#1563. ṽ¤ ([2013-08-07-1]) 褦ˡŪˤϱѸβṽ¤Ȥơֱʬ칽¤ (right-branching structure) ꤹ뤳Ȥ¿ŪɽСʲΤ褦ˤޤ (syllable = ) ƬҲ (onset) ȱ (rhyme) ʬ졤Ԥ˳ (nucleus) Ҳ (coda) ʬ빽¤Ǥ롥

ȤǡʤΤ褦ʹ¤ꤹΤŪ˹ԹʤΤεǤ¿ (66) ˽äơءδ⤦Ū˺
Ѹ첻ˤϡǽʳ첻Բǽ첻2ब̤롥§Ȥơ¾ξ郎ƱǤС첻Ⳬ첻ΤۤĹȯ롥ޤ첻˴ؤƤϡҲ³ʤ˺ǤĹͭҲ³Ȥ̵Ҳ³ȤȤ첻ĹûʤäƤŪñǼС첻û bit < bid, beet < bead < bee ¤٤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
λ¤ҲμܤƸС̵ҲͭҲĹȯȤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̵ҲŪĹȯäƤ뤫顤Ԥ첻Ϥʬûȯ졤դͭҲŪûȯäƤ뤫顤Ԥ첻ϤʬĹȯȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
Τ褦˹ͤȡˤ첻ҲĹ˴ؤŪŪʴطˤȤ롥ƱͤδطƬҲȳˤδ֤ˤϳǧʤȤ顤Τ褦ʹ¤ꤹΤȤ˻ΤǤ롥
ȤƱѸαʸˤŪʵȤƵӱ (rhyme) ¸ߤ뤳Ȥϡ켫ΤǤϾι¤ꤹ붯ϤʺȤϤʤʤƱ¤Ǥ뤳Ȥ˵ڤˤϤʤ
4ϡᡦϢϢ³ ԡˡزءīоȸإ 2īҽŹ2012ǯ64--83ǡ
#1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ stress-timed ʥꥺࡤܸ syllable-timed (or mora-timed) ʥꥺĸȤ롥Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡԤϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǤ롥Ѹ˶٤θǤХɥĸ stress-timed ǡե䥹ڥ syllable-timed Ǥ롥
Τ褦˶ŪδϽ줫Υꥺफ˿ʬ뤬̻ŪˤߤȳƸΥꥺѤäΤ뤤ѲƤΤ
Ѹ˴ؤƤС븫ϳΤѲƤȤ롥Ѹ stress-timed ꥺδפˤΤۣ첻 /ə/ ¸ߤǤ롥ΤΤʲȲ̤첻ȡ夯ûȯۣ첻Ȥ¸Ƥ뤿ˡԤˤȤΧñ̤Ū˷֤뤳ȤˤʤΤűѸǤۣ첻¸ߤʤäΤǡstress-timed ꥺΩפ夫äȤˤʤ롥űѸϤष syllable-timed ꥺ˶ᤫäȤ⤤ΤǤ롥Cable (23--24) εʹ
To begin with, Old English did not have reduced vowels. The extensive system of inflectional endings depended on the full values of the short vowels, especially [ɑ], [ɛ], [u], and [ɔ]; and in polysyllabic words these and other short vowels were not reduced to schwa. The surprising effect is that in its lack of reduced vowels Old English can be said to have similarities with the phonological structure of a syllable-based language like Spanish. In this respect, both Old English and Spanish differ from Late Middle English and Modern English. Consequently, Old English can be hypothesized to have more of the suprasegmental structure of syllable-based languages---that is, the impression of syllable-timing---despite our thinking of Old English as thoroughly Germanic and heavily stressed.
Cable ϡűѸ줬 syllable-timed ʸȸäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ١ΥꥺǤ⤢뤷١Τ⤢ȤơŪʥꥺȹͤƤ롥³ʸϤѤƤ
These deductions and hypotheses from theoretical and experimental phonology are supported in the most recent studies of the meter of Old English poems. Beowulf has never been thought of as a poem in syllabic meter. Yet the most coherent way to imagine Old English meter is as a precisely measured mix of "accentual" elements (as the meter has traditionally been understood), "syllabic" elements (which may seem more appropriate for French verse), and "quantitative" elements (which are most familiar in Greek and Latin). (Cable 24)
Cable, Thomas. "Restoring Rhythm." Chapter 3 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 21--28.
ѸˤǤϡ̾졤ư졤ƻΤ褦ʼ礿ʻˤơ -e ؿʿˤüƤäȤаޤ롥-e ξü®٤ (cf speed_of_change, schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡʻ֤Ǻä̾ưζˤƤϾüŪᤫäƻˤüϤä٤Chaucer ɽѸǤ⽽ʬݤƤ (Minkova 312) ϡʤƻѲޤ -e ٤ޤǾüΤˤĤƹͤ
Minkova ηꤷƤСäñηƻμѲޤˤ -e ϡݻ䤹ΧưŤäȤȤǤ롥㤨Сthe goode man Τ褦ʡ괧ܷƻ̾פȤ칽¤ˤƤϡñƻ˶ -e դȤˤäơ嶯嶯ιΧ (eurhythmy) ݤ䤹Ĥޤꡤ֤ȱΧפˡŪ -e ŪפȤ줿Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
դ٤2Ĥ롥1ĤϡűѸѸŪᤵƤ -e eurhythmy ݤĤ٤üȤ줿ȤΤǤꡤ-e eurhythmy 餿˳٤ŪˤʤĶ줿櫓ǤϤʤȤȤeurhythmy θ̤ϡѶŪȤöŪʸ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥
2ܤˡ-e ݻȤ eurhythmy θ̤Ĺ³15--16ʹߤˤϷ̤ȤƸüζϤĬή˶ʤäȤ¤롥λ¤ϡeurhythmy Ф뵿ǰ뤫⤷ʤeurhythmy θ̤켫ΤˤäϤꤷȤϡʬˤ뤳Ȥeurhythmy ϡŪ˱ѸȤηϤ˹夯ѤƤװǤǧƤ褤ηǺѤƤ¾νװȤδطˤŪ˵ǽƤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥äơ15--16˷ƻޤ -e ṳ̈Ȥ "dysrhythmy" ȤƤ⡤ eurhythmy ưŤ¾νװκϤäΤȹͤФ褯λ˴ؤ eurhythmy ⼫ΤѤɬפϤʤMinkova (322--23) ϡƻ -e ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . the claim laid on rules of eurhythmy in English can be weakened and ultimately overruled by other factors such as the expansion of segmental phonological rules of final schwa deletion, a process which depends on and is augmented by the weak metrical position of the deletable syllable. The 15th century reversal of the strength of the eurhythmy rules relative to other rules is not surprising. Extremely powerful morphological analogy within the adjectives, analogy with the demorphologization of the -e in the other word classes, as well as sweeping changes in the syntactic structure of the language led to what may appear to be a tendency to 'dysrhythmy' in the prosodic organization of some adjectival phrases in Modern English. . . . The entire history of schwa is, indeed, the result of a complex interaction of factors, and this is only an instance of the varying force of application of these factors.
