminine, in stark contrast to Scandinavian where ON sól 'sun' was feminine and máni 'moon' masculine. Like other buffer zones that give up the conflicting category, the East Midlands had little recourse other than to scrap gender.


̩ˤСεϱѸ Norman French 2Ԥθܿ˴ؤΤǤΤФMiller ϱѸ Norman French Old Norse 3Ԥθܿ˴ؤΤʤΤǡ2Ĥ̤ɬפϤMiller β򸡾ڤ뤿ˤϡξüǽ "the East Midlands, a BUFFER ZONE" ܳŪ˻ϤޤäȤ򼨤ɬפ롥ޤεǤȿݥȤȤƻŦ "BUFFER ZONE" ˤơɤ٤μҲŪĿŪ bilingualism 뤤 trilingualism ԤƤΤȤʤ롥
ˤ̤Ǥϥե󥹸δͿǧˤǤξüʤǤ櫓顤ƤƤܿϡǤ˿ʹԤƤξü¥ȤȤǤꡤưϤä櫓ǤϤʤȤդ٤Ǥ롥򲡤ƤСMiller β¬쳵ꤷ٤ΤǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-08-1]

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2014-07-29 Tue

#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings [history][irish][ireland][standardisation][linguistic_imperialism][ame][new_englishes][bilingualism][historiography][model_of_englishes][esl][efl][elf]

Mesthrie and Rakesh (12--17) ˡ"INTEGRATING NEW ENGLISHES INTO THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMPLEX" ꤹϤꡤWorld Englishes 뤤 New Englishes ȤŪʻαѸˤΤȤ館Ƥꡤ
ѸγȻϡͭ˰鸽ߤޤǡ4Ĥ crossings ˤʹԤƤȤ1 crossing ϡ5ȾФޥ̱²֥ƥϤäƤΰܽάؤʳ顤ݥȥ˥뤢뤤ϥݥȥ۵褦ʣαѸѼ¿֡ܿǤ¸ߤƤʣαѸѼȤƤϡ󥰥²²塼²ʤɤδ֤̱²Ѽζ̤ܽ餫餢äܽϰѼҲѼȯãߤ줿¿֤ӸܿȤƤϡظȤƤΥȸαƶظȤƤΥƥȤܿ˵ظȤƤθťΥɸȤκʤɤŦ롥ȥˤäƤϡ1000ǯ˱Ѹ˾ƽ񤭸դɸबȯŸ³ΥޥˤषοϡѸɸѼ "the first decline" ȸƤ٤ (13)
2 crossing ϡѸ1164ǯ Henry II ɤݤΡѸγȻؤΤȤѸ줬ɤذܿ줫̤ȤƤ夹뤳ȤϤʤäष󥰥ɤο̱ԤϥɤƱƤ椭Ѹ⼺줿ܤϡ#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Ѹ줫ѸˤơѸ˾2ܤν񤭸դɸಽư󥰥ɤˤ󥰥ȯɸѼϡʹߡߤ˻ޤǡѸˤøŪϰ̤Ƥ20äƤΥꥫѼȯŸˤꡤޤ20Ⱦߤ褦ˤʤäɸѼ狼æ뷹򼨤ѼĹˤꡤøŪϰ̤Ū˲äƤƤ롥ϰ̤㲼ϡ󥰥ɤδߤСѸɸѼ "a second decline" (16) ȸƤ٤"a second decline" ˤƤϡ"the first decline" ΤȤΤ褦ɸѼ綠ΤΤ䤨櫓ǤϤʤȤդϤޤ¸ߤ³ƤꡤꥫѼ䤽¾ѼȤδ֤Ūϰ̤㲼ƤȤˤʤ
ǡѸʹߤϡ󶯤ˤϤο̱ϻۤŸƤѸγȻˤĤƤϡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ϤȤơܥ֥Ǥ¿夲ƤѸϤΥꥹʤȥꥫˤηǤ뿢̱ϼΤȤǡΥ뤳ȤˤʤäΥˤϡȤƤαѸѼ郎üԤȤȤ˰ܿ줿 ("colonies of settlement") ⤢СкŪŪȤ뿢̱ϻۤˤƱѸ줬2Ȥƽ줿 ("colonies of exploitation") ⤢äԤ the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, St. Helena, the Falklands ʤɤΤ ENL ϰ衤Ԥϥեꥫ䥢Τ ESL ϰбʡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) ӡ#409. ̱ϲͼǤߤ World Englishes ʬ ([2010-06-10-1]) 򻲾ȡˡƤο̱ϻۤäƤʤݸΤȤƤϰ̤и Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq ʤɤǤϡESL EFL ŪʱѸѼ郎ߤ롥ޤ20ʹߤϱƤο̱ϻۤˤľŪˤϷиƤʤȤ⡤ܡ񡤥ϤϤǡEFL 뤤 ELF ȤƤαѸѼ郎ؤФƤ롥ǤϡѸüԤο͸ưɬȼʤѸ4 crossing äƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ˾ơѸȤ줬üԤ̤ΰưȼ鷺˳ȻƤΤ
Ѹ˾4Ĥ crossings ˤϤ줾˰㤤ߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ݥȥ4 crossing ռǡ crossings 򿶤֤ȡѸ˵ҤΤοƶΤǤϤʤλ¤ϡꥹˤ˴ѤȤ̤Ȥ롥

Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

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2014-06-24 Tue

#1884. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ [personal_pronoun][gender][prescriptive_grammar][norman_french][norman_conquest][bilingualism][french][contact][inflection][singular_they]

ε#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ˴ϢơѸǤ generic 'he' ꡤƤβȤƻ̱ƤƤ#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) ꤬פФ롥singular they ˤĤơǶᥦ־ A Linguist On the Story of Gendered Pronouns Ȥ򸫤ĤΤǾҲ𤷤singular they 㤬 Chaucer ʤѸߤ뤳ȡgeneric 'he' 18ȾεʸˡȤˤФ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥʤɡ˱ѸŪʴäƤꡤɤβͤ롥
θȾˤǡե󥹸줬ѸʸˡξüʬŪ˴ͿƤȼƤսˤĤƵ䤬ɮԤˤСΥ󥰥ɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤäȤ޸μ礿븶ȹͤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʵϰŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥ե󥹸αƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) 䡤Ѹ줬űѸȥե󥹸κǤȤ륯쥪첾ε ##1223,1249,1250,1251 򻲾Ȥ줿ˡ

So what you really have is an extended period of several centuries in which many people were more-or-less proficient in both Norman French and Anglo Saxon, which in actual fact meant speaking the highly intermingled versions known as Anglo-Norman and Middle English. But words that belong to one gender in one language don't necessarily belong to the same gender in the other. To use a modern example, the word for "bridge" in French, pont, is masculine, but the word for "bridge" in German, ''Brücke, is feminine. If you couple this with the fact that people had begun to stop pronouncing altogether the endings that indicate a word gender and case, you can see how these features became irrelevant for the language in general.


