ɸϡǤˡѤʵפΰĶƤꡤषïʤǤ礦ޤǤ3Ĥε ([2019-11-13-1], [2019-11-14-1], [2019-11-15-1]) ǡʤֿסʤФˤΥɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m Ѥ뤫ȤˤĤƵƤޤ֤ˤ褦ʵȤʤäƤޤʤʤΤǡεɤˡ
[ŋ] ȯ ng ʸ2ʸ1Ȥֻˤɽ魯ȤϸѸǤϰŪǤꡤϲŪ /ŋ/ βǤȤΩƤ¤бƤȹͤޤƱɡҲǤäƤ [n] [m] Τ˶̤٤ΤȤ [ŋ] ¸ߤ餳 n m ֤ΤǤϤʤng Ȥȼ֤ĤΤǤޤȤСȯ [ɕiŋkoiwa] Ǥ顤Ѹʤ뤤ϥإܥˤDzŪ˸̩ɽܻؤΤǤ *Shingkoiwa դ路ȤǤ礦ƱͤͳǡѸ ink, monk, sync, thank *ingk, *mongk, *syngc, *thangk ʤɤ֤Ƥ٤ȤǤ⤽ʤäƤޤ
ͳϡ/ŋ/ ˤĤƤ /n/ /m/ ȰۤʤꡤΩǤȤƤδפ夤ˤꤽǤŪˤС/ŋ/ ΩǤȤʤäΤϸѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤޤcf. #1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])ˡ/n/ /m/ ĸοǯˤؤͤβǤȤС/ŋ/ ֤˷βǤȤȤˤʤޤ/ŋ/ ѸޤǤϤޤDz /n/ ξ۲Ȥ֤ŤǤꡤηϾ夵ƽפǤϤʤ椨ֻä n ȶ̤٤ȤϤߤʤƤʤäΤǤС[k] [g] ֤ˤ [ŋ] Ͼ۲ȤƸΤ褦˼¸Ƥޤ /ŋ/ ȤƤ¸ߤʤäᡤվñ n ֤ƤȤȤǤ
Ѹ kingk (king), dringke (drink), thingke (think) ʤɤֻȯŪˤߤ줿ȤΤǤṲ̄äΤ king, drink, think פΤۤǤʹߡŪˤ /ŋ/ βDzʹԤȤϤֻŪˤ夫 ng, nk ΤޤɸಽʹԤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˻ޤ
ɸεޤ礦ֿפΡ֤פϲŪˤϾ۲ [ŋ] ȤƼ¸ޤѸǤϾ۲ [ŋ] ֻ ng Ȥɽ뽬ǤʤäŪаޤޤΤᡤѸɽӤ˴ŤإܥǤϡ*Shingkoiwa Ȥʤ餺n Ѥ Shinkoiwa ƤΤǤ
2֤ε ([2019-11-13-1], [2019-11-14-1]) ɸѤʵˤĤƹͤƤޤɽŪˤߤȡܸǤϡ֤夯ס֤ФפȤɽǡ֤פʬʤѸʤ뤤ϥإܥˤǤ Shinjuku Shimbashi ʬƤΤǤ顤Ѹɽȯΰ㤤˼¤Ҵȿ븷̩ɽʤΤʡȻפ뤫⤷ޤn m νʬΤߤ夲ơѸɽŪ˸̩ǤǸΤϾǤ¾ͻƤɬפޤ
n m ȤҲΰ㤤פǤΤϡξȤ˰ǤѸ nap map ΰ㤤פʤΤƱͤˡܸǡ֤ʡ̾ˡ na ȡ֤ޡʴ֡ˡ ma ΰ㤤ϽפǤǤ顤ܸñΥɽˤ na ma Τ褦˽ʬ뤳ȼΤԻĤǤⲿǤ⤢ޤɡҲ첻ʤĶĤޤñȤΩľˤܸǤɡҲΰ㤤¤ȤǤʤѸ٤礭ۤʤΤǤ
֤ʻˡפ̾ [saɴ] ȯޤĿͤˤäơ뤤Ͼˤä [san], [saɲ], [saŋ], [sam], [sã] ʤɤȼ¸뤳Ȥ⤢ޤȯǤ⡤ܸʸ̮ǤϽʬˡ֤פȤƲᤵޤȤѸǤ sun [sʌn], some [sʌm], sung [sʌŋ] Τ褦ˡĤɡҲñȤΩĴĶǤΤ˶̤ʤФʤޤѸϤΤ褦ܸ٤ɡҲζ̤Ū˸θˡˤȿǤƤ뤿ˡShinjuku Shimbashi νʬƤȹͤޤ
äϤǽޤ˵ sung [sʌŋ] Τ褦ˡng Ȥֻ [ŋ] ȯñͤƤߤޤ礦. sing, sang, song Ϥ king, long, ring, thing, young ʤɤޤ͡ѸǤ [ŋ] [n] [m] Τ˶̤ʤФʤʤΤǡΤ褦 ng Ȥ ȼʸ2ʸ1ȤֻˤѰդƤ櫓ǤȤСn m ˽ʬΤƱˡ ng ˽ʬƤ뤫ȤС㤤ޤ㤨 ink, monk, sync, thank ϳơ [ɪŋk], [mʌŋk], [sɪŋk], [θæŋk] ȯ졤ʶʤ [ŋ] ɡҲäƤޤʤΤˡ*ingk, *mongk, *syngc, *thangk Τ褦ˤ֤ޤn m ξȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤǤ
