ε#4355. friend ֻȯ ([2021-03-30-1]) ǡ<friend> /frɛnd/ Ե§ˤĤŪܤäƻȤŵƤޤ Jespersen (4.312) 顥
The short [e] now found in friend OE frēond must be due to the analogy of friendship, friendly, in which /e/ is the usual shortening; in friend we have early /iˑ/ (< /eˑ/) in B 1633, while D 1640, J 1764, W 1775, 1791 etc.. have short /e/, and G 1621 and others a short /i/ due to a shortening subsequent on the transition of /eˑ/ > /iˑ/. Cf. fiend OE fēond, which kept its vowel because no derived words were found to influence it.
ϢơJespersen (3.241) give, live ʤɤ⤫ĤƤĹ첻äƤȤ˿Ƥ롥
Upward and Davidson (178) ꡥ
In late Old English, short vowels were lengthened before consonant sequences such as /mb/, /nd/, /ld/ and /rd/. This lengthening was lost again in many cases by the end of the Middle English period. With the action of the GVS, one sees modern reflexes of the remaining long vowels in words such as climb, bind, mild, yield, old, etc. However, in some words there was a subsequent shortening of the vowel, leading to pairs of words similar or identical in spelling in Modern English but with different pronunciations: wind (verb, with /aɪ/) but wind (noun, with /ɪ/), fiend and friend, etc.
ˡDobson (Vol. 2, 9) ⻲Ȥ
Shortening of OE ē to ĕ occurs in a number of words beside forms that preserve the long vowel. The shortening is normal in bless and brethren, but for both of these Hart shows [i:] < ME ę̄. The comparative liefer (OE lēofra) has ĕ four times beside ę̄ once in Bullokar. In friend the shortening is probably due to derivatives (friendly, friendship) in which the vowel occurs before a group of three consonants in words which (in the case of friendly in oblique forms) were trisyllabic and had a secondary stress; but it might also tend to occur in oblique cases of the simplex in which the n and d were separated by the syllable-division. ME ĕ is recorded by Levins and eleven later sources (including Robinson, Hodges, and Cooper); but ę̄ is retained by Salesbury, Cheke, Laneham, Bullokar, Wharton (followed by J. Smith), and Price (followed by Lye and The Protestant Tutor). Fiend is not recorded with ME ĕ.
Dobson (Vol. 2, 11) ⤦1ġ
Friend has ĭ in the Welsh Hymn, Mulcaster, Gil, Wallis, Lloyd, Poole, Coles, Lye (beside ę̄), WSC (beside ĕ), Price's 'homophone' list (though elsewhere he records [i:]), the rhymes of Poole and Coles, and perhaps in Ray . . . . Fiends has ĭ in the Welsh Hymn and the 'homophone' lists of Hodges ('near alike'), Price, Coles (Eng.-Lat. Dict.), and WSC (the pairing is with fins); it has [i:] in Wallis. Bullokar rhymes field on ĭ (cf., probably, Chaucer's hild 'held' and fil 'fell' < earlier hę̄ld, fę̄ll).