ѸˤˤƻˤĤƤϡ#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])#688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1]) ۤilame (= Inflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English) γƵȡ
ʤ伫Ȥ⤳ˤĤʸ2ܤۤɽƤޤ[1] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Levelling of Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science 73 (2012): 255--73. [2] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Decreasing Relevance of Number, Case, and Definiteness to Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus."إ硼įơ٥硼20ǯǰʸԡˡǡ2014ǯ273--99ǡˡ
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." ''Papers from the 5th International
ɸβˤĤơ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1])#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1]) ǿƤϤ⤦ܤβϡi-mutation ˡ餯űѸ (pre-OE) θȤ벻ѲǤꡤűѸβ礭ʱƶڤܤLass (98) üŪˤСHVD (High Vowel Deletion) ϰʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥
The fates of short high */i, u/ in weak positions are largely determined by the weight of the preceding strong syllable. In outline, they deleted after a heavy syllable, but remained after a light one, in the case of */i/ usually lowering to /e/ at a later stage.
촴Ťrhyme 3⡼ʾ夫ʤ˾ˡ³夤ι첻 (/i/, /u/) üȤǤ롥Ԥ촴ŤˤϡǤΤȤƽŤΤ顤˹첻³;פ˽Ť櫓ˤϤʤȲᤷƤ褤ơ촴ηڽŤˤꡤ³첻̵ͭڤؤ륱뤳ȤȤʤäLass (99--100) ͤˡűѸ줫褦HVD Ѥ֤ǼƤ롥
| Syllable weight | pre-OE | OE |
|---|---|---|
| heavy | *ðα:ð-i | dǣd 'deed' |
| heavy | *wurm-i | wyrm 'worm' |
| light | *win-i | win-e 'friend' |
| heavy | *flo:ð-u | flōd 'flood' |
| heavy | *xαnð-u | hand 'hand' |
| light | *sun-u | sun-u 'son' |
| heavy | *xæur-i-ðæ | hīer-de 'heard' |
| light | *nær-i-ðæ | ner-e-de 'saved' |
(i) a-stem neuter nom/acc sg: light scip-u 'ships' vs. heavy word 'word(s)', bān 'bone(s)'.
(ii) ō-stem feminine nom sg: light gief-u 'gift' vs. heavy lār 'learning'.
(iii) i-stem nom sg: light win-e 'friend' vs. heavy cwēn 'queen'
(iv) u-stem nom sg: light sun-u 'son' vs. heavy hand 'hand'.
(v) Neuter/feminine strong adjective declension: light sum 'a certain', fem nom sg, neut nom/acc sg sum-u vs. heavy gōd 'good', fem nom sg gōd.
(vi) Thematic weak verb preterites . . . .
ΤѸˤޤ HVD θ̤³¸ƤϤ鷺Ǥ롥ʬ heard ʣ sheep ˲餫Ե§ȤǤϤĤƤ HVD αƶŪˤΤäƤΤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) #1926. ܸܿ͡üԡ ([2014-08-05-1]) ǡפȤѸˤĤƤ줳ȹ̤ͤ˸ʳءˤΥǥˤϡפ褯ФפפϤȤꡤӸؤǤϽηŪʴطס̼סֻפɽ뤳Ȥ¿ʤפ©ҡפַפǤϤʤΤȹͤȡطɽ魯ޤǤࡦޤʻࡦޤˤδطŻ뤵뤫Ȼפ롥ˤƤϡ˽ΥڥҤޤȤϤʤСñסʤȤȤƤϥ襦ݥݤʤɤɽֻñסˤǤ롥˴ϢƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1])#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
פ졦̼פˤĤƤϾΤ褦ʤȤͤƤꡤΥǥˤֽϡ˵ŤƤȤdz⤦1Ĥζ̣ŦƤ줿ɸ˷Ǥ첻פȤѸǤ롥äΤǡʤۤɤȴΤˡʤ㲻פǤϤʤ첻פʤΤĴ٤Ƥߤ
Ѹǡ첻פ vowelФֻҲפ consonant Ǥ롥αѸѸθ츻ˤϡäȤҤȤǰϴޤޤƤʤԤϥƥ vōcālem ͭΡˤ̤ꡤ캬 vōx ˤǤ롥Ԥϡƥ consonans Ĵ¤롤˶ˤ̤ꡤ켫Τϥꥷ súmphōnonʡ첻ȡϤȤȯΡˤΤʤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤä˿ƻҤȤϴͿƤʤ¾θϻäǤ롥
Ȥȡ첻סֻҲפȤƾΤϡܸȼΤΤ餷ȤȤˤʤ롥ܹ缭ŵ٤ˤȡ֤ܤפˤϡ첻ۤȡ챤ۤιब̡ˤꡤ줾켡Τ褦ˤ롥
첻ۡɴϢġ1870--71ˡӰʸ consonants ʻҲ˵ڤ vowel 첻ˤ濫ס1899ˡҵӸޡ㲻첻ζ̵˰Ԥˤơ¶ϡƱλ¿̾ľ˰ʤס1909ˡҿӡֶ줷֤ˡŤıջ줬첻ĹΤǡ