ޤΥ󥰥ɤ¿οͤ٤κϤ2üԤäȤȤɤٻ¤ȹäƤΤȤ䤬롥²Υե󥹷ϥ󥰥ɿͤμο͡¿쾯ʤХ󥬥äǽϹ⤤¿ν̱ϱѸΥΥ󥬥äʡ#338. Norman Conquest Υ󥰥ɤΥե󥹸üԤγ ([2010-03-31-1]) ӡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) ε򻲾ȡˡѸθѲĬή褷ΤϤ¿ΥΥ󥬥ѸüԤä˰㤤ʤҲŪʸϤϤˤ辯ΥХ󥬥뤬˸ŪƶڤܤΤϤʤϤǤ롥
ˡ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤˥ե󥹸αѸؤľŪʸŪƶϺ٤ǤȤϤΤ롥äֻСե󥹸줬ѸηŪ˱ƶͿܤϿʤŪʱƶҲŪʱƶϿäɾƤ롥ϡ#1171. ե󥹸Ȥθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) #1208. ե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ξüȤФˤϡե󥹸ˤ뤳δŪʸ̡޸ξüŪ¥Ȥ̤ŦǽʬǤϤʤ

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2014-01-25 Sat

#1734. Canada ι [vexillology][heraldry][history][bilingualism][canada]

ε#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ǡʥˤѸˤ򳵴ѤΤʤǡʥ1965ǯ˹Υǥ򥫥Ǥ򤫤ɤäߤΤ (Maple Leaf flag) ѹȤ˿줿National Symbols - Anthems and Symbols - Canadian Identity ˤȡΥʥιȤƤ͡ʥǥ󤬤äȤ˶ᤤüζ (canton) ˡΤǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯ΤȤ Union Jack ۤ줿Τ¿ä㤨С1957ǯλǤϰʲκΤΤѤƤ

National Flag of Canada in 1957National Flag of Canada


ߤιΥǥʾDZޡˤΥǤϡʥξħȤưѤƤΤǤꡤξ¦νļʤΤʿΤɽ魯֤ϡUnion Jack 򻲾ȤۿǤ⤢롥1965ǯιѹˤäƤϡUnion Jack ݻΤޤᤤĤƤä褦ˤ衤Maple Leaf flag κѤˤꡤʥ̱ΥꥹΩռϤäޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
˼ʥϤϡݼŪʤݻƤ롥#433. Law French ȱѹ񲦤ϡ ([2010-07-04-1]) Ǽ夲ѹ (The Royal coat of arms) Ϥǥ Union Jack ⤢Сڤνˤϥե󥹤Ȥδطʪ fleurs-de-lis Ƥ롥¤ɴեͥɽ魯ơʤ饫ǤդƽۤƤ롥 (motto) ϥƥ A MARI VSQVUE AD MARE (from sea through to sea) Ƚ񤫤ƤꡤξƱͤˡʿΤΤĤʤΦȤǤ뤳ȼΤǤ롥

The Arms of Canada

ʤե󥹷Ϥǻ Quebec ν fleurs-de-lis ۤˤեŪʥǥǤ롥

Flag of Quebec

ϢȤƤϡ#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1])#1703. եꥫο̱ˤȹ ([2013-12-25-1]) ⻲ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-26-1]

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2013-11-09 Sat

#1657. ꥫαѸѸ첽ư [sociolinguistics][language_planning][statistics][bilingualism][linguistic_right]

ꥫˤ⥤ꥹˤˡΧ᤿ѸȤΤϤʤѸ줬¾θѸǤ뤳Ȥ餫ޤ˻¾夽ǤȤͳǡäˡΧɬפʤΤǤ롥䡤ΤˤϡޤǤɬפʤäȸ٤1980ǯʹߡꥫǤϱѸѸ첽ư깭Ƥ
طʤˤϡѸäʤꥫͤäȤ𤬤롥U.S. Census Bureau פˤȡ5аʾΥꥫͤǡѸ줬ޤääʤ뤤Ϥޤäʤͤο1980ǯǤ͸2%ä1990ǯǤ2.9%äǿ2011ǯΥǡ (PDF)Ǥ4.65%ãƤ롥ˤ2050ǯˤ6%ãΤǤϤʤȤ롥Language Use - U.S. Census Bureau γƼפ򻲾ȡ
ꥫǤ1968ǯ2춵ˡˤꡤѸüԤˤʤʤ褦θʤƤѸüԤλҶˤϱѸؤֵɬͿ뤷ܴʪΰ⡤žȵɮʤɤDZѸʳθ֤ȤǤ롥θˤͽ롥ˡˤ⤫롥ä̱αѸΥϡꥫȤȤƤνפʵῴϤ򼺤ϤƤħǤϤʤȹͤ͡Ƥ⤪ʤơѸѸ褬Ϥޤä
Ϣˮܥ٥DZѸѸ챿ưϤޤäΤϡ1981ǯǤ롥ʥޤϿͤǸؼԤǤϢˮ屡İ S. I. Hayakawa ѸѸȤ뽤ˡղä뤳ȤƤƤऱ줿٥Ǥϱư³뤳ȤˤʤäNebraska, Illinois, Virginia, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee 6DZѸѸȤˡΧΩΤ³1986ǯ California DZѸѸ첽ˡ Proposition 63 ̱ɼη̡̤줿ǥʤɤɾȽʤơɼ73%ǤˡΩäޤǤ¾ǤˡƤ¼ŪȤϾħŪʰ̣礤ĤˤʤäΤФơCalifornia Proposition 63 (or the English Is the Official Language of California Amendment) ϤƧ߹ˡƤȤʤäƤʲȴ褷褦

English is the common language of the people of the United States of America and of the State of California. . . . The legislature and officials of the State of California shall take all steps necessary to insure that the role of English as the common language of the State of California is preserved and enhanced. . . . Any person who is a resident of, or does business in the State of California shall have standing to sue the State of California to enforce this section . . .


ˡƤϡܤ˱ѸѸ첽˸Ƥ֤餻븢¤Ϳ̱˱ѸѸ첽񿨤֤̤Ȥ˵ʸͿȤΤǤ롥ˤˡƤðۤʤΤϡUS English ȤΤ濴Ȥ̱̽˾ˤ뽻̱ɼDzķ褷ȤǤ롥
θ⡤Arizona, Colorado, Florida ʤɤǤⱿưä Arizona Proposition 106 ϤͤùƤȤʤäƤ롥"As the official language of this State, the English language is the language of the ballot, the public schools and all government functions and actions."
US English Τ褦ΤȿФΤ⸽Ƥ롥English Plus Information Clearinghouse (EPIC) ǤϡEnglish Only ǤϤʤ English Plus λۤǤФ츢ʸʤƤ롥
ʾ塤 (197--205) 򻲾ȤƼɮϢơ#256. ƹ Hispanification ([2010-01-08-1]) 򻲾ȡ

󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

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2013-10-14 Mon

#1631. ķɽ魯άȤƤ code-switching [code-switching][bilingualism][sociolinguistics]

#1628. ʤ code-switching 뤫 ([2013-10-11-1]) (2) ǡcode-switching Сå׳ΩΤ˵ǽƤ뤳Ȥߤ2ĤΥɤڤؤ亮碌ϥΤ褦ˤߤ뤬code-switching ƤԤδ֤ǤϤ褽ۤΤλ򤷤ƤХ󥹤Τ褦ʤΤꡤΥХ󥹤ϸߤ˻褦ʸĶǰäƤƤʤ¤궦ͭʤΤǤ롥դˤС code-switching ߤ˼ƤԤϡ¾ͤζͭʤķռäƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤСϤߤƱ2ǻ褦 code-switching 򤪤ʤäƤȤƤ⡤뽸Ĥ̤νĤǤϡڤؤ亮碌ΥХ󥹤ۤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤξˤϡʬ code-switching ¾νĤ code-switching Ȥߤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤΤ褦ˡcode-switching ϡϤʥǥƥƥɸεǽͭƤ롥Wardhaugh (104) ¹Gumperz, J. J. (Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: CUP, 1982. p. 69) ˰ʲʸϤ롥

Residents of such large Spanish-English-speaking communities as San Francisco or New York, which include immigrants from many Latin American regions, in fact claim that they can tell much about a person's family background and politics from the way that person code-switches and uses borrowings. What the outsider sees as almost unpredictable variation becomes a communicative resource for members. Since bilingual usage rules must be learned by living in a group, ability to speak appropriately is a strong indication of shared background assumptions. Bilinguals, in fact, ordinarily do not use code-switching styles in their contact with other bilinguals before they know something about the listener's background and attitudes. To do otherwise would be to risk serious misunderstanding.


code-switching Ȥ԰٤켫Τ˸ƥǥƥƥɸǽͭƤΤߤʤ餺code-switching λ° code-switching Ĥ¾ code-switching ĤȤ̤뵡ǽͭƤȤȤ϶̣code-switching ¿ͤʥǥƥƥɸǽäƤꡤ٤˼ҲŪʸݤȤȤˤʤ롥
Ƥ Wardhaugh (98) ¹Gal, S. ("The Political Economy of Code Choice." Code Switching. Ed. M. Heller. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988. p. 247) ϡcode-switching ҲŪάȤư֤ŤƤ롥

[C]odeswitching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.