friend ȯֻ˴ؤѤʵΤ褦ˤߤ뤫⤷ʤŪѲѰۤεϸ¤ʤ̤Ǥ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
ܸʤ⡤ֻȯбȤ餹ȡȤƤĤʤԵ§Ǥ롥<friend> Ȥֻ /frɛnd/ ȯȤʤΤϡ̤ǤǤʤۤ <ie> /ɛ/ ȤʤΤϡꥹѸˤ lieutenant /lɛfˈtɛnənt/ 餤 (cf. #4176. ʤ lieutenant ȯ /f/ ФΤ ([2020-10-02-1])ˡ
ˤΤܤäƤߤ褦űѸ frēond ̣ͧˤˤƤϡ첻ֻ̤ /eːo/ äеǤ fēond Ũ> PDE fiend /fiːnd/ˤƱͤǡĹ2첻 /eːo/ ƤǤϡξƱαθȯãⶦ̤ȤʤϤäθ frēond fēond ϰۤʤƻڤɤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
frēond ߤƤߤ褦Ĺ2첻 /ēo/ ѸˤƳ경Ĺ첻 /eː/ ȤʤäĹ첻ϡ frēondscipe (> PDE friendship) ʤɤˤ3û (Trisyllabic Shortening = trish) Ф /e/ Ȥʤäȯ (analogy) δפȤʤꡤΤ friend ΤΤ첻û /e/ Ȥʤä餷줬û첻 /frɛnd/ εǤ롥
Ĺ첻 /eː/ ˤȯޤǻĤä褦ǡ줬첻 (gvs) Ф /iː/ ȤʤäޤûСǤ /i/ ⸽줿Ĥޤ friend 첻ϡѸʹ /eː/, /e/, /iː/, /i/ 4ĤѰۤƤȤȤǤ롥
ǡе fēond (cf. PDE fiend /fiːnd/) ܤƤߤ褦 friend ȥ롼ĤϤۤƱŪʲѲɤäĹ2첻 /eːo/ Ĺ2첻경 /eː/ Ȥʤꡤ줬첻ܤǾ夲Ф /iː/ ȤʤꡤѸȯ /fiːnd/ ˻롥
ȯηаޤϰʾ̤friend, fiend ֻ <ie> ˤĤƤϴñǤϤʤܤϡ#4082. chief, piece, believe ʤɤˤߤ <ie> /i:/ ([2020-06-30-1]) ɤǤ嵭 /iː/ ʳֻ <ie> ȷӤĤ줿ΤޤǻĤäƤȹͤФ褤
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ưȤƤưȤƤĶٸǤ have ĶٸǤԵ§ʤȤ䤹ȤȤϡ褯ΤäƤ뤳ȤȻפޤǤhave μդˤϤޤԵ§ʤȤ¿Ǥ͡
ޤ<have> ֤ä /hæv/ ɤळȤ餷̯Ǥgave /geɪv/, save /seɪv/, cave /keɪv/ Ȼ褦ֻǤ */heɪv/ ȤʤꤽʤΤǤϤʤޤhave ֤Ƭ be- Ĥ behave ͽ̤ /biˈheɪv/ Ȥʤ뤳ȤͤȡޤޤԻĤǤ
ˡ3ñ *haves ǤϤʤ has ȤʤΤ̯Ǥˡʬ˷ *haved ǤϤʤ had ȤʤΤ⡤ƱͤǤޤʤ̤ *haves *haved ȤʤäƤʤΤǤ礦Ǥϡ3ĤεˤĤơѸˤΩ줫Ƥߤޤ礦ɤ
Ǥ¤Ѹˤ /hɑːvə/ ʤĹ첻 have ȯ̤ˤäΤǤ줬³ƤС첻 (gvs) ͳƸޤǤ */heɪv/ ȤʤäƤϤǤޤ٤⤤Ǥ뤿ˡû첻ƤޤäȤ櫓Ǥ
Ʊͤˡ3ñʬ˷ȤƤ⡤ѸˤϺǤϥ haves haved ѤƤޤ13ʹߤ˸ /v/ Ͼü뷹Ȥ櫓ĶٸȤȤ⤢äƤηɽ졤̤Ȥ has had ˤʤäƤޤäΤǤ/v/ ξüϡhead, lord, lady, lark, poor θˤؤäƤޤʵդˤСθˤ /v/ ޤޤƤ櫓Ǥˡ
츫Ե§ˤߤطʤˤϡٸǤ뤳ȡƲѲȤ¸ߤΤǤŪͳ櫓Ǥ͡˴ؿäϡ##4065,2200,1348εåˤƾܤɤߤ
<oo> Ȥֻ book, good, look, stood ϡû첻 /ʊ/ ȯޤƱ <oo> ֤ޤfood, pool, tooth, doom ǤĹ첻 /uː/ ȤʤäƤޤûĹɤ첻ˤʤΤñˤäƷޤäƤꡤŵ뤷ޤʤΤ褦ʾˤʤäƤΤǤ礦İ
Ūˤ <oo> ֤줿嵭ñϡȤȤϤ٤Ĺ /uː/ ȯƤޤΰ book, good, look, stood ɤ櫓û첻뤳Ȥˤʤޤˡû첻ñΤʤǡФ줷2 --- blood flood --- ɤ櫓岽 (centralisation) ޤ2ˤĤƤ -lood Ȥ뤳Ȥ˵ŤޤȤäơʤ2ĤФ줿ΤɬƤޤѲȤΤϡΤ褦˵ޤʤȤޤ
room /ruːm/ ǤϤʤ /rʊm/ û첻ĤĤˤޤ⺣奦åƤȤǤ͡
˴Ϣ뵭Ȥơ##547,1353,2293,2290εå⤴
ե츦ԤǤؼԤä16Ⱦ˳ꥹ John Palsgrave ϡѸʳء˻˾פǤ롥ե츦ԤȤ1530ǯ˱Ѹǥեʸŵ Lesclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse 路äȤ褯Τ줿եʸŵȤʤä#3836. եˤǯɽ ([2019-10-28-1]) ̾뤯餤Ǥ뤫顤αƶϤϤΤǤϤʤ
Palsgrave ϥɥޤ졤֥åؤ˳ؤӡѥǽιƥե춵դȤʤ Thomas More ʤɤȤƸαѸػ˾κζӤϡǤեֲɽפˤȤäƤ褤¾ȯҴŪ˵ҤȤβؤδŪʻϻϤʪǤp. 38ˡ
16ϡPalsgrave Τ褦ؼԤ¿ڽФǤ롥첻 (gvs) βѲʹԤȯֻΥå (spelling_pronunciation_gap) ĤĤʤǡֻ (spelling_reform) ʤ͡ʿرĤʤƤ츦ԤȯҴǤ롥Palsgrave ⡤㳰ǤϤʤѸȯֻ¡ʤ̴ؿ (orthoepy) ̤äΤǤ롥ʤ츦Ω줫Ѹȯֻ˴ؿѸΡƱ֡פȤƤϡۤ De pronunciation Graecae (1555) 路 J. Cheke Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae (1653) 路 J. Wallis ⤤жp. 616ˡ