챤֤ۡܤ첻ˡפƱʸŵ1874ˡӰ졦ֺΤθȱҡסʸŵ1897ˡʸɧӻԤȯϡӤԤΡؤ٤˻¹ԤȯϡӤԤΡؤ٤˻ơˡǷ챤źؤơ챤ŤʤȯΤǡסΤ1903ˡҾǯ¥͡ P(H)TKRS λҲ Unaccented 챤˽ϤơP(H)TKS ʤƤϤ륷֥ΩĻϡ
ǡ첻ۤιʸȤƿƤ㲻פȤѸܤϡȤλҲΰ̣ǻȤƤ롥ǤϡƱŵǡ㲻ۡʤդˤιƤߤ롥
֤ʻҲˡפƱʸŵ̵1897ˡʸɧӰ켷ֱѤ Consonant Ҳϡ㲻ʥեˤʤ뤢ϡʤס첻ء1902ˡʿȡӰ͡㲻ϡ¶βξ夫̤СȤʤ롥ͭ㲻̵㲻
ؤäƤˤϡconsonant ȤơֻҲפȤȤˡ㲻פȤԤƤ褦פФΤϡפʤΤֻҡסʡ̼ˤʤΤȤФơǽŪˤϡֻҡפǼޤäȤȤΤ褦Ǥֻҡפ̤ʬʤؤΥǥˤơƤ褦ˤ⸫뤫顤̼פǤǽ⤤ʡˡ
ˡܤȤʤۡʤܡˤȤϲƱŵĴ٤Ƥߤȡ
(2)Ƥȡ٤Ȥäꡥ䡤ϡ칻졤á(3)ʪȤȤʤΡ졤졿첻췿콸ġ
Ȥ롥ǡ첻סʤʤۤɡֻפȤѸ⤢äˤϡʪȤȤʤΡפΰդΡפȤƵƤ롥
ǻפ⤫֤ΤϡΧˤ벻ṽ¤εҤߺǤƳƤ벻ṽ¤ (cf. #1563. ṽ¤ ([2013-08-07-1])) εҤǤϡonset, rhyme, nucleus, coda ʤɤΰ֤äع¤ȤƤ롥ṽ¤ˤƳˤǤΤȤʤΤʸ̤ nucleus ǤꡤŵŪˤϤ첻ޤꡤμդˡ֤Ȥ˶פȤƤλҲۤ롥첻ŪˡΡפϡפʤɤɽʤ֤˼ޤ벻ǤꡤǻҲϤμդֻۤʬפǤʤʤֻʬפȤȤषΥˡȱΧȤΤϸ̩ˤϥʥ첻סֻҲפȤոطʤˤŪʲΤȤ館ȤϴؤäƤ
嵭Τ褦ˡפȤϡŪ߽ФǤꡤʸˡȯۤ˶ᤤȤ⤢äơܸθؤΥǥˤϽѸǤ˺դƵפȤȤ⤷ʤ
ǧθؤǤϡץȥ (prototype) ιͤŻ뤵롥ꥹȥƥ쥹ŪʥǥʥƥѤ˵褷 Wittgenstein (1889--1951) եǥʥʲ²Ū (family resemblance) ˴ŤƥѤΤ1ĤθήȤơץȥפǧθؤˤƽפʥɤȤȯŸƤץȥˤȡƥ (feature) ̵ͭȤ߹碌ˤäɽΤǤϤʤ (attribute) ٤Ȥ߹碌ˤäɽΤǤ롥Ǥ뤫顤Υƥ濴˰֤Ť褦ʺǤդ路ŵŪ⤢Сդ˰֤Ť뤢ޤŵŪǤʤ⤢ȹͤ롥㤨СĻפȤƥˤơĥХ濴ŪʥץȥŪˤȤߤʤ뤬ڥ祦ϼŪץȥŪˤǤ롥ϲʳŪμˤӮưʪΤƤꡤŵŪʥƥѤˤСĻפǤϤʤȤ뤬ץȥΥƥѤˤС¤ʤŪʡĻפǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥Τ褦ˡ֡餷פ٤100%0%ޤǤϢ³ΤʤƤꡤɤ餬Ǥꡤɤ餬ǤʤΤϤǤʤȤߤ롥
ͤƤߤСʹ֤Ū˻ʪץȥפδߤƤ롥֤ǤʤǤʤܤˤƤɤ餫ǺΤϡץȥŪ֤ȲΤäƤꡤ줫Ūʿդˡ֤ΤʤȸСܸüԤǤСŵŪإݥȡȥޥȡʤɤ֤롥Ʊͤˡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) ˤ FURNITURE, FRUIT, VEHICLE, WEAPON, VEGETABLE, TOOL, BIRD, SPORT, TOY, CLOTHING 줾ŵŪʤȤȡ¿αѸüԤ褽פ롥
Ѹ FURNITURE Ǥμ¸ߤƤߤ褦E. Rosch ϡ200ͤΥꥫͳˡ60Ĥβȶ̾Ϳ줾줬ɤΤ餤ֲȶ餷פ17ޤǤ7ʳɾ1Ǥȶ餷ˤǼפȡȶŵδФäۤɶͭƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤäRosch ("Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104 (1975): 192--233. p. 229) Ĵ Taylor (46) ɽƸ褦
| Member | Rank | Specific score |
|---|---|---|
| chair | 1.5 | 1.04 |
| sofa | 1.5 | 1.04 |
| couch | 3.5 | 1.10 |
| table | 3.5 | 1.10 |
| easy chair | 5 | 1.33 |
| dresser | 6.5 | 1.37 |
| rocking chair | 6.5 | 1.37 |
| coffee table | 8 | 1.38 |
| rocker | 9 | 1.42 |
| love seat | 10 | 1.44 |
| chest of drawers | 11 | 1.48 |
| desk | 12 | 1.54 |
| bed | 13 | 1.58 |
| bureau | 14 | 1.59 |
| davenport | 15.5 | 1.61 |
| end table | 15.5 | 1.61 |
| divan | 17 | 1.70 |
| night table | 18 | 1.83 |
| chest | 19 | 1.98 |
| cedar chest | 20 | 2.11 |
| vanity | 21 | 2.13 |
| bookcase | 22 | 2.15 |
| lounge | 23 | 2.17 |
| chaise longue | 24 | 2.26 |
| ottoman | 25 | 2.43 |
| footstool | 26 | 2.45 |
| cabinet | 27 | 2.49 |
| china closet | 28 | 2.59 |
| bench | 29 | 2.77 |
| buffet | 30 | 2.89 |
| lamp | 31 | 2.94 |
| stool | 32 | 3.13 |
| hassock | 33 | 3.43 |
| drawers | 34 | 3.63 |
| piano | 35 | 3.64 |
| cushion | 36 | 3.70 |
| magazine rack | 37 | 4.14 |
| hi-fi | 38 | 4.25 |
| cupboard | 39 | 4.27 |
| stereo | 40 | 4.32 |
| mirror | 41 | 4.39 |
| television | 42 | 4.41 |
| bar | 43 | 4.46 |
| shelf | 44 | 4.52 |
| rug | 45 | 5.00 |
| pillow | 46 | 5.03 |
| wastebasket | 47 | 5.34 |
| radio | 48 | 5.37 |
| sewing machine | 49 | 5.39 |
| stove | 50 | 5.40 |
| counter | 51 | 5.44 |
| clock | 52 | 5.48 |
| drapes | 53 | 5.67 |
| refrigerator | 54 | 5.70 |