ͤƤߤСΰѤ "[C]odeswitching" "Linguistic behaviour" ֤ƤߤƤ⡤̿οͤѤʤcode-switching ̤ʸ츽ݤǤϤʤȤȤ

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

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2013-10-10 Thu

#1627. code-switching code-mixing [code-switching][sociolinguistics][bilingualism][borrowing]

#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ε code-switching 夲ϤŪˡ¿ˤäǤ code-switching 夲롥
code-switching ȤϡʣüԤ뤤ʣüԤäǸڤؤ԰٤Ǥ롥¿Ǥˤ褯ߤ븽ݤǤꡤθŪӼҲŪװƤƤ롥
code-switching ٤㤷ʣθ1ĤʸΤʤ᤯ˤڤؤ硤 code-mixing ȸƤǶ̤礬롥ٹ礤⤯θäƤ뤫ȽȤʤ⤢롥Τ褦üԤˤȤäơcode-mixing Ϥ1ĤθäƤΤƱ餤˼ʤȤǤꡤڤؤƤȤȤռƤʤȤ¿ȤѸޤ code-mixing ϡMalta, Nigeria, Hong Kong, the Philippines [2013-09-06-1]ε#1593. եԥαѸ (2)פ򻲾ȡˤʤɤ¿ϰ褫顤¿𤵤Ƥʰʾ塤Trudgill 23 ˡ
ʣθηϤؤ礦ܿ˵븽ݤȤƤϡۤ˴ (interference) (borrowing)޲ȯãʤɤ롥Ϥθ̤Ū˸ΤФơcode-switching ϸĿͤθ°븽ݤǤȤ롥̤θ򤹤СԤ competence ˶ᤤȤˤԤ performance ˶ᤤȤȤˤʤ롥ǡδ֤θ̩ϺǤꡤcode-switching ٤η㤷ѤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
(25) ѤƤѸ code-switching 󤲤Ƥ (VY) žν⤦1ͤν (MN) äƤȤ̤ǡƤϿͼҲŵŪ code-switching Ǥ롥

VY: 䤹Ȼ䤬 drive 夨Τ͡I was in the fast lane. Of course, speed Фʤ㤤ʤ顥
MN: Yeah.
VY: ?here was a car in the left, right lane.
MN:
VY: Two ʤǹԤäΤ͡side.
MN: Uh-huh.
VY: So, I was in the ä left lane. Ǥ褿Ρ
MN: Violet, drive ƤΡ
VY: Half-way ޤäɤ͡After lunch ٤Ƥ͡顤Τˤ car ͡ʤ he came out right. No signal or anything. ʤǤä . . . ݤä补Gee. ʤʤä brake ä顤ʤʤääơʥ㡼ޤʤOh, gee.
MN: ???hose 墽?񎼷t's not your fault, eh? when you have an accident.


ܸȱѸڤؤࡼǤ뤳ȤƼ롥#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) Wright 2ܤΰѤǤҤ٤ƤȤꡤ衤code-switching Դʸ콬˴ŤݤȤŪˡ˷ŪˤȤ館Ƥ餫˸Ǥ롥code-switching طʤˤʣʡʼҲ˸ŪװѤƤ롥װˤĤƤϡεǡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

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2013-10-08 Tue

#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching [code-switching][me][bilingualism]

#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤꡤѸˤϡʣθ줬ڤؤߤ줿츫Ȥ12ȤۤʺΤ褦˻פ뤬ʸṲ̣̄аտŪ code-switching ǤäȤ狼롥ѸˤηŪȤ⤤뤳Τ褦 code-switching ϡΤߤʤ餺ʸޤ᤿ۤȤɤΥ˴ѻ롥㤨СWright ϡ"medical writings, other scientific texts, legal texts, administrative texts, sermons, other religious prose texts, literary prose, poems, drama, accounts, inventories, rule-books and letters" (148) 󤲤Ƥ롥Wright (148--49) ϻʸζȤưʲ2Ĥ󤲤Ƥ롥

1. Religious prose text in English and Latin: sermon (early fifteenth century)

Domini gouernouris most eciam be merciful in punchyng. Oportet ipsos attendere quod of stakis and stodis qui deberent stare in ista vinea quedam sunt smoþe and lightlich wul boo, quedam sunt so stif and so ful of warris quod homo schal to-cleue hom cicium quam planare.

(The lord's governors must also be merciful in punishing. They should take notice of the stakes and supports that should stand in this vineyard, some are smooth and will easily bend, others are so stiff and so full of obstinacy that a man will split them sooner than straighten them out.)

2. Letter in English and Anglo-Norman: from R. Kingston to King Henry IV (1403)

Tresexcellent, trespuissant, et tresredoute Seignour, autrement say a present nieez. Jeo prie a la benoit trinite que vous ottroie bone vie ove tresentier sauntee a treslonge durre, and sende yowe sone to ows in helþ and prosperitee; for in god fey, I hope to almighty god that, yef ye come youre owne persone, ye schulle haue the victorie of alle youre enemyes.

(Most excellent, mighty and revered Sir, otherwise I know nothing at present. I pray to the blessed trinity to grant you a good life with the fullest health of the longest duration, and send you soon to us in health and prosperity; for in good faith, I hope to almighty God that, if you come yourself, you shall have a victory over all your enemies.)


code-switching Ǥϡäʽ񤭼ˤϸڤؤ뤳ȤˤꡤҲŪ뤤ϸŪʸ̤տޤƤȤȤˤ롥Wright (149) ۩

It has often been assumed that texts which show code-switching are indicative of an ill-educated scribe, who did not know the other languages fully. However, studies on present-day code-switching show that, on the contrary, the speakers usually have a full grasp of both languages, but choose to switch for social and discourse-pragmatic reasons. Similarly, it can frequently be demonstrated that the scribe of a code-switched text did in fact command the grammar and vocabulary of all the languages used, but that he chose to combine them. At present, we are not fully sensitive to the discourse-pragmatic reasons for medieval code-switching, and it is one of the things to which the present-day reader of a medieval text is deaf. (149)


嵭Τ褦˸Ťν񤭸դ˸ code-switching ΰտޤɤ߼뤳ȤϺˤ뤬ξˤ "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ϤƲäΤ code-switching ˤꡤҥȤ뤫⤷ʤ

Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.