Palsgrave Τ⤦1Ĥܤ٤ϡOED ΰʸξϢǤ뤳ȤOED ϡ Lesclarcissement 5418ĤƤƤꡤλθõҤ¿ʹʤƤcf. #642. OED ΰѥǡѥȤƻȤ뤫 (4) ([2011-01-29-1])ˡϸؽǤ뤫顤եȤǤ OED ԻԤˤȤäơʤ繥ʪפǤ롥ԻԤΤ褦ʿΤʤȤ櫓ʸˡѸʤɤΡ˸äƤʤ櫓ʤ
ʾ塤Palsgrave Ѹʳء˻˾ҤȤɤοʪȤƤطʤñ˾Ҳ𤷤
졡رѸػˡ١Ѹ13罤۽Ź1975ǯ
ж ϺԡˡظѸؼŵ١Ʋ1973ǯ
Ū /a(u)NC/ βϢäƤѸϡɸ㼨̤ꡤѸˤ4ȯʤɤˤ롥[ɔː ? ɑː], [ɑː ? æ(ː)], [æ(ː)], [eɪ] Ǥ롥4֤ζ̤ϡĶˤꡤƤ٤ޤǤϼѤΥˤ롥Ū /a(u)NC/ 줬ɤäƤ4ĤΥ롼ȤޤȤ Minkova (241) ˤɽ¿Ѥǰʲ˵褦
| Source | Output | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| /aNC/ (AN <-aunC>) | [ɔː ? ɑː] | gaunt, haunt, laundry, saunter |
| /aNC/ (OFr <-anC>) | [ɑː ? æ(ː)] | aunt, grant, slander, sample, dance |
| /aNC#/ | [æ(ː)] | lamp, champ, blank, flank, bland |
| /aNC (palat. obstr.)/ | [eɪ] | danger, change, range, chamber |
ѸαѸ춵Ǥ褯Τ줿ڥΥ롼뤬롥"i before e except after c" ȤΤĹ첻 /iː/ б륹ڥˤĤƤϡ#2205. proceed vs recede ([2015-05-11-1]) #2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) Ǥߤ褦¿बǧ뤬Τ2Ĥ <ie> <ei> 롥ɸθΤ褦 <ie> ΤΤ¿receive, deceive, perceive Τ褦 <ei> ⤢ꡤؽ庮䤹ǡ嵭Υ롼뤬櫓Ǥ롥Ūʥ롼ǤϤ롥
ϡʤɸΤ褦ʸ췲 <ie> /iː/ бطߤΤѸˤδɤäƤߤޤбط Carney (331) ꤤĤƤꥹȤθȾˤϸͭ̾ޤࡥ
achieve, achievement, belief, believe, besiege, brief, chief, diesel, fief, field, fiend, grief, grieve, hygiene, lief, liege, lien, mien, niece, piece, priest, reprieve, shield, shriek, siege, thief, thieves, wield, yield; Brie,, Fielden, Gielgud, Kiel, Piedmont, Rievaulx, Siegfried, Siemens, Wiesbaden
ꥹȤ츻δįƤߤȡbelieve, field, fiend, shield ʤɤαѸޤޤƤȤϤեƥ줫μѸ줬Ωġºݡλ¤ҥȤˤʤ롥
brief /briːf/ Ȥ˼ϥƥǡûפ̣ brevis, brevem ͳ褹롥ΥƥñϸθťեˤѾ줿ŪѸ˱ƶڤܤ Anglo-French Ǥ bref ȤѤ줿ѸϤΥڥƱñ줿Ѹ <e> ɽ蘆줿Ĺ첻 /eː/ ǤꡤѸˤ첻 (gvs) ФƸѸ /iː/ Ϣʤ롥Ĥޤꡤȯ˴ؤƤϡѸʹߡͽ¬ƻɤäȤˤʤ롥
ڥ˴ؤƤϡä𤬤äťեȤäƤ롥Anglo-French Ǥ bref ȤäƤեǤ brief ȤѸѸˤϤۤ Anglo-French bref ˽äƤ16ˤơեθҤˤư۷ȤѤƤ brief Ȥ˿ȯơڥ˴ؤ bref brief ؤȾ괹ΤǤ롥
̤˽ѸˤϸҤ륹ڥؤƴݤƤꡤƴоݤϼȤƥƥ䥮ꥷäΤˤäƤϤΤ褦˥եˤΥڥؤηФȤ⤢ä (Upward and Davidson (105))
ơѸˤơĹ첻б <e> 16ˤ <ie> ؤ֤ľ뵤εȯüե줫μѸä䤬ƱѸޤ嵭θ췲ˤŪ֤ʤŬѤ졤˻롥
٤ߤСҤηаޤˤ̯Ϥ롥Jespersen (77) ˤСեǤ achieve chief б <ie> ǤϤʤ <e> ֤ƤꡤѸ줬ƴΥǥȿ٤ <ie> ˤϤʤäϤcf. ե achever, chefˡ
Ǥ⡤¿ñ줬褽Ʊߥ <e> <ie> ؾ괹Ȥ¤ϽפǤ롥Τˤи츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȤϸƤӤˤޤबѼȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ѸˤμȤǴ줿ѤʵǤˤСܲŪʹߤƤɾ "Black Lives Matter" (BLM) Τ褦ʡ̾ life ̿ˤʣȤƤ lives /laɪv/ Τ褦2첻Ȥʤꡤû첻ư live /lɪv/ Ȥϰ褷ޤƱ츻̤뤳ȤȻפ뤳θ줬ۤʤ첻ΤϡäʤʤΤǤ礦
ư live ΩƤޤ礦űѸǤϡưʸˤ libban Τ褦û첻ƤޤҲȤ v ǤϤʤ b ȤΤ⤪⤷Ǥ͡cf. #74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1])ˡäȤ⡤ΤˤϤΥȥˤ֤ǤꡤϤΥꥢǤ lifian Τ褦 f ȯȤƤ /v/ˤƤޤǤ첻ܤ¤ꡤưϸűѸ줫鸽ޤǰӤû첻ƤꡤǤŪ˲̤ʤȤäƤ櫓ǤϤޤβѲϤޤѸư live /lɪv/ ϸűѸꤪ褽ȥ졼Ȥ˼ѤƤȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦
̾ life /laɪf/ ΩƤߤޤ礦ưפȤꡤ̾ life ư live ϥޥĸΥ٥Ǹ캬ͭƤޤ̾ϸűѸǤϤǤĹ첻ȼä līf /liːf/ ȯƤޤɤ饲ޥĸʳ顤̾ưδ֤첻Ĺΰ㤤ä褦Ǥ̾Ĺ첻 /iː/ ϡäȸθѸ줫ѸˤƿʹԤѸ˾̾첻 (gvs) Фơ§Ū˸Ѹ2첻 /aɪ/ ˵뤷ޤ̾ʣ lives /laɪvz/ ˤĤƤ⡤ñƱϩ2첻˻ޤ촴ҲˤĤ /f/ /v/ ͭƤܤͤޤλˤĤƤϡǤϿΩޤܵμεˤطޤΤǡҰʲεɤߤ