| picture | 55 | 5.75 |
| closet | 56 | 5.95 |
| vase | 57 | 6.23 |
| ashtray | 58 | 6.35 |
| fan | 59 | 6.49 |
| telephone | 60 | 6.68 |
#643. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ ([2011-01-30-1]), #712. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2) ([2011-04-09-1]), #752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1]) ǴϢ˿줿Ѹˤϲʬˡ˱2Ĥΰۤʤ֤ drunk / drunken, bent / bended, proved / proven, beloved / belovèd Τ褦ʥڥ롥ûԤϽŪˡ1ʬĹԤϸŪѤ뷹롥εǤϡꥺȴϢŤơλȤʬˤĤ
嵭ΥڥϤưβʬƻưͳǤϤʤƻˤ⡤2Ĥΰ۷֤㤬Ѹ˸줿ξԤɤٴϢ뤫Ϥ狼ʤȤʬȤƤΤǾҲ𤷤two / twain, my / mine, thy / thine, old / olden γƥڥˤơԤη֤ϸ /n/ ޤʬĹȤ־ħ뤬ˡȤƤԤԤ٤Ƥ֤ʤ롥ڡ켣 (462) Ȥơ줾ħޤȤ褦
(1) two / twain
twain ϸűѸ tweġen ʡгʤη֤ͳ褷two бη֤ͳ褹롥twain two ȤȤѸ̤ƹѤ졤ѸäƤ⡤(i) ̾θֽȤơ(ii) ̾θƱʸȤơ(iii) ˡȤơѤƤtwain two ˲³ƤϤˡʤѸޤӤȤˤʤ롥
I have receivyd twaine your lettres. (1554 Cdl. Pole in Eng. Hist. Rev.)
lovers twain (MND. V. i. 151)
O Perdita, what have we twain forgot! (Wint. IV. iv. 673)
I must become a borrower of the night For a dark hour or twain. (Mac. III. i. 26--27)
Thou and my bosom henceforth shall be twain. (Rom. III. v. 240)
twain ӱΤѤ䤹äȤϸޤǤʤ
(2) my / mine, thy / thine
줾űѸο;̾°ʷ mīn, þīn ̤롥ͭɽ魯ˡˤơƥڥԤη my, thy ǤϻҲ֤ /n/ æΤǡԤη mine, thine Ǥ첻 /n/ ݻ줿ΤǤ롥λȤʬϡ1318ޤ³ñȤѤˡǤϡmine, thine /n/ ֤ͭФ졤ߤ˻롥
(3) old / olden
olden 15Ⱦ˽Ф٤㤤۷֤äShakespeare Ǥ1٤Τ "Blood hath been shed ere now, i' the olden time," (Mac. III. iv. 75) ȤƸ졤餯 the olden time ȤɽޤäΤȻפ롥Scott ˤ olden times Ȥ㤬롥19㳰Ū˽ˡѸǤϸ§ȤƤäѤ嵭θѤ롥
ΥڥǤĹ֤ˤ /n/ ˲äƤ뤬ºݤ˲䤹ʤäƥꥺ˴ͿȹͤˤΤ (3) ΤߤǤ롥(3) Ǥ2 olden ˡȤƤλѤ˸¤Ƥꡤ ##643,712 Ǽꥺˤ˹פ롥(1), (2) ǤϡɲäʤΤ /n/ դĹ֤ΤۤषˡäƤΤ(3) 椷оŪǤ롥
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
ε#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]) ǡȴDzṽ¤ (syllable structure) ʬϤ Hogg and McCully (35--38) ˵äơṽ¤ζʽŪʳܤʲǤϡgrind /graind/ Ȥ1βṽ¤˼롥
ǤľŪʬˡϡʬեåȤ¤٤벼ޤ (1) ˡǤ롥ŪˤⲻŪˤ⡤첻ȻҲȤ̤뤳ȤȤƤƤ褤ȻפΤǡɸͿƤ롥

(1) 츫餫ʤ褦ˡҲϻҲɤηʤ첻첻ɤηʤΤ̾Ǥ롥äơ줾롼ײƲǤΰ֤˱ƥ٥Ĥ뤳ȤϼǤ롥λϤޤôҲ OnsetΤ첻 NucleusôҲ Coda ʬ뤳ȤŪ˹ԤʤƤ롥줬(2) ʬϤǤ롥
ʳǤͭʲṽ¤ʬϤϤǤ뤬˳زʤȡ塤Ǥ롥(3) Τ褦 Nucleus Coda ޤȤ Rhyme ꤷOnset бȤʬϤƤ롥
Ǥϡ(3) Τ褦ʰ츫ʣʳزʤỤ̄ͭʤΤ1ĤϡOnset ˤȼ¤äƤȤȤ롥ѸǤ /graind/ ȤϢ³ϵ뤬㤨 */pfraind/ ϵʤϡOnset /pfr/ ˤäƤҲϢ³¤椨ǤꡤOnset 걦ʬι¤ΩͳˤΤǤ롥Ʊͤˡbrim, bread, bran, brock, brunt *bnim, *bnead, *bnan, *bnock, *bnunt ӤС Onset /br/ */bn/ ˤäƤΤǤꡤθʬΤβݤ˱ƶƤʤȤ狼ޤRhyme Ȥ줽ΤΤȤꡤӱˤꡤñ̤ľŪˤޤȤޤʤΤȤǧ϶
ˡRhyme ʤ뤤Ϥ겼Υ٥ˤʬλˤꡤ¿β䶯ҤǤȤ롥ʬƤнŤ (heavy syllable) Ǥȸ졤ʬƤʤзڤ (light syllable) Ǥȸ롥Nucleus Coda ι¤̡˸ڤȤ⡤Rhyme ʲι¤Ȥư礷ƸڤǤΤǡRhyme Ȥ٥ηк˻롥
ʾͳǡOnset Ф Rhyme ̤ϤȤ롥Rhyme ʲ Nucleus Coda ضʬˡեåȤ˲¤Ӥˤ벻ʤɡ(3) ѼȤΤ⤢뤳ȤդŪ˲䱤ΧʬϤǽˤ뤿βǤꡤƻΩƤǤ롥
Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
Ѹˤ /juː/ Ȥ徺2첻 (rising diphthong) 롥ѸѼˤäƤۤʤ뤬2첻ˤϤĤħ롥ΤζŪѰ̻ۤŪѲ˴ؤħȤơ#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) 롥 /juː/ /j/ æ/uː/ ȤƼ¸벻ΤȤ
߿ʹ yod-dropping ҡΤˡHogg and McCully (42--45) ǽҤ٤Ƥ metrical phonology ʱΧˤˤʬϤѤǤ뤫⤷ʤȻפäΤǡҲ𤷤ƤҲ X + /juː/ ʤ벻ϡޤκδ칽¤äƤʬϤ롥

ˡδ칽¤ Nucleus ˤ /i/ /j/ Ȥ Onset ذưꤹ롥³/i/ ưȤˤäƶ Nucleus 1ΰ֤ˡ³ /u/ ΥԡФ롥