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2013-10-06 Sun

#1623. ͥ¿Ծ --- ޥȥߥμҲ [map][sociolinguistics][bilingualism]

եꥫΤ̤ Senegal ϡϤι񡹤ˤ줺¿ȤǤ롥Ѹϥե󥹸ιϡ#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) Ǽ夲¿ؿ (diversity index) Ǥ0.775Ȥ⤤ͤ򼨤θ˸¤äƤ37θ줬1ͤο͸ˤääƤ롥ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue Senegal 򻲾Ȥ줿

Map of Senegal

ι Ziguinchor ȤĮ롥ΡִԾפ¿ˤĤơҲؤΥߥȥޥʻạ̈Ĵʥpp. 142--46ˡĮλԾξͤδ֤Ǥ10ʾθ줬äƤ롥ΩäϡJola (35%), Wolof (26%), Mandinka (16%), Fula (11%), Serer (4%), Balanta (5%), ¾ (5%) ȤʬۤäθϼҲŪϰ̤ˤ櫓ǤϤʤFula Mandinka ϤθԻˤθȤƤ Jola ΤۤŪǤ롥ޤWolof ϡкŪ Wolof ͤϤˤ⤿餷޲ǤꡤǺθҤäƤ롥
˴ؤ뤳Τ褦ʥޥҲŪϡġξͤΤĸѡȥ꡼ˤȿǤƤꡤξˤƶڤܤƤ롥λԾˤƳƾͤ1?7Ĥθ뤬1ĤΤäͤǤ¿2ġ3ĤȤ褽ͽ̤Ƥ椯ȤüԤ̤ˤĤθäȡоΤʬۤ餫ˤʤ롥

(1) Native Jora speakers
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 language  (23): ***********************
2 languages (17): *****************
3 languages (15): ***************
4 languages  (2): ***
5 languages  (5): *****
6 languages  (0): 
7 languages  (0): 
----------------------------------------------------------------------

(2) Native Wolof speakers
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 language  (25): *************************
2 languages  (7): *******
3 languages  (5): *****
4 languages  (5): *****
5 languages  (5): *****
6 languages  (0): 
7 languages  (0): 
----------------------------------------------------------------------

(3) Native Mandinka speakers
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 language   (1): *
2 languages  (6): ******
3 languages  (4): ****
4 languages  (8): ********
5 languages  (5): *****
6 languages  (3): ***
7 languages  (1): *
----------------------------------------------------------------------

(4) Native Fula speakers
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 language   (0): 
2 languages  (7): *******
3 languages  (5): *****
4 languages  (5): *****
5 languages  (5): *****
6 languages  (1): *
7 languages  (2): **
----------------------------------------------------------------------

(2) Wolof ͤȾʾ夬 Wolof ΤߤäñüԤǤΤФ(4) Fula ͤ¿üԤǤ롥(3) Mandinka ͤ3䤬4üԤǤꡤ(1) Jora ͤ4䤬 Jora Τߤäƾ䤷Ƥ롥 Wolof θ˳礷ƤޥʾȡԾξˤ Wolof ϤؤäƤߥʸȤפƤΤ狼Fula Ωμ夤ǤꡤμԤˤää뤳Ȥ¾ʤüԤ޲ʤƼ롥
#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤҲؤΥޥʻȥߥʻȤʬƤȤ館ˡ䴰Ū˹ͤͭפ

륤᥸󡦥ˡ ˡؼҲء١ҡ2002ǯ

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2013-09-26 Thu

#1613. ƻϩɸαѸɽȡָĶ [bilingualism][language_planning][geolinguistics][linguistic_landscape][ecolinguistics]

ε#1612. ƻϩɸ޻Ѹɽء ([2013-09-25-1]) ˤƻϩɸαѸɽλܺˤĤơײ (language_planning) Ȥ³ˤȡΤ褦ϡָĶפ뤤ϡϰθ쵭沽פȤɤΤȤǵ롥Ĺ (62--65) ָĶפꤵ줿1ΤۤȤɤѤ롥

Į̤⤷ꡤ夤ꡤۥƥǥƥӤΥͥĤꤹȡ乭𡤥ƥȡ󥽥ʤɤѤƤ̤ơ˴ؤľǤ롥ƱˡҲŪտĴơ¸ߤѼ褯ΤˤĤơ¿ǥо줷ƤʤȤ˵Ť
Τʤǡ줬ʸη¸ߤꡤ¸ߤƤʤȤָĶפȸƤ֡򤢤ʤ顤˥塼衼ǤŹδĤ˱Ѹ졤ꥢ졤ӥȤä줬뤳Ȥ顤ϻ뤳ȤǤ뤷δĶˤѼ̤ơߤѲ򸫼뤳ȤǤ롥뤤ϤޤꥹˤؤιִԤδʰ強ǯˤŤˤĤơ塻ǯιθĶˤοĥȱѸθबǧ줿
˥塼衼ޤ¾μԤθ¿ξդ졤ΤΤʤˤȸ뤬¸Τʤθײ⤽Τ褦ʾ˲ΤüԤ˥ե٥åȤʤΤˡθ˥ե٥åȤͿƤⲿˤΩʤ̤̾Τ򼨤ץ졼ȤƻϩɸξΥʥСץ졼ȡݥ饸ƥȤϡ쿶ŪDzΤˤϳʹξǤ롥ȤСǯδֳ֤Фơ塻ǯ˥ӥХ̥ڥХιĮͤХ륻ʤζ˹ߤΩäιԼԤϡӥХˤϥХɽꡤХ륻ʤˤϥ롼˥ɽ뤳Ȥ˶äɽϸĶ˷ײŪʲԤʤ졤ޤӽƤ줬δĶ뤤Բ󤷤ȤȤ򼨤Ƥ롥ƱͤˡɽĶȤ餹ȡ強ǯȬǯδ֤ˡ른γ̤ϡѤäƤޤä˽Ҥ٤٤Ƥεǽˤơӥ줬ե󥹸˼ääΤ褦ʡϰθ쵭沽פϡ줬ޤ줿η̤Ǥ졤ײŪʼη̤Ǥ졤Ҳ򵭹ŪɤߤȤƻ󶡤Ƥ롥˸ˤϡǼƤΤ⤢Сʤʤܤˤ뤳ȤΤʤΤ⤢ꡤθμҲŪʽ٤䤽ξȤ̵طǤϤʤΤ
äơײϴĶƯơθν䤽ξħŪʰҿ˱ƶڤܤΤƤˡߤ¿ۤʤäƤȤϤ¸ΤʤγưΤΤʤγưˡѤۤ롥ȤСѥΥޥֿͤӥDzǼȤäʸȡϥӥ¾˥ե󥹸Ǥ󼨡ʤĤޤˤͤФʤʤȤϤˤȤδ֤ˤϡʤǤʸɽˤ̤ǥƥƥɽˤĤƱͤΰջ֤ǧ롥Υǥƥƥ륢ץϤ줾ۤʤäƤ롤ϼʹư顤¾ˡβˤäơǥƥƥƤΤǤ롥
ĤξǤ⡤ϰθ쵭沽ȤǽƱǤ롥˥塼衼ѥ̤˸륢ӥ졤졤إ֥饤ηǼϡʳΥåäƤ롥ޤŪ٥ǤϡθɤळȤΤǤԤåɤǤȤǡŪ˼Ԥ򤫤ʤꤹ롥ƱˡŪ٥ǤϡηǼ̤μΥåȤʤäƤ롥ӥɤʤƤ⡤ʸηϤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤷¸ߤϾħŪڸ̤Ƥ롥ȤС쥹ȥΥɥξˤֹŹפȤˤǼĤΤȤƤ롥ޤɤͤˡ֤ϹŹפƤƱˡɤʤͤˤϡ֤פƤ롥˶᤯Źߤ˲ǷǤƤСΤ褦ʷǼ¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤֤̤ͤפȤȤ䡤֤ڳפȤȤ狼롥Τ褦ʳɲ򤫤⡤ʸĶν狼롥ȤʬؤβꤹС¿οͤӤȤϤФ餯Τ˷Ǽ줬ɤʤ⤷ʤ󡤤Ͻ̱μΨˤ롥Ǥ⡤ʸɽȤγФ졤ʸ¸ߤˤħ롥