#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵ͭ ([2013-01-21-1])
#1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1])
#3298. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (1) ([2018-05-08-1])
#3299. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (2) ([2018-05-09-1])
#3300. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (3) ([2018-05-10-1])
ơǸ˷ƻ live /laɪv/ ΩǤư̾줬űѸѤƤΤȤоŪˡηƻϽФѸȤճȿǤθϡ̤ηƻ alive θƬ a ƤǤ (aphaeresis) Ǥꡤд¸θΤäȤάȤ֤ŤʤΤǤ͡ηƻ alive Ⱦάηƻ live ȤǤϡˡʬʤƤΤΡʾΤ褦طʤޤΤǡѸǤƱ /(ə)ˈlaɪv/ ͭƤ뤳ȤԻĤǤϤޤ
Ǥ⤽ⴰ alive 2첻ΤϤʤǤ礦ϡalive 츻̤ȡֻ on + ̾ lifeפȤΩǤShe is alive. ϡäƤߤ She is on life. ȤȤʤΤǤalive θȾʬϤäƵŪ̾Ǥ顤ҤΤ褦˸űѸǤĹ첻 /iː/ ޤθ塤첻ܤФ /aɪ/ ؤȵ뤷Τ⡤̾ξʿŪǤ촴Ҳ /f/ /v/ ؤͭ⡤ƱʿŪǤ
⤬ĹʤޤɸμüŪʤмΤ褦ˤʤޤ⤽űѸꡤưû첻̾Ĺ첻Ƥꡤ̤ˤĤƺäȤȤǤѲ¿ޤŪˤϤβ̤κޤǼѤƤˤʤȤȤˤʤޤ
live, life, alive ȤϢΤɤäƤˤΤ褦įƤޤȡƻ alive θƬƷƻ live ޤ줿ꡤƽ f v ͭʤɡܤ٤Ѳճ¿ؤäƤȤ˵Ťޤºݡ3ˤƤʤǥפʡ˸ءפ뤳ȤǤޤȤޤ˴ؿäϡalive ˸ءʤ뤤ϡ#2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ءס ([2017-05-23-1]) ͳǡˤɤߤ
ѸΡĹ첻 /r/פ뤤ϡ2첻 /r/פβϢϡѸˤƤĤθߤ̩ܤʲѲФƤʲMinkova (279) ƤƸ褦ǰƬˤ륿ॹѥϡѸ줫18?19ˤƤǤ롥
| Late ME to EModE | Schwa-insertion | Length adjustment | /-r/-loss | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -əir ? -ʌir | -aiər | -aɪər | -aɪə | fire (OE fȳr) |
| -eː̝r ? -iːr | -iːər | -ɪər | -ɪə | deer (OE dēor) |
| -ɛːr ? -e̝ːr ? -iːr | -iːər | -ɪər | -ɪə | ear (OE ēare) |
| -ɛːr ? -eːr | -eːər | -ɛər | -ɛə | pear (OE pere) |
| -æːr ? -ɛːr | -ɛːər | -ɛər | -ɛə | hare (OE hara) |
| -ɔːr | -ɔː(ə)r | -ɔ(ː)(ə)r | -ɔ(ː)(ə) | oar (OE ār) |
| -oːr | -ɔː(ə)r | -ɔ(ː)(ə)r | -ɔ(ː)(ə) | floor (OE flōr) |
| -oː̝r ? -uːr | -uːər | -ʊər | -ʊə | poor (AN pover, pour) |
| -əur ? -ʌur | -auər | -aʊər | -aʊə | bower (OE būr) |
2ε#4063. ʤ are ϤΥڥǡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-11-1])#4064. ʤ were ϤΥڥǡ֥פ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-12-1]) ˰³ơɸѤʵǤ2ĤεȤޤäƱǤΤǡɤɼԤǤ뤫Ȼפޤ
have Ķ٤εǽǤΤǡˤäˤ̤Ʋμ岽ȶ֤ƤޤűѸʸˤ habban Ȥ֤ǡ촴첻û첻Ǥcf. #74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1])#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1]) <bb> ɽƤ2ŻҲѸˤæŻҲ (degemination) Ϣưûä촴첻Ĺơ[haːvə] Τ褦ʲˤʤޤĹ첻ѤƤС첻 (gvs) ФơǤ [heɪv] ȤʤäƤǤ礦ºݡƬ be- դ behave ϡͽۤȯޤ
have ΤΤĶ٤εǽǤʤˤˤƤӼ岽첻û뤳ȤޤǤѸʹߤ [hav] [hæv] Фơߤ˻ޤ (cf. #3998. ʤ apple a ̤Ρ֥פǤϤʤ֥פ˶ᤤȯʤΤǤ ([2020-04-07-1]))
are, were, have ΤˤƤ⡤ȯˤĤƤϼ岽鶯ѲФƤޤڥѸդ꤫̯˰ꤷƤȤΤߥǤĶٸħʤΤ⤷ޤϢơ#1024. ѸֻԵ§줳 ([2012-02-15-1]) ɤ
ޤ3֤εϡJespersen (1299--30; 4.432) ˰͵Ƽɮޤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ε#4063. ʤ are ϤΥڥǡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-11-1]) ˰³Ǥwere ϡѸˡ§§äȯ here, mere, sphere ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɪə] Ȥʤ뤫뤤 ere, there, where ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɛə] դˤʤꤽǤºݤˤ [wəː] ʤɤȯޤϤʤǤ礦