Τ褦ʬϤϤĤ롥ޤ칽¤ Onset /Xj/ ꤷƤޤȡcue /kjuː/, few /fjuː/ ʤɤǤʤnew /njuː/, lewd /ljuː/ ʤɤǤ꤬롥ʤʤ2⡼餫ʤ Onset ˤ1⡼ʹ٤̵ƱʲǤʤȤʤȤŪ¤뤫Ǥ롥¤˽С/n/ /l/ ʹ٤⤹뤿ˡOnset 1⡼Ȥʤ뤳ȤϤǤʤϤºݤˤ1⡼ˤʤäƤΤǡ㳰ŪΤȤʬϤɬפ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ޤʬϤ /Xj/ θˤĹ첻ʤȤ礹롥ȤΤϡNucleus 2⡼ˤ /i/ /u/ 줬֤˥ԡ뤳ȤʬϤᤷƤ뤫Ǥ롥
ˡclue, drew, threw ʤɡȤ Onset 2⡼2Ҳˤʤˤϡ/j/ ذưƤ椯ζڡʤˡ/j/ ȤǽŪæƤޤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤҲϢ³ľ yod-dropping ɬܤǤ뤳Ȥޤ롥
ѰۤȤƤ yod-dropping ϡѸѼˤäƤۤʤ뤬dew, enthuse, lewd, new, suit, tune ʤɤθˤ /j/ ̵ͭɤˤäƼ롥Ūˤ̻Ūˤ⡤yod-dropping ε䤹ԤҲ X Ǥ뤫ˤäƤ٤Ϸޤ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬˾ʬϤȤ߹ळȤǤ뤫βȤʤ
Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
(syllable) ˤ͡Ϳ줦뤬ƤΤȤơʬβŪʹ (sonority) ˰¸롥ʹ٤ΤΤϡ"the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration" (Crystal 442) Τ褦롥ʬŪˤʹ䤹٤ȲǤ롥
ʬʹ٤¬͡ˤʤƤꡤͤˤĤƤϼ¸Ȥ˾ܺ٤ϰۤʤ뤫⤷ʤޤʬ̤ˤĤƤϸԤΤǰפߤƤ롥1ȤơHogg and McCully (33) ˵ƤѸʬ sonority scale
| Sounds | Sonority values | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| low vowels | 10 | /a, ɑ/ |
| mid vowels | 9 | /e, o/ |
| high vowels | 8 | /i, u/ |
| flaps | 7 | /r/ |
| laterals | 6 | /l/ |
| nasals | 5 | /n, m, ŋ/ |
| voiced fricatives | 4 | /v, ð, z/ |
| voiceless fricatives | 3 | /f, θ, s/ |
| voiced stops | 2 | /b, d, g/ |
| voiceless stops | 1 | /p, t, k/ |
| Word | Pronunciation | Sonority values | Peaks = Syllables |
|---|---|---|---|
| modest | /modest/ | 5-9-2-9-3-1 | 2 |
| complain | /compleːn/ | 1-9-5-1-6-9-5 | 2 |
| petty | /peti/ | 1-9-1-8 | 2 |
| elastic | /əlæstik/ | 8-6-10-3-1-8-1 | 3 |
| elasticity | /iːlæstisiti/ | 9-6-10-3-1-8-3-8-1-8 | 5 |
| petrol | /petrəl/ | 1-9-1-7-9-6 | 2 |
| button | /bʌtn/ | 2-9-1-5 | 2 |
| bottle | /botl/ | 2-9-1-6 | 2 |
[I]n any syllable, there is a segment constituting a sonority peak that is preceded and/or followed by a sequence of segments with progressively decreasing sonority values. (Crystal 442)
ˤäƻĺι⤵ϤޤޤŵŪˡëëפΤ줤ʬۤˤʤȤȤSSG ϼƤ롥onset s ǻϤޤҲ (ex. sp-, st-, sk-) ξʤɤǤϤθ§ϵ§Ūˤ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬 SSG ϱѸˤ˰ꤷ§Ǥ롥
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
#1424. CELEX2 ([2013-03-21-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ǡ١DzƤߤ褦ȹͤVersion 2 ǿ˲ä줿 (English Frequency, Syllables) Υ֥ǡ١ˤꡤѸǺǤ¿פΥ
ϡCELEX2 ΤȤˤʤäƤ륳ѥΤΤ7.26%130äե֥ѥФ줿٤Ǥꡤ٤ǤϤʤȡ٤ˤΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤäդˤ뤢ñ٤⤱Сʬñ˴ޤޤ벻פ٤⤯ʤȤȤǤ롥㤨Сof "Ov" (= /ɒv/) ɽ벻ϡ4̤٤Ǥ롥ʤ̵ͭϹθ٤Ƥ롥
ʲΥꥹȤ˵벻ɽϡIPA ǤϤʤ CELEX ͤäɽʤΤǡбɽƤ

Ǥϡʲ˥ɽǥȥå50̤ޤǤǺܤ롥٤ñβפΤޤ̤ȿǤƤơޤꤪ⤷ɽǤϤʤΩĤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤ
| Rank | Syllable | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | eI | 72971 |
| 2 | Di: | 60967 |
| 3 | tu: | 31446 |
| 4 | Ov | 30108 |
| 5 | In | 29906 |
| 6 | &nd | 28709 |
| 7 | aI | 23822 |
| 8 | lI | 19728 |
| 9 | @ | 19566 |
| 10 | rI | 14356 |
| 11 | ju: | 12598 |
| 12 | dI | 12465 |
| 13 | D&t | 12118 |
| 14 | It | 11504 |
| 15 | wOz | 10834 |
| 16 | fO:r* | 9778 |
| 17 | Iz | 9517 |
| 18 | tI | 9161 |
| 19 | fO | 9042 |
| 20 | Sn, | 8969 |
| 21 | hi: | 8928 |