Ѹ [n], [m], [ŋ] Τ˶̤٤ȯȤߤʤƤޤֻ夽ΰ㤤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤޤn m ʬ뤳ȤˤĤƤϾҴǤ ng ΰ㤤˽ʬۤҴʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤܸδ鸫ȡѸɽϤȤǤϳΤ˲Ūˤ긷̩Ȥޤ̤ΤȤǤɬ⸷̩ǤϤʤܸɽΡ֤פ˶ᤤȤޤ⤷٤Ƥξ˸̩äȤ顤ֿסʤ [ɕiŋkoiwa] αѸɽʤ뤤ϥإܥɽˤϡԤ Shinkoiwa ǤϤʤ *Shingkoiwa ȤʤϤǤ
ɸεޤ礦ʤֿסʤФˤΥɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m ѤΤǤ礦εФơֱѸܸⲻŪ˸̩ɽѤƤ뤫פñǤԽʬǤֿפΡ֤פǤξĤƤꡤ餳 m ɽΤǤĴؤǤޤϡ˴ְäƤȤϤޤShinkoiwa 褦ȤʤˤʤäþޤǤΤǡɸεФΤϡҤ٤褦ˡֱѸˡ᤹٤ˤΤ߸̩ʲɽɽ路Ρ줬 Shimbashi פȤʤޤäϪˤäƤޤСShimbashi ֤ΤϡѸǤϤ֤뤳ȤˤʤäƤ뤫פȤȤˤʤޤѤʵФȤƤϿȤդʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ޤŪʴ餤ȹͻ̡䤬äȰƤɤĤ̤ηǤ̻ŪʴϤޤ̤˵Ǥޤˡ
ε ([2019-11-13-1]) ǡܸΡ֤פĶ˱ƿΰۤʤȯǼ¸뤳Ȥ˿ޤλ¤ˤĤơ⤦Ū˹ͤƤߤޤ礦
ƣ (49) ˤȡ֤פ͡ʲŪ¸ˤĤơΤ褦ޤ
³ҲƱĴɡְФȤ벻Ǥ롥³ҲɡΤȤϡ[p] [b] [m] [m], [t] [ts] [d] [dz] [n] [n], [tɕ] [dʑ], [ɲ] [ɲ], [k] [ɡ] [ŋ] [ŋ] ˤʤ롥
ǤθꡤĤޤٻߤľǤϡɡ [paɴ] Ȥʤ롥ĿͤޤϾ̤ˤꡤ[m] [n] [ŋ]ޤɡ첻ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥֤ʿաˡס֤ʿˡפΤ褦ʡ첻ܶΥ⡤ɡ [paɴ] Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ뤬ºݤϤۤǫĴʤ¤ĺ[ɕiĩi] Τ褦 [i] ɡ첻 [ĩ] Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿
³ҲԤϹԤʤɤΤȤ⡤ƱǡƱĴͭɡΤȤʤ뤬첻αƶ뤿ᵭ沽άɽǤϳά[h] [s] [ɸ] [ɯ̃], [ɕ] [ç] [ĩ] Τ褦ɡ첻ȤʤȹͤƤФ褤
ܸΡ֤פϤʤʤʣʤ͡ȯƤ뤳ȤʬǤ礦̾٤вŪ˸̩ȤäƤ褤Ѹɽʤ뤤Ϥ˶ᤤإܥɽˤǤΡ֤פȤʤС1ν˼ޤʤΤƻǤ̤ȤơShinjuku Ǥʤ Shimbashi Τ褦ֻФƤ櫓Ǥ
̾ӤФ긷̩ʲɽȤȤˤѸʤɽˤˤƤ⡤ n m ʬ뤯餤ǡ¤ϡָ̩פʤɤǤϤޤѸˡ᤹٤ˤΤ߸̩ʲɽɽ路Ρ줬 Shimbashi ȹͤƤɬפޤ
ʤθɡ [ɴ] ˤĤơܸɴŵ (247) ȡ֤ѶŪɡҲǤȤϡꡤ㴳Ĥ뤳Ȥˤä벻פȤȤǤ
ƣ ˡŸ˾ܸ١ҡ1996ǯ
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
ʸ嵭2021/04/29(Thu)ܵϡѤʵפäΤʤǤȤ櫓¿ȤƤ褦Ǥ켫ΤϤȤƤȤǤܵϡֶʽŪʲפǤϤΤΡɮԤȤƤԽʬʲˤȤɤޤȹͤƤޤषβŦ³ԤܳŪ˵Ƥ椯ĤܵȤаޤޤǤΤǡ³Ԥ3碌ɤǤФȻפޤ줺˸СܵΡֶʽŪʲפǤԽʬǤ
夲㤬ֿפɤ̤ˤƤ⡤֤פ m ֤Ϥ褯ˤΤܤޤ
JRοؤα̾ɽϳΤ Shimbashi ȤʤäƤޤܸɽȤƤϡ֤ФפΤ褦ˡ֤פǤäƤ⡤ѸɽΤˤСJRѤƤȤܤإܥɽ˶ᤤɽˤˤƤ n ǤϤʤ m ȤʤޤϤäʤǤ礦ϡ¤ϱѸˤδ뤳ȤΤǤ˥ǥפʤΤǤ϶ʽŪʲܤƤޤ礦
ޤŪǤإܥɽǤϡ֤פȯȸƤФ벻ˤϡb, m, p ֤ˤƤ n ǤϤʤ m ɽ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäơȡסʤʤСˤ Nambaܴ֡סʤۤޡˤ Hommaֻӡסʤڤˤ Sampei ȤʤꡤƱͤ˿ʤФˤ Shimbashi