ϡ are Ʊͤ were ޤĶ٤εǽȤƼ岽ȶ֤Ƥ̤ȤޤбűѸη֤ϡɸŪȤ West-Saxon wǣre wǣron Ǥcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])ˡ줬Ѹˤ [wæːrə] [wɛːrə] [wɛːr] ȵ§ŪȯãޤޤǤ there where ʤɤƱϩɤäƤޤ
θ were ֤ʬޤĶ٤εǽȤƤʤˤǡ岽첻û [wɛr] Ȥʤޤ -er ¿θ¤ߤ·첻§Ūȯã[wə] Ȥʤޤߡ夯ȯȤȯ [wə] ǤȤ˿˶Ĺˤȯޤ졤ߤ̾ȯ [wəː] 夷Ȥ櫓Ǥ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))
ˤΤʳ were there where ֤ʬäȽҤ٤ޤ¤ɬ⤽ä櫓ǤϤޤ֤ʬȯãȤܤthere where ȵӱƧ [wɛə] ȯ⡤ޥʡȤϤߤǤԤʤƤ뤫ǤLPD Preference poll ˤȡȯϡꥹѸǶȤƻѤ6%ȤǤϤޤΤ˹ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼ޤʢ⥤ꥹںˤȯ褯İޤˡ

εΥʬ were ˴ؤƷ֤Ȼפޤwere ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤʡ֥פϼºݤ6%θȯˡߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
be ư are ϡѸˡ§§äȯ [ɛə] ȤʤϤǤƬ̤λҲʻˤäƤߤФ狼Ȥꡤbare, care, dare, fare, hare, mare, rare, ware ʤɤǤϤ [ɛə] ǵӱƧߤޤare Ķ٤ñǤꡤƤɤߴƤ⤤뤿ˡʤΥڥȯԵ§ˤϵŤޤ¤ϤбطˤʤäƤΤǤϤäƤߤޤ礦
are θ츻ϡűѸ Anglia ʣб be ưη aron (Old Northumbrian) earun (Old Mercian) ˤޤϸűѸɸŪȤ줿 West Saxon ʤɤǤѤʤäΤǡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) ζɽˤϸƤޤűѸ aron earun ϡѸ˸岽are Τ褦ʷ֤ؤȿʿƤޤ
ѸǤΤθȯϡĹ촴첻첻ۣ첻ȤƤĤäƤȻפޤĤޤꡤ/aːrə/ ۤɤȯǤθ塤⤷̾βȯã뤲ƤʤСcare [kaːrə] [kaːr] [kɛːr] [kɛər] [kɛə] ѲƤΤʿŪˡ[aːrə] [aːr] [ɛːr] [ɛər] [ɛə] ȤʤäƤϤǤ (cf. Minkova 279) are ˴ؤƤϤϤʤޤǤʤǤ礦
ˤ줿褦 are ĶٸǤꡤⵡǽǤ뤿Ǥbe ưޤư졤̾졤ֻʤɤεǽϡѤ뤿ᡤȯ긺äƼ岽Ǥޤ˼岽ƤѤޤΤǡռŪʶܤơȯäꤷΤ˺ޤθϡ˾ˤ˼岽ȶ֤Ƥޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])ˡ
δ are ȯȯãߤƤߤޤ礦ѸǤ [aːrə] [aːr] ޤǿʤߤޤθ塤촴첻μ岽äȶŪˤû[ar] Ȥʤޤû첻Ȥʤäʾ塤Ĺ첻Τߤ˺ѤѸˤƤ첻 (gvs) 뤳Ȥʤcare ʤɤȤ֤ʬʤ顤ѸǤ⤳ [ar] ݤ³ޤʤĹ첻ͳ褹֤ɸŪˤϻ¸ain't ߽ФȤƶ⤢ޤ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))ˡ
Ѹ [ar] Ϥ˼ޤäơ[a] [ə] Ȥʤꡤ줬 we're, they're Τ褦˥ݥȥեȼäάȤ֤ȯޤռŪʶФ֤Ȥơñ첻Ĺ [aːr] ȯãޤ줬ߤ̾ȯǤ [ɑə] [ɑː] ˽夷ޤ
are ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ε#3960. Ҳûλ ([2020-02-29-1]) ǿ줿 SHOCC (= Shortening before Consonant Clusters) Ȥ褽Ʊ⤦1Ĥ첻ûȤơ3û (Trisyllabic Shortening (= TRISH)) ȤѲ롥3ˤƶΤ1Ĺ첻ûȤΤ꼰ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
V [-long]/__C(C)σσ
Ritt (99--100) ꡤѸǤη֤ˤ褦Ѹη֤ӤǤΤΤߤ롥
| heafodu PL | 'head' |
| cicenu PL | 'chicken' |
| linenes GEN | 'linen' |
| æniȝe PL | 'any' |
| ærende | 'errand' |
| æmette | 'ant' |
| suþerne | 'southern' |
| westenne DAT | 'waste (desert)' |
| deorlingas PL | 'darling' |
| feorþinȝas PL | 'farthing' |
| feowertiȝ | 'forty' |
| freondscipe | 'friendship' |
| haliȝdaȝ | 'holiday' |
| alderman | 'alderman' |
| heringes PL | 'herring' |
| stiropes PL | 'stirrup' |
| Monenday | 'Monday' |
| Thuresday | 'Thursday' |
| seliness | 'silliness' |
| redili | 'readily' |
| bretheren PL | 'brethren' |
| evere | 'ever' |