μݤ򺣲ƻϩɸαѸɽȤʸ̮ƤϤȡΤ褦˵ǤŪγʹŪǤƻϩɸѸ첽Ȥ̤ܺơܤϷײŪܤθĶѲ褦ȤƤꡤѸοĥ岡ƤȤȤˤʤ롥λ̱ܺ˼ȲꤹȡƻϩɸαѸɽϡŪ٥ȶŪ٥2ĤΥå뤳Ȥˤʤ㤨С"Kanda Sta. West" ϡŪ٥ǤϡѸɽ򤹤Ԥˤ줬ֿıפǤ뤳Ȥ롥Ū٥ǤϡѸɽ򤹤Ԥˤ⤷ʤԤˤ⡤ܤƻϩɸ˱ѸɽѤ뤳Ȥ򤷤ǤȤå򡤤ܤϱѸν䤽ξħŪʰҿŪǧƤȤå롥
ƻϩɸαѸɽεϡΡϰθ쵭沽פȤʤ٤ǤϤʤ
ָĶפȤɤȴϢơ#278. ˥塼ɤˤޥγ ([2010-01-30-1]) #601. ¿ʪ¿ ([2010-12-19-1]) ǿ줿 "ecology of language" "ecolinguistics" Ȥʬؤ꤬ϰθ쵭沽פϡ#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) ǰ٤1Ĥ

륤᥸󡦥ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-03-05-1] [2014-02-06-1]

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2013-09-25 Wed

#1612. ƻϩɸ޻Ѹɽ [bilingualism][language_planning][romaji][linguistic_landscape]

820īʹī34̤ˡֹդɸͤΤѸɽءפꤹ뵭ä衤ܤƻϩɸǤϡܸإܥ󼰥޻ɽΤѤƤ㤨С񤭡ֹפɸǤϤ˥޻ "Kokkai" ȵƤ޻ʬ "The National Diet" ȱѸˤʤߤǯ˼»ܤȤԤϡˬҤʤɤɸɤʤȤơֳͤؤʬ䤹˹ͤ׾ǤбȤƤ롥
ˡ912īʹī5̤ˡɸ޻ޤѸɽפꤹϢǺܤ줿ڸ̾ʤϡѸɽư򡤹դϤơع褦ȤƤȤΤȤˤꡤ㤨 "Eki" "Sta.", "Shogakko" "Elem. School", "Yubinkyoku" "Post Office", "Dori" "Ave.", "Kencho" "Pref. Office" ѹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ưϡ2020ǯԥåŤˤǤάŪʻܺȤͤ롥̳ʤϡܿͤʬ뤫ž꤬𤹤פȤ⤢ä褦ŪʱѸ첽礭Ĭήˤϵդ館ʤȤȤΤ褦ˤ⡤ȤƤαѸפΰϡ뤤ԤˤäƤϡֱѸζҡפζŪʸָ뤳ȤǤ롥
ܤǸ˺Ѥ줿ƻϩɸɽϡǽǤιԥɥ֥åϿޡϿʤɤˤȿǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ߤɽפƤʤȡܸ򤵤ʤˬԤˤؤαžʤɤϡѸɽѤѸ򤬷礫ʤʤꡤΤȾбѸؽ򶯤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
դƻϩɸ޻ѸɽѹȤܺϡʪŪ԰٤ȤƤϾʤΤ鹭Ϸ褷ƾʤϡդ򡤴ѸȤкѤȤǤϤʤѸ춵顤Ѹۡ¿ʤɤδռŪ˵꤬ʤ٤ʤΤ *  *

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2013-09-21 Sat

#1608. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ (2) [bilingualism][japanese][world_languages][sign_language][language_or_dialect]

[2013-05-30-1]ε³ԡ¿Ѥξ֤ǤȤ¤ˤĤơCrystal (409--10) ˸ڤ򸫤ĤΤǡɲä

[M]ultilingualism is the normal human condition. It is a principle which often takes people by surprise. If you have lived your whole life in a monolingual environment, you could easily come to believe that this is the regular way of life around the world, and that people who speak more than one language are the exceptions. Exactly the reverse is the case.
   Speaking two or more languages is the natural way of life for three-quarters of the human race. There are no official statistics, but with over 6,000 languages co-existing in fewer than 200 countries . . . it is obvious that an enormous amount of language contact must be taking place; and the inevitable result of languages in contact is multilingualism, which is most commonly found in an individual speaker as bilingualism.
      There is no such thing as a totally monolingual country. Even in countries that have a single language used by the majority of the population, such as Britain, the USA, France, and Japan, there exist sizeable groups that use other languages. In the USA, around 10% of the population regularly speak a language other than English. In Britain, over 350 minority languages are in routine use. In Japan, one of the most monolingual of countries, there are substantial groups of Chinese and Korean speakers. In Ghana, Nigeria, and many other African countries that have a single official language, as many as 90% of the population may be regularly using more than one language. (409--10)


Ѥˤ⤢ȤꡤܤǤǤŵŪñȤȤߤʤ뤬Ȥƥ̸䡤īڹ줽¾ΰ̱졤ܼäʤɤμøԤƤ롥ޤΰʤΤΰʤΤȤ䤤ˤäƤϡüԤΤ٤Ƥɸܸ򤹤Ȥ̣ˤơ2ѼԤȸƤӤ롥ޤӥͥʤɤDZѸʤɤѤ¿ܸüԤܿͤ⡤ܹ⳰¿Ѥ˹׸Ƥ͡ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥٤κ졤ܤ¾ϰƱͤ¿ϰǤȤǧϽפ
ܤ¿ѾˤĤƤϡEthnologue Japan 򻲾Ȥ줿

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-01-08-1] [2014-11-12-1]

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2013-06-04 Tue

#1499. 󥸥ʥӥ "semicommunication" [bilingualism][dialect][old_norse][map][language_or_dialect]

ߤ̤褦̤ʤƤ褦ǻƤʤ줢뤤üԤˤߥߥ˥Haugen "semicommunication" ̾դߤˤ٤̤Ȥ륹󥸥ʥӥ̥ޥʰʲϿޤ򻲾ȡˤǰƬ֤Ƥ̾դǤ롥Haugen ϡΥ륦ǥ󡤥ǥޡ3񤫤ߤθ٤˴ؤ륢󥱡Ĵ»ܤ줾θ˴ؤ semicommunication θ餫ˤ1972ǯΤŤĴʤΤǡη̤2013ǯߤɤ٤ƤϤޤΤζ̤ɬüԤǽ˰¸櫓ǤϤʤȤҲؤΰŪ򤹤뤦Dzͤ븦Ǥ롥

Map of Scandinavia

󥱡ȤǤľܤ˸˴ؤܤФǤϤʤĿͤ˴ؤҲŪʼܤ¿ޤޤƤܺ٤ϳ䰦뤬Haugen (225) οޤѤ3üԤθߤ semicommunication ٹ礤޼ƤߤޤϡθʹưפǤΤˤϡ֤٤Ǥפȡ־θƤ٤Ǥסˤͤγ礫顥

Semicommunication in Scandinavia (1)