| 22 | r@n | 8638 |
| 23 | bi: | 8505 |
| 24 | bI | 7936 |
| 25 | nI | 7068 |
| 26 | wID | 7046 |
| 27 | On | 7030 |
| 28 | &z | 6919 |
| 29 | O:l | 6569 |
| 30 | h&d | 6240 |
| 31 | E | 6165 |
| 32 | bl, | 6021 |
| 33 | sI | 5836 |
| 34 | @U | 5824 |
| 35 | t@r* | 5687 |
| 36 | &t | 5652 |
| 37 | hIz | 5564 |
| 38 | bVt | 5416 |
| 39 | mI | 5397 |
| 40 | s@ | 5391 |
| 41 | nOt | 5357 |
| 42 | D@r* | 5339 |
| 43 | I | 5283 |
| 44 | tId | 5259 |
| 45 | DeI | 5162 |
| 46 | IN | 5063 |
| 47 | t@ | 5053 |
| 48 | s@U | 4974 |
| 49 | baI | 4894 |
| 50 | h&v | 4769 |
Please note that the English corpus used by CELEX for deriving these frequencies contains only 7.3% spoken material. This means there is a rather tenuous relationship between the full frequency figures, which are based on written forms, and the syllable frequencies, which merely refer to phonemic conversions of these graphemic transcriptions. Of course it could be argued that frequencies of syllables, as lexical sub-units, are less liable to get skewed from differences in medium than full words, but it has to be taken into account that NO FIRM EVIDENCE ABOUT SPOKEN FREQUENCIES can be derived from these data.
#944. ration reason ([2011-11-27-1]) ǡեȥƥ줫Ѥ줿2Ÿ (doublet) Ĥreason -- ration, treason -- tradition, poison -- potion, lesson -- lection ȤäڥǤ롥Schmitt and Marsden (87) ¾㤬äƤΤǡ˼ѸäƤΤǥե졤ϽѸ˲ƼѤ줿ƥǤ롥
| French (in ME) | Latin (in EModE) |
|---|---|
| armor | armature |
| chamber | camera |
| choir | chorus |
| frail | fragile |
| gender | genus |
| jealous | zealous |
| prove | probe |
| strait | strict |
| strange | extraneous |
| treasure | thesaurus |
ε#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв ([2012-06-30-1]) (3) ǡѸäˤʬ̤ơ줾٤ФˤȡоݤȤʤä92767θΤˤ1졤2졤3졤4ϡ줾13.46%35.40%29.91%15.26%Ǥꡤ碌94.03%ã롥Ȥ櫓23碌65.31%Ǥ롥9;Ȥ絬ϤʸäĴ¤ꡤѸä3ʬ22--3ǤȤȤˤʤ롥
##348,349,355 εǤϡBNC COLT ΥѥѤơǤ٤ι⤤ɴ줫оݤ˲ĴԤʤäĴоݤȤʤäεϤϳʤ˾˽äƲ̤γѤ롥12줬ͥǤꡤ6000쵬ϤĴǤ⤳268.7%ʡ#349. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ (2) ([2010-04-11-1]) ΥդȡˡоݤȤõϤˤꡤͥͭΨư뤳Ȥ狼뤬ŪˡѸäˤƤ1--3줬פǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ǤϡܸθäˤĤơ̤γϤɤƣۤ (80) Ǥϡˤܸ쥢ȼŵ٤θФ˴ŤʬۤĴ̤Ƥ롥ŵθФǤ뤫оθäϿεϤȻפ롥ʲΤ褦ʷ̤Ф
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | |
| 0.3 | 4.8 | 22.7 | 38.8 | 17.7 | 11.0 | 3.3 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 100 |
[2012-06-28-1], [2012-06-29-1]ϢҲ𤷤Ƥ MRC Psycholinguistic Database ˴Ťơ4ĤαѸפǡեλ˼ƤɽȤ˥դ̤Υѥ˴ŤĴԤʤäƤΤ⤢ΤǡӤͤͥǡϡHTMLȡ
(1) ʸˤ

(2) ǿˤ

ʻ͡
[2012-02-13-1]: #1022. ѸγƲǤ١
(3) ˤ

ʻ͡
[2010-04-09-1]: #347. ñʿѲϤɤΤ餤
[2010-04-10-1]: #348. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ
[2010-04-11-1]: #349. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ (2)
[2010-04-17-1]: #355. COLT Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ
(4) ʻˤ

ʻ͡
[2012-06-02-1]: #1132. ñʻ̤γ