| othere ACC | 'other'' |
| redeles PL | 'riddle' |
| boseme ACC | 'bosom' |
| wepenes PL | 'weapon' |
ε#3915. 첻ܤȼդ첻Ѳν۴Ū ([2020-01-15-1]) κǸ˼褦ˡ˱Ѹ첻Ǥϡ̵ͭꥺʤɤαΧ첻Ѳˤδ֤ˤ̩ܤʴطȹͤƤ롥
Ѹ¾ΥޥǤϡΤΤ褦ˡζζ̡ҤƤ첻ζζ̤ǽŪ˽Ż뤵롥ˤꡤΧΥꥺˤηи뤳ȤˤʤꡤηĴ¤첻⤽μ̤ѲѰۤƤȤθˤĤƤϡ#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])#3466. űѸ첻β̤Ѹʹߤ첻βŻ뤷 ([2018-10-23-1])#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤ƤϱѸˤˤפĹ첻Ѳ˴ؤ븦路 Stenbrenden ηꡤݤεѤ (318)
. . . stressed syllables and vowels behave differently from unstressed syllables and vowels. Since stress in Gmc involves intensity (perceptual loudness and more muscular and respiratory force) in addition to pitch prominence, various articulatory features are a consequence of stress: stressed vowels are longer and usually more peripheral (in terms of the vowel space), fortis plosives have more aspiration, etc. Lack of stress, on the other hand, involves little muscular effort and perceptual 'softness', and often low/level pitch; unstress therefore has articulatory consequences like shorter and more centralised vowels (or at least loss of vowel contrasts . . .), vowel reduction, vowel and consonant elision, and little to no aspiration of fortis plosives, etc. Thus, what is known as the 'syncopation period' in early Gmc may be interpreted as only the beginning of a long process involving the gradual reduction and loss of unstressed vowels and syllables, the last major instance of which is witnessed (in English) in the loss of final schwa. Related to this reduction process are the lOE and ME processes that lengthen vowels in open syllables and shorten vowels in words of two or more syllables. Clearly, metrical considerations play a crucial role here . . . .
ΰѤκǸǡѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ʤɤ˿Ƥꡤ첻 (gvs) ˤƤʤΤΡԤޤƥޥɺή (drift) ͤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤפ첻Ѳ¿餫ηǴϢƤꡤΰ̣ǤϤ٤ƤҤä "chain shift" ʤΤȤͤǤ롥
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
ε#3914. Stenbrenden ۩첻ܤĹɺήΰˤʤס ([2020-01-14-1]) ǰѤ Stenbrenden ϡ첻ܡ (gvs) ĹŪʻѻ礭첻Ѳɺή (drift) ΰǤȺɾǤϡɺήȤΤϡʤ¸ߤʤΤStenbrenden (316) ϡĴоݤȤĹ첻ȡ줬ŪˤɤäƤѲפʲΤ褦˰ˤĤѲפ֤¤ܤ
ME and eModE long-vowel shifts
OE vowel, PDE reflex Type of change Date of beginning of change ȳ > ī > /aɪ/ unrounding 950 diphthongisation 1250 ēo > ø̄ > ē > /iː/ monophthongisation 11th century unrounding 12th--15th centuries raising 1250 ā > ō̜ > ō > [ou] > /əʊ/ rounding 11th century raising 16th century diphthongisation 16th century ǣ > e̜ > ē > /iː/ or /eɪ/ raising /ɛː/ 11th c.; /eː/ 15th c.; /iː/ 16th c. (diphthongisation) (16th--17th centuries) ē > /iː/ raising 1225 ō > /uː/ or /ʊ/ ? /ʌ/ raising 1225 shortening; unrounding 14th--15th centuries; NF: ō > [üː] (often fronted in PDE) 15th--16th centuries NF: fronting and raising (late) 13th century ī > /aɪ/ diphthongisation 1250 ū > /aʊ/ diphthongisation 1250