οޤ͡ʤȤ狼롥ǥޡȥǥδ֤ˤ礭κ񤬤롥ǥȥΥ륦δ֤ˤ٤򤬤롥Υ륦ȥǥޡδ֤٤ŪԤԤ򤹤٤Τۤդ礭
Υ륦ȥǥޡԤˤŪۤˤꡤߤθ˸äζ̹¿ȯ˰ۤʤ뤿ˡ٤⤯ϤʤǥޡͤˤΥ륦٤Ū˹⤤ΤϡΥ륦Τֻۤȯδط̩Ǥ뤿ˡǥޡֻͤͳƼ䤹ΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥
ϡߤθǤ뤫ȤФ "yes", "no", "fairly well" 3Ƥä̡"yes" ͤγǤ롥οޤǤϡ3δ֤٤ꤷΤȤƼƤ롥

Semicommunication in Scandinavia (2)

Ŀͤ٤ˤϽпϡƤ١ߤιؤˬ٤ʤɤʣ˴ͿƤΤǡ̲񤷤ΤΡ褽ηϤĤ̲3ǺǤ⥳ߥ˥ƤΤϡǥޡͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Haugen ϡȯ㤬ߥ˥˳װǤ뤳Ȥǧʤ⡤ߤθФ (linguistic attitude) ⸫ƨȤϤǤʤƤ롥

Even though mutual comprehension is basically a matter of language distance, we cannot entirely discount the effect of mutual social attitudes in reducing or enhancing the will to understand. (227)


ߤθФ빥򥢥󥱡 (228) dzΤȡǥޡ򹥤ǥͤ0%Υ륦ͤ2%ˤȤɤޤäƤ롥ޤǥޡͤ41%Υ륦졤42%ǥ򹥤ޤפƤ롥ǥޡϼ¾Ȥˡ̲3ΤʤŪ㤯ƤȤ褦ͤǸ¤ꡤΥ륦ȥǥϸߤ˹ޤפäƤ롥Τ褦ʸ٤ˤϡǥޡŪϰ̤Ū㤵ȿǤƤǽ롥
semicommunication ˤϡŪʺۤѤƤΤϤҲŪװǤ٤βٺƤȤ Haugen θ餬ߤ˰ۤʤǤϤʤۤʤȸƤФΤˤϡ٤βٺؤäƤΤǤ롥դˡ٤˲ٺʤСνѼ郎Ǥ褦ˡäդǤϸߤ̤ʤˤ⤫餺ȸƤФΤ⤷ʤ"what" 뤪褽Ʊȯθ줬Υ륦Ǥ hva, ǥǤ vad, ǥޡǤ hvad ֤1906ǯϤ hvad äˤΤФǤȯۤʤäƤƤƱǽɽ蘆Ȥ¤ϡ¤оŪǤ롥
ޥδ֤ semicommunication ȤСűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤɤΤ餤򤷹礨ΤȤϡѸˤνפʴؿǤ롥ǤŪۤǤʤߤˤɤΤ褦ʸ٤äƤȤͿƤ

Haugen, Einar. "Semicommunication: The Language Gap in Scandinavia." The Ecology of Language: Essays by Einar Haugen. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1972. 215--36.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-10-24-1] [2013-09-05-1]

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2013-05-31 Fri

#1495. ä٤ޥʸ multilingualism [bilingualism][lingua_franca][map]

ε#1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1]) μݤ䤦ˡä٤ multilingualism μҲ𤷤褦Sorensen ܺ٤ĴޥʸǤ롥
֥饸ȥӥι񶭤ˤޤޥϰˡ͸1ͤۤɤʤʸ롥Ǥϰۤʤ²ˤä25ʾθ췲ԤʤƤʤäơ1ʸ1פ餫ȿǤˡϰˤϤĤΥ󥬡ե󥫤¸ߤ뤬Ǥ⹭Ѥ Tukano Ǥ롥Tukano ѤϰϤȤʸȤŪˤۤܰפƤ롥
ơʸ°ۤȤɤθĿͤϡ3ʾͳ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϸĿŪ polylingualism ڤӼҲŪ multilingualism 㳰ǤϤʤǤꡤüԤƤξʤ鶯ռ뤳ȤϤʤ㤨СեɥθؼԤĿͤˤĤθΤäƤ뤫䤦Ƥ⡤Τ֤äƤʤ̾ΥꥹȤ򼨤ƽơ줳θΤäƤȤޤäʣθ줬礵 code-mixing Ūˤߤ뤬üܿͤϤ̵ۤռˤԤʤäƤ롥multilingualism ʤʤΤǤ롥
multilingualism طʤˤϡ²뺧 (exogamy) δؤäƤ롥ˤϼʬ°²Ȥϰۤʤ²줫ǤޤʤФʤʤȤȤϰζ괯Ȥƥ֡Ȥ롥ˤפȺʤϾ˰ۤʤĤȤˤʤ롥˥ߥ˥ʤפϲõβǾʤȤʤͤ°²θؤӻϤ뵡Ĥνꤹפ²θ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥뤤ϡߤˤޤǤοǡ3θ̤θȤƽƤǽ롥󥬡ե󥫤ȤƤ Tukano ξԤ򤵤뤫⤷ʤ
뺧Ⱥʤפ² "longhouse" ʶƱĹˤ°뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬longhouse Τ multilingual ʶ֤Ǥ롥longhouse Ǥפ²θ줬礿ȤѤ뤿ᡤʤޤ줿Ҷܰ򤽤θǹԤʤȤˤʤ롥ȤƱĹˤϡפηκʤʤɤȤơʬƱ뤤ϰۤʤ²пȤνʣΤ̤Ǥ롥ʤϡ⤷νƱ²пȤǤмʬDzäۤʤ²пȤǤиߤǽƤ椯ȤˤʤθŪ˼ˤƤ longhouse ¾ν͡Ȥ櫓ҶϡΤ٤Ƥθʹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ơפȺʤ⤳Τ褦 longhouse ޤäƤ櫓ʤΤǡҶ夫 multilingualism ˤϴäˤʤäƤΤǤ롥פʤɤˤ²֤ˬ䤬ˤǤ뤳Ȥ multilingualism ¸˹׸Ƥ롥ʸΤɤعԤäƤ⡤ʬäΤ줫򤷤Ƥͤɬ뤷ʬäΤ줫Ǥǽ⤤ΤǤ롥
longhouse Ȥ˻ȤʤΥѡȥ꡼Ϥ褽ޤäƤꡤ°ĿͤθΥѡȥ꡼⤽˽ऺ뤳Ȥ¿¼¼ؤȰưƤ椯ȡΥѡȥ꡼ѲƤ椯Ȥ顤Ϣ³ (dialect continuum) Ȼѡȥ꡼Ϣ³ΤʤΤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ܤѰ۷Ȥ߹碌ѼħŤΤƱͤˡȤʤȤ߹碌 longhouse ʤ²ʤħŤȤҲŪˤϤƶ̣
Τ褦ޥʸϡmultilingualism ζͭˤäƵǽƤΤǤ롥
Ethnologue ꡤNorthwestern Brazil θϿޤDZǤ롥  *

Sorensen, A. P. "Multilingualism in the Northwest Amazon." American Anthropologist 69 (1967): 670--84.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-07-12-1]

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2013-05-30 Thu

#1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ [bilingualism][world_languages][model_of_englishes][native_speaker_problem][linguistic_imperialism]