[2011-02-23-1]: #667. COCA 50ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-22-1]: #666. COCA 5000ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-16-1]: #660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨ
¾ä٤䡤̤γˤĤƤϰʲε⻲ȡ
[2010-03-01-1]: #308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ
[2011-08-20-1]: #845. Ѹθäεȳ
[2012-01-07-1]: #985. Ѹθäεȳ
ε[2012-06-08-1]³ơbinomial 2।ǥˤιǤνȲŪꡥϡ1 and 1˶Τ2פȤ binomial ¿¸ߤ뤳Ȥطʤˤϡ嶯ΥꥺŬ礹ȤȤ⤢뤬Bolinger λŦ褦ˡû and ĹפȤŪʽˤ礹Ȥװ롥äȤŵŪĹûκۤ2Ǥβΰ㤤ȤȤƱñΡ˾ˤϡĹûκۤϲλ³ʹ٤ΰ㤤ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Bolinger ɽǤС"openness and sonorousness" (40) ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
ʬ "open and sonorous" ٤ι⤤ۤ㤤ۤؤʬहȡ(1) 첻(2) ͭ³(3) ͭĺ˻(4) ̵³(5) ̵ĺ˻Ȥʤ롥δû and ĹפСopenness and sonorousness 㤤 and ⤤פȤȤˤʤBolinger (40--44) ϡ¤ˤ¸ߤʤˤ binomial ƻǤäǤνؤơѸüԤ︳Ԥˤɤ餬Ф"He lives in a plap and plam house." vs "He lives in a plam and plap house." ΤȤǤ롥̤ϡŪɬΤǤϤʤä٤ηϸ줿Ȥ
Ǥä binomial ˤ¸ʾ˶̣Τϡp. 40 ˵ƤϢƬɽǤʴϢơ[2011-11-26-1]ε#943. Ƭˤפȡˡflimflam, tick-tock, rick-rack, shilly-shally, mishmash, fiddle-faddle, riffraff, seesaw, knickknack. Ǥϡ2Ǥ¤Ӥϡ줾첻ʹ٤㤤Ρܹ⤤ΡפνˤʤäƤ롥νˤĤƤϡphonaesthesia δ顤ŪˡֶᤤΡܱΡפȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ (see ##207,242,243)
ꥺࡤʹ١Ƭphonaesthesia binomial ȤˤϱѸβԻĤͤޤäƤ褦
Bolinger, D. L. "Binomials and Pitch Accent." Lingua (11): 34--44.
[2012-02-12-1]ε#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿפǤϡǤȤñ̤ξΰǤȤñ̤ǤϤɤϡܸΰɽʲŵ϶İ (90)
| a | i | u | e | o | ja | ju | jo | (je) | wa | (wi) | (we) | wo |
| ha | hi | hu | he | ho | hja | hju | hjo | (hje) | (hwa) | (hwi) | (hwe) | (hwo) |
| ga | gi | gu | ge | go | gja | gju | gjo | (gwa) | ||||
| ka | ki | ku | ke | ko | kja | kju | kjo | (kwa) | ||||
| ŋa | ŋi | ŋu | ŋe | ŋo | ŋja | ŋju | ŋjo | |||||
| da | (di) | (du) | de | do | (dju) | |||||||
| ta | (ti) | (tu) | te | to | (tju) | |||||||
| na | ni | nu | ne | no | nja | nju | njo | |||||
| ba | bi | bu | be | bo | bja | bju | bjo | |||||
| pa | pi | pu | pe | po | pja | pju | pjo | |||||
| ma | mi | mu | me | mo | mja | mju | mjo | |||||
| za | zi | zu | ze | zo | zja | zju | zjo | (zje) | ||||
| sa | si | su | se | so | sja | sju | sjo | (sje) | ||||
| (ca) | ci | cu | (ce) | (co) | cja | cju | cjo | (cje) | ||||
| ra | ri | ru | re | ro | rja | rju | rjo | |||||
| N | T | R |
30ʬפ half an hour ɽ뤬äƸƻǽĶǤ a (good) half hour ȤѤ롥˿̷ƻ줬֤ϡ¾ˤ all the boys, both the books, many a time ʤɤ궦̤ŪħƤ롥ŪħظˤϡΧŪװƯƤ褦˻פ롥嵭Τ⡤θ뤳ȤǶ ( trochee ) ȤʤꡤѸΰŪʥꥺˤ褯Ŭ礹롥Τ褦˸ꡤ̣ŪɬפΤʤʤɤ̵β뤳ȤˤäƱΧȤϡѸǤϾʤʤ
Bolinger (151--53) ϱΧԹˤä줦عʸڥʤʸޤˤǷǤƤ롥¦걤ΧŪɽǤ롥
an aloof person vs. an aloof kind of person It's a compact book. vs. It's a compact little book. a half hour vs. half an hour without doubt vs. without a doubt mother mine vs. pal o' mine Outside these I have no preference. vs. Outside of these I have no preference. Beware the Ides of March vs. Beware of Brutus a little bread vs. a bit of bread a dozen eggs vs. a gross of eggs a morsel bread vs. a piece of bread I dare not tell her. vs. We dare