֤ѲפȤ raising, fronting, diphthongisation, monophthongisation ʤɤΤȤؤ餬ߤ̵طƤȤϹͤˤषˤ "cyclical nature" ʽ۴ŪˤФȤǤˤСѸΤߤʤ餺¿Υޥˤ۴Ū첻Ѳɺήߤ뤳Ȥ顤ޥ줹ͤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ҥȤȤʤΤϡRitt ʤɤμĥ "rhythmic isochrony" θʤȼ夤Τ˶̤졤餬ߤ˸뱤Ӥγơ褽ƱĹäȯȤΧħǤ롥rhythmic isochrony 첻ѲδطˤĤƤϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ȡ
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
첻 (gvs) ˴ؤǿθ Stenbrenden 롥ܤˤĤƤϡ#3552. 첻ܤ5Ĥ ([2019-01-17-1])#3659. 첻ܤ5Ĥ (2) ([2019-05-04-1]) Ǥñ˼夲ΤȤƼ٤ȯŪƤθǤ롥
Stenbrenden ϡǯξʤԤƱͤˡ첻ܡפ̣ͭñ̤ȤߤƤʤѸѸˤŸηŪ첻ѲȤޤߤä첻ܡפϡ¤ΤȤޤĹ֤Ϥߤ˴Ϣ첻ѲΰʤƤˤΰʬ夲ơ첻ܡפʤɤ̾դΤϥߥǥǤ롤ȤΩ
ŪˤСStenbrenden (312) ϰʲΤ褦ʼ첻ѲĴơѲλʬŪ˽ʣʤ⡤ΤȤƤ1118ȾФޤǤˤ錄äƤȷŤƤ롥13--15ˤ¿첻Ѳ椷ƤΤ̩٤ǻȤ뤬⤢ޤǤ礭ɺή (drift) ΰȤȤ
| 1000 | 1100 | 1200 | 1300 | 1400 | 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | |
| OE ȳ > [iː] | **** | **** | **** | *** | ||||
| OE ēo > [eː] | ** | **** | **** | **** | *** | |||
| OE ā > [ou] | ** | **** | **** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** |
| OE ǣ > [iː] | ** | **** | **** | **** | **** | **** | *** | |
| OE ō > [üː] N | *** | **** | *** | |||||
| OE ō > [uː] S | *** | **** | *** | |||||
| OE/ME ē > [iː] | *** | **** | *** | |||||
| OE ū > [au] | *** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** | ||
| OE ī > [ai] | *** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** | ||
| lME ā > [ei] | *** | **** | **** | **** | **** | ** |
. . . this comprehensive ME long-vowel shift started in the eleventh century at the latest, and did not come to a halt (if indeed it did) until perhaps the mid-eighteenth century.
The findings summarised in 9.1 [= the table above] indicate clearly that the traditional 'GVS' is only one part of some long-term drift in English (and other Gmc languages), and that the conventional definition of the shift is untenable.
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
Ѳ (sound_change) ΤˤˤƤϺǤ⤢դ줿ѲμǤˤ⤫餺ޤ˴˿ʹԤ뤿ˡƤüԤˤȤäƤۤȤɵդʤǤ롥ѸˤˤƤܸˤˤƤ⡤ѲλꥹȲС餯ɴϵˡӸؤ˴ؤƤСοǯΤ˵äȤŪʲѲС줳ڤʤۤɤοˤʤѲϡθƤʤΤΡˤƤӤθݤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƤϡˡ§ (grimms_law) 첻 (gvs) Ȥä̾ʲѲ̤¸ߴƤꡤѲβ뤫ˤĤƳƤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ뤬Τ褦ʺΩäѲΤߤҲ𤹤ȤΤϡ¤ϥߥǥǤ롥ŪˤϡޤǤϤʤϤ礭ʤ̤̾դƤʤѲΤۤŪ¿Ǥ롥֥ˡ§פ첻ܡפϡ̣DzѲΥΥȤȤ٤ǤꡤܤƤޤȲѲܶ¿ɬ⤦ޤʤȤˤʤäƤޤΤۤȤɤβѲϡäȤĤޤΩʤΤǤ롥
դλޤˡϤʤȻפäƤȤ䤬֤Ƥعֺ¡ֻŪء˻äƤѸֲѲϿ̤Τ褦ʤΡפǤ礦ȡ礭ʥҥȤϵǤϺ羮Ͽ̤Ƥ롥ˤ̵羮Ͽ̤餳ǵäƤ櫓̾Ĥ졤Τ褦ˤʤäΤϡ̺ҡס֥ޥȥ鲭Ͽ̡ס֥եϿ̡פʤɤζˤƿﳲ⤿餷ΤΤ˸¤졤̵ξϿ̤ˤ̾ĤʤϿ̤ϸźĤǤɤǤˤ˵äƤˤ⤫餺Ū뤤ϸŪʰյǧΡȤ櫓פʤΤ̾ĤƤΤǤ롥