ܤޤܸۤͣδĶ褷Ƥ¿ܿͤˤȤäơͤ bilingual ǤȤ multilingual Ǥʤɤʹȡò޻ǰΤǤϤʤƱ褦ȿϡ¿νǤǧʼºݤˤϡ[2013-01-30-1]εǤߤ褦ˡ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤפˤ⤫餺ˡʣθȤȤüǽϤ뤤ϰζȤǤꡤʤȤ̤ǤϤʤȤΰݤ롥
㤨СѸˤμȤǡѸΥ󥰥ɼҲ񤬱Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ trilingualism μҲäȤΥ󥰥ɲϥե󥹸ȤѸ򤷤ʤԤ⾯ʤʤäȾҲ𤹤ȡ͡ϤɤΤ褦˸ߤ˥ߥ˥äƤΤϤɤΤ褦˽̱̿ƤΤȤ䤬ɬФ롥伫Ȥ multilingual Ҳ褷ȤʤΤǡΰտޤǤ뤷ϤƯȤƤ´ͯˤ
źθҴŪįȡܤפνΤ褦 monolingual ǥեȤȹͤѤΤۤФäƤΤȤȤ狼äƤ롥ΤʿФΤ񤷤Ǥ monolingual ʸ춦ƱΡmonolingual üԤΤۤȤäƤ褤Ҳؤ3ĤꡤƱݤΰѤ󤲤롥

In view of the need for communication with neighbouring communities and government agencies, it is fair to assume that many members of most communities are multilingual. (Hudson 9)


. . . in many parts of the world an ability to speak more than one language is not at all remarkable. . . . In many parts of the world it is just a normal requirement of daily living that people speak several languages: perhaps one or more at home, another in the village, still another for purposes of trade, and yet another for contact with the outside world of wider social or political organization. These various languages are usually acquired naturally and unselfconsciously, and the shifts from one to another are made without hesitation. (Wardhaugh 93)


It has been estimated that there are some 5,000 languages in the world but only about 185 nation-states recognized by the United Nations. Probably about half the world's population is bilingual and bilingualism is present in practically every country in the world. (Romain 33)


ɤ졤͸ϤʤΤQǤäơϤʤΤȻפǤҲ⡤ˤϰճ¿ΤǤ󤽤餹٤ƤͤҤȤοʹ֤Ʊ٥ǤȤȤǤϤʤ礬¿ΤǤξǧƤȤϡȤƤפʤȤȻפޤܤǤϳ줬ĤǤǡ֤פȻפ褦ʴФޤɡȤС˥˽ޥ͡ϲȤǤޥäƤޤȤϥޥͤǤƱ˥˥ͤʤΤǡҥȱѸ줬Ǥʤä顤Ūʹ̱ȤƤ褬ǤʤǤ͡Į˽ФƿƲбĤ褦Ź˶Ф褦ҤϤߤʱѸ䥹ҥȤäƤ櫓Ǥ顥ͤοʹ֤İʾ˰ۤʤäŪ˻ȤʬäƤȤҲ¤ˤ¿ޤƤǤϡߤǤ⡤轻̱θäƤͤ¿ޤȤФ줬ᥭä顤楫ȾΥޥͤϥޥȤƤޤᥭͤǤ顤ѸǤ륹ڥäʤФʤʤΤǤp. 50--51


ܿͤˤȤäʳ1İʾθ뤳ȤǤȤȤϡۤȤɤξ硤سؽη̤ȤƤơ̳ǤѸؽ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤줬¿λ֤ϫϤפ뤫褯ΤäƤ롥äơͤ multilingual ȤȡǤγؽ̤ˤʤȻפǡò޻ΤǤ롥¿ multilingual ʸĿͤϡ"naturally and unselfconsciously" ʣθƤΤǤ롥ϤޤǤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤθ춦ƱΤ׵᤹ҲŪ1ĤȤʣθΤǤ롥Τ褦ʿ͡ϡ䤿Ƥ⤺äȼ̵ռ˸ؽƤޤ褦
ä multilingualism źθ춦ƱΤΥǥեȤǧȡष monolingualism פ֤Τ褦˸Ƥ롥˵䤷ʤȡȤ櫓ѸݤȤʤĤĤ븽θʤѸ monolingualism ϰ۾ǤȤո졤̤ȤƱѸȽlinguistic_imperialism ε򻲾ȡˤͥƥԡץ֥ native_speaker_problem) ʤ꤬ƤƤ롥#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥ ([2010-01-24-1]) ⡤¿Ѥ֤ǤꡤñѤ㳰ŪǤȤǧΤȤ󵯤줿ǥǤ롥

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ

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2013-05-22 Wed

#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer [sociolinguistics][bilingualism][me][terminology][chaucer][reestablishment_of_english][diglossia]

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) ǡѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia ȤƸڤؤν񤭸դ˥ƥե󥹸줬ؤäդ˱Ѹ줬ѤȤλȤʬΤʸǤ롥3줬ؤäƤΤ triglossia ȸƤ֤ΤΤ⤷ʤ
diglossia ȤǰѸǽƳΤϡҲؼ Ferguson Ǥ롥Ferguson (336) ˤѤ褦

DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.


ˤȤꡤFerguson diglossia 12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طȰ֤ŤƤȤơŵӥӥ졤ɸɥĸȥɥĸ졤襮ꥷ̱ꥷ ([2013-04-20-1]ε#1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡפ򻲾ȡˡե󥹸ȥϥ쥪4󤲤
diglossia γǰ᤿ˡ12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طˤȤɤޤ餺ۤʤ2줫ʤ岼طޤ diglossia γǥ뤬 Fishman ˤäƼȡ碌ƹ褦ˤʤäѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia ϡγ diglossia ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŵŪ diglossia ˤƤϡⶵֵ⡤ǥʸؤˤƾѼ (high variety) Ѥ졤ϫƯԤ侤ȤؤλؼФǤβá̱Ūʥ饸ȡ̡衤̱¯ʸؤˤƲѼ (low variety) ѤȤ롥⤷üԤλȤʬ餺դ路ʤǤդ路ʤѼѤȡˤϰ´Τߤʤ餺ˤäƤϴ롥󥰥ɤˤƤδ򤢤˯Chaucer äѼǤѸǡϾѼʬäʸؤ񤤤ΤǤ롥Wardhaugh (86) ϡChaucer diglossia ˤˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

You do not use an H variety in circumstances calling for an L variety, e.g., for addressing a servant; nor do you usually use an L variety when an H is called for, e.g., for writing a 'serious' work of literature. You may indeed do the latter, but it may be a risky endeavor; it is the kind of thing that Chaucer did for the English of his day, and it requires a certain willingness, on the part of both the writer and others, to break away from a diglossic situation by extending the L variety into functions normally associated only with the H. For about three centuries after the Norman Conquest of 1066, English and Norman French coexisted in England in a diglossic situation with Norman French the H variety and English the L. However, gradually the L variety assumed more and more functions associated with the H so that by Chaucer's time it had become possible to use the L variety for a major literary work.


Τˤ Chaucer Ϥ diglossia ˤäȤϡChaucer λޤǤˡdiglossia ˤ줦ޤǤ˱Ѹ줬̱ĤĤä򤹤Τ
ʤdiglossia ˴ؤƤϡ1960--90ǯˤ3000ʸ蘆줿ȤسȤƤϲŪʳǰäȤʥp. 31ˡ

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.
륤᥸󡦥ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2013-05-06 Mon

#1470. macaronic lyric [me][literature][style][bilingualism][register][latin][french][code-switching]

Ѹνˤϡ"macaronic lyric" ȸƤФΤ롥macaronic ȤϡOALD7 ڤ "(technical) relating to language, especially in poetry, that includes words and expressions from another language" ȤꡤֳƼκä¯ΤΡפʤɤ̣롥macaronic lyric ϡΥ󥰥ɤˤŪˤϱѸ줬Ǥϥե󥹸줬Ǥϥƥ줬ʿŪ˹ԤʤƤ¿ѤξߤȤ˱ǤФʸغʤǤ롥ȤơGreentree (396) ˰ѤƤޥꥢؤλΤ1󤲤ʹ Brown 26--27 ˴ŤˡϡѸȥƥ줬ؤ13 macaronic lyric Ǥ롥