to judge. He dared adventure himself. vs. The players dared to satirise. the lessons these things have taught us vs. the lessons these things have taught to all of us He's gone fishing. vs. He's gone a-fishing. Why did you have to go tell her? vs. Why did you have to go and tell her? Who was it that told you? vs. Who was it told you? a quite long report vs. quite a long report *very a long report vs. a very long report *a so pretty girl vs. so pretty a girl so pretty a girl vs. such a pretty girl *a that pretty girl vs. that pretty a girl *a too remote place vs. too remote a place *an enough good reason vs. a good enough reason a good enough reason vs. a reason good enough
[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פ[2011-06-12-1]εֲʬƻ -ed ᲽפʤɤǤ줿褦ˡΧ¿ξ硤ѶŪ˸ѹ¥װȤϡ̤װˤäưƤŪѲ¿ʤȤȤ⤹оäƤǽΤŪʸݻװȤƺѤƤȹͤ롥Χˤϡ㳰¿ֵ§פȸƤ֤ˤϼ夹뤬餯Ѹ˸¤餺Ū˺ѤƤȹͤۤɤ˱ϰϤַװʾϤͭƤΤǤϤʤ
a Jàpanese stúdent ʤɤˤ붯 back shifting 䡤Amelia's love makes the burning sand grow green beneath him and the stunted shrubs to blossom. ˤǸɸ to ʤɡΧδؤܤϿ¿
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
aged, beloved, crooked, dogged, jagged, learned, naked, ragged, wicked, wretched ʤɤβʬƻ줬2ȤȯˤĤơ[2011-01-30-1]ε롥εǤϡʤΤ褦ʰθ췲ǤΤߡ2첻ݻ줿ˤĤƵ褷ٸȤϤ ( Frequency Sorter dzǧѤߡˡ٤ϴطʤˡȽˡκͿƤǽ뤳ȤϡκǸǼ
ƻȤƤˡΰ㤤ˤɤΤ褦˴Ϳ뤫ˤϡΧ ( prosody ) ꥺԹ ( eurythmy ) ȤƳɬפ롥ˡȤѤƻϡ̾ľ̾줬롥ľˤϥȤμ夤ؼΤ뤳Ȥ¿ŵŪȤ a lovely girl ͤȡȤ嶯嶯³嶯 ( iamb ) Ǹ롥ϡѸǺǤŵŪǼ˿Ϥ褤Χ1ĤǤ롥ΰ֤ˤƻ줬1˥Ȥ2ǤۤѸαΧ塤Թ礬褤Ȥ狼aged, naked, wicked ʤθ췲ϡޤˤΤ褦ʡԹΤ褤ײṽ¤ʤƤ롥⡤¿ȤƸˡѤ롥my aged aunt, their beloved Ireland, a crooked nose, the jagged edges, a learned journal, a naked body, a ragged jacket, a wicked witch, the wretched animal ʤɡѸβʬǤϤʤ-id ĥƥѸ solid, squalid, timid, vivid ˤ2⡤餯Ʊͳݻ줿ȹͤ (Minkova 327--28)
ʬƻθ -ed Ǥʤ -en ޤȡˡ ( predicative use ) ȸˡ ( attributive use ) Τ줾Ѥ֤κϤˤʤ롥Minkova (327) ˵Ƥʲ˼
| PREDICATIVE | ATTRIBUTIVE |
|---|---|
| The case is proved. | a proven case |
| The sailor is drunk. | a drunken sailor |
| His knee is bent. | one bended knee |
| The main had burst. | a bursted main |
Quirk et al. (7.19) ˤȡ̾ʲβʬƻϸ -ed /ɪd/ ȯɲä롥
aged, beloved, crooked, dogged, jagged, learned, naked, ragged, wicked, wretched
aged /ˈeɪdʒɪd/ my aged father Τ褦˸Ū˿ͤǯɽ魯Ȥ the aged Ϸͤפξ˻Ȥ졤ͤηƤǤʤ aged wine ʤɤѤ /ˈeɪdʒd/ ȯˤʤ롥beloved ϡmy beloved son ξˤ /bɪˈlʌvɪd/ She was beloved by everyone. Τ褦ưȤƤʤ /bɪˈlʌvd/ Ȥʤ롥ޤa learned professor ؤʶפ a learned journal ֳؽѻפǤ /ˈlɚːnɪd/ a learned skill ַиˤäƿȤˤĤѡפǤ /lɚːnd/ Ǥ롥ȤʬϤʤʤ
ϡ§ŪʲʬʵڤӲˤθ -ed ϡֻ˼Ƥ̤ꡤ첻ȼäΩȤȯƤ (320--21) ˤСѸǤϼޤä첻 /əd/ ȯƤ첻Ǥ13顤ʳǤ14üƤäθ治 ( syncopation ) ϡ-ed Τߤʤ餺 -es, -eth, -est, -en, -er ʤɤθǤǤѲǤ롥üΤϤäȤǤꡤ15ˤ絬Ϥ˿ʹԤ17ޤ첻ݤ⤢ä
첻ߤޤݤ줿ΤȤƤϡ ( sibilant ) ǽ촴³ ( ex. kisses, houses, edges, hated, ended ) §Ū㳰Ȥ롥¾ˤϡʬƻ -ly ³ assumedly, assuredly, supposedly ʤɤ롥ϡ3ҲϢ³뤿βؤȤǤ
嵭ΥꥹȤ˷Ǥβʬƻ첻ݻ줿ͳϤ褯ʬʤȤ櫓٤⤤췲ǤʤΤǡ٤ϴطʤˡηƻȤƻȤȤꡤbeloved θꡦˡȯΰ㤤⼨ȤꡤˡͿƤȤȤϸǤ롥ˤĤƤϡThe driver is drunk the drunken driver Ӥʤɤͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
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