ѲƱͤǤ롥źɤθˤⲻѲˤ˵äƤ롥γơޤܶǤꡤʤΤ˻פΤǡưĤҤȤĤ̾Ĥ뤳ȤϤʤ¿ϡפȤûפʤɤȤŪʥ٥ŽƤޤǤ롥ѥȤΤȤ櫓ȤΤߤͭ̾˻롥Ͽ̤ȲѲϡǻƤ롥줿ȤȻפ
ε#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1]) ˰³-ate ĸȯưǤ /eɪt/ Ȥʤ̾졦ƻǤ /ɪt/ ȤʤˤĤơ
Carney Ǥ⤳꤬ƽǰƤꡤä p. 398 ˤθݤñꥹȤƤ롥ʲ˺ƸƤŪǤϤʤȻפ뤬ʰǤ롥
aggregate, animate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, correlate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, duplicate, elaborate, emasculate, estimate, expatriate, graduate, importunate, incorporate, initiate, intimate, moderate, postulate, precipitate, predicate, separate, subordinate, syndicate
Carney ΥꥹȤƤΤϡʻˤäȯؤतñ줬ȤˤƤǤ롥¾μȤƤϡؤ̾ư (diatone) Ƥ뤷 -ment ĸˤƤ롥̾ưȤݤȤŪطʤˤĤƤˤĤƤϡǤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵܳŪ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤʻˤäȯؤפȤݥȤ -ate ȤĤʤäƤȤΤϡȯä
-ment ˤĤƤϡưǤΤ첻 /-mɛnt/ Ȥʤ뤬̾졦ƻǤۣ첻 /-mənt/ Ȥʤ롥Carney (398) 곺ñΥꥹȤƤcomplement, compliment, document, implement, increment, ornament, supplement.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ɸˤĤƼ䤬ޤȤ appropriate ưȤƤϡֻѤ˶סƻȤƤϡŬڤʡפǤơȯ /əˈproʊpriˌeɪt/, /əˈproʊpriˌɪt/ Ȥʤޤ첻 /eɪt/ ̸ /ɪt/ ǰۤʤäƤޤϤʤǤ礦
ư /eɪt/ ȯϡֻȾȤ餷碌Ф狼褦ˡ첻 (gvs) θ̤Ƥޤ<-ate> Ȥֻɽ蘆ȯ /-aːt(ə)/ Ѹ첻ܤˤ /eɪt/ ؤѲǤޤƱֻ̾졦ƻ -ate ǤϡΤ褦ȯѲϵäƤޤѲϡष첻μ岽Ǥꡤ/ɪt/ ؤȵ뤷Ƥޤ
ΰ㤤ϡ첻ܰζΤΰ㤤˵ޤŪˤСappropriate Τ褦Ĺñξ硤ưˤƤϸβ2֤ޤƻ졦̾ˤƤ֤ʤȤޤappropriate ˤĤƶŪˤСưȤƤ4 -ate ˡ2˶֤ޤ̾졦ƻȤƤϤ줬֤ʤȤȤˤʤޤ
ǻפФ٤ϡ첻ܤϡֶΤĹ첻פˤƺѤ벻ǤȤȤǤĤޤꡤ-ate ưˡˤƤϡ2ǤϤޤ˶֤Τǡξ˹פ /-aːt(ə)/ /eɪt/ ޤ̾졦ƻˡˤƤϡ֤ʤΤ첻ܤȤ̵طˤळȤˤʤޤ̾졦ƻˡǤϡ /-aːt(ə)/ ֻȤƤ <-ate> ݤʤ⡤ȤƤ϶ȤȤ /-at/ ؤû /-ət/ /-ɪt/ ؤۣ첻ΤǤ
Τ褦ʷаޤǡ-ate ʻˤäȯ㤨ȤʤޤäηޤꡤѥǤȡθϼºݤȯ䶯֤ˤ餺ȤˤΩѥŪŬѤ褦ˤʤޤơ-ate ȯ롼뤬ΩΤǤ
Ϣơ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ⤴Ȥ-age ʤɤ˴ؤƤ⡤ۤƱƤϤޤȻפޤ (310, 313) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
첻 gvs äǶܳŪʸȤơStenbrenden Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling (2016) 롥첻ܴѤ˽ŪʸäȤ⡤Ԥˤ碌첻ܤθǤϤʤĹ첻ܤθȼĥ첻ܤȸʤȤˡԤΥݥȤ뤫
Stenbrenden ϡ#3552. 첻ܤ5Ĥ ([2019-01-17-1]) ǵ첻ܡȤʬŪ˽ʣ뤫Ǥʤ⡤ȼλ5ĤˡŦƤ (1--3)
1ܤϡ"functional explanations seem to be teleological, suggesting that languages in a sense know where they are heading and hence resort to chain-shifts to avoid mergers" (2) Ȥ¤Ūȯۤ˴ŤϢŪ (chain shift) Ū (teleology) ФܼŪȽǤ롥
2ܤϡ"push chain", "drag chain", 뤤ƱѲȤäܤν֤˴ؤ뽾ϡƲǤΰ۲Ѱۤιڻ뤷ƤȤŦǤ롥ǤȰ۲δطϤäʣʤΤǤꡤθǤñ㤹Ȥ櫓
3ܤϡ"push chain" "drag chain" Ȥ̾դϡޤǸݤҤƤˤθݤƤΤǤϤʤˤ⤫餺̾դˤäƤʤ줿Τ褦˺ФƤޤäƤȤ꤬롥٥뤬ŽդƤޤλߤ˴٤äƤޤȤȽ
4ܤϡϡŪʴפϤäΤǡҤȤ˲ʤˤȤƤȤ館ƤȤǤ롥ĴİСΧȤäŪʥץǡƤΤǤϤʤ
5ܤϡŬ (Optimality Theory; ot) ϤȤŪʥץϡ㤤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤϤʤȤȽˤäθݤޤǤʤ硤QŪˤ¦꤬ȹͤΤ̤ФиݤΤۤΤǤϤʤȤȯŸ뤳ȤȤǤžݤǤ롥
ʤʤ긷ȽǻŦƤΤϡ첻ܤ5ĤפȤ첻5ĤפȤäۤ褤
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
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