Of on that is so fayr and bright
      velud maris stella
Brighter than the day-is light
      parens & puella
Ic crie to the, thou se to me,
Leuedy, preye thi sone for me
      tam pia,
that ic mote come to the
      maria


츫ñʤѺߤΤؤܻˤ⸫뤬Greentree Ϥޥꥢؤο̩ʰʱѸˤˤȸʤʿġʥƥˤˤȤ̯ΥХ󥹤ȿǤΤȤɾ롥ʤѸȵŪʥƥθؤϡΤޤ13쿮ĤħŪʿ̩ȷɰդκɽ魯ȤҲؤ bilingual code-switching ʸؤؤαѤȤ
2ϡGreentree (395--96) ˰ѤƤ De amico ad amicam ̾դ줿֥쥿αȡResponcio ̾դ줿ؤǤ롥Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ줬ܤޤ뤷ؤ롥

A celuy que pluys eyme en mounde
Of alle tho that I have found
        Carissima
Saluz ottreye amour,
With grace and joye alle honoure
        Dulcissima


A soun treschere et special
Fer and her and overal
        In mundo,
Que soy ou saltz et gré
With mouth, word and herte free
        Jocundo


ǤϡѸDZΤʤɽ졤ե󥹸ǴŪǵŪʰҤ٤졤ƥǷٶδʷˤƹߤʥե졼ޤƤ롥
伫Ȥˤϡ macaronic lyric äʸ̤Ŭڤ̣臘ȤǤʤդȾʬθͷӤȹ⤤ʸȤζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤǤʤbilingual ǤϤʤԤ code-switching ε򤷤ˤΤƱ褦ʤΤ⤷ʤ㤨ܸǤҤ餬ʡʡ޻ʤɤ򿥤򤼤뤳Ȥʷϵΰ㤤ɽ魯ƤߤȡѸ macaronic lyric ˾ܶǤʵ⤹롥Greentree (396) ϼΤ褦ɾ᤯äƤ롥

Fluent harmony is an enjoyable and consistent characteristic of the macaronic lyrics. They seem paradoxically unforced, moving easily between languages in common use, to exploit particular characteristics for effect.


ʤȯŸ뤳Ȥˤʤ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ϡ̣Ǥ macaronic lyric Ʊ褦ѺΤषƥ줫֤ʸΤɽۤŬڤ⤷ʤ

Greentree, Rosemary. "Lyric." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 387--405.
Brown, Carleton, ed. English Lyrics of the XIIIth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1832.

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2013-01-30 Wed

#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ [bilingualism][world_languages]

衼åѤˤϳƹ줿Ѹ줬ꡤ̱ϰͤˤȤѤ餷Ƥ롤ȤϰŪʤΤ⤷ʤΤ˥٥륮ʤɤ¿ѹ⤢뤬͡ꥹѸ졤ե󥹡ե󥹸졤ɥġɥĸ졤ڥ᥹ڥΤ褦ˡȤȸ줬абƤΤ򤵤ƤΤǤϤʤ
ϸǤ롥Ωβǡ1ȡ1פȤۤŪˤʤꡤ⤽;ȤΤʤˤ뤬¤ˤ餫ȿƤ롥衼åѳƹϡΤۤܤ٤ƤιϰƱ褦ˡʶʤ multilingual Ǥ롥ɡʤܡˤΤ褦㳰㳰Ȥ⤤¾ñϤˤ衤Ǥ롥
Ethnologue ʤɤθפλ衼åѤι츫Ф狼Ȥꡤ衼åѳƹǤ϶äۤ¿θ줬ԤʤƤ롥դˡ̾õˤƤ⡤줬¿ΰۤʤǹԤʤƤ뤫狼롥1ȡ1פ¤ȿ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥衼åѤγƹȸб򤳤Ǻ٤󤲤ɬפϤʤפбޤȤƤȻפΤǡTrudgill (121--22) ΰƸ褦ʲɽθФθϡ̾衼åѤιȤȷӤĤפʸθϱ˼Ǥ⾯ȤƹԤʤƤ롥

German   Denmark, Belgium, France, Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Hungary, Czechia, Poland
Turkish   Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine
Greek   Italy, Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Turkey
Albanian   Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Italy
Hungarian   Austria, Serbia, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Ukraine
Finnish   Sweden, Norway, Russia
Swedish   Finland
French   Italy
Polish   Lithuania, Czechia, Ukraine
Bulgarian   Romania, Greece, Ukraine
Danish   Germany
Dutch   France
Italian   Slovenia, Croatia
Russian   Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine
Ukrainian   Romania, Slovakia, Poland
Slovak   Hungary, Romania, Czechia
Czech   Poland, Romania, Slovakia
Slovene   Austria, Italy
Macedonian   Greece, Albania
Lithuanian   Poland
Rumanian   Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia


ɽǸФ˵󤬤äƤΤϡɤιˤƤ⾯ɤǤǤ롥¦ˡθ줬ԤʤƤ񤬵󤲤Ƥ롥

Sami (Lapp)   Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia
Frisian   Germany, Netherlands
Basque   Spain, France
Catalan   Spain, France
Breton   France
Sorbian   Germany
Kashubian   Poland
Welsh   UK
Gaelic   UK


κǸˤ褦ˡꥹǤѸΤۤ Welsh Scottish Gaelic ʬŪ˹ԤʤƤ뤷ɰΦΰ̱ͳ褹 Punjabi Bengali ʤɤθԤʤƤ롥ΤۤYiddish Romany ʤɤϡ衼åΦ¿ιǾȤѤƤ롥
餯衼åѤǺǤ¿ι1ĤȤƵ󤲤Τϡ롼ޥ˥Ethnologue Romania ιʬȤꡤѸ Romanian ͸9ѤƤΤΡ¾23θ줬ȤƹԤʤƤ (Armenian, Aromanian, Bulgarian, Crimean Tatar, Czech, Eastern Yiddish, Gagauz, German (Standard), Gheg Albanian, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romani (Balkan), Romani (Carpathian), Romani (Vlax), Romanian Sign Language, Romany, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian)

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2012-09-02 Sun

#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ [germanic][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][contact][danish][afrikaans][bilingualism]

[2011-11-10-1]ε#927. ޥζޤοءפǡO'Neil 򻲾ȤĤġѸ줬ťΥɸܿƶޤñΤƱͤˡΦ󥸥ʥӥ줬ϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) ܿեꥫ󥹸 (Afrikaans) (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ܿơޤñȤ˿줿
ƱݤθڤGörlach (340) ǡ¾θȤǤʤƤǥޡ (Danish) ϡ13--15˶ޤʬ򼺤äλϡǡͤǥޡϥɥĸ2ѼԤȤʤäƤǤ롥ơ2ϡѸȸťΥɸδطäϳͶ̤ޤ礭ۤʤȤطˤä
եꥫ󥹸ˤĤƤϡ1700--1750ǯλˡѸǥޡƱͤʿCape Province ο̱Ԥ35%ϥϡ35%ϥɥķϤǡ͡͡ʶޤκۤ򼨤ʤ⡤ȤʬŪʤ˰¸ưջ̤ޤäƤȤߤ롥
ξˤ⡤Ʊ°2ܿؤäƤꡤξΤΤʼҲŪ岼طΤʤȤ̤Ƥ롥ɸΥޥ3ʿԴطˤ϶ʾΤΤȹͤƤ褵
ʤ쥪ϡѸΤߤʤ餺եꥫ󥹸ˤĤƤ⾧Ƥ褦ơޥ󥹽ˤ⡥Görlach References 򻲾ȡ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-04-17-1] [2013-12-03-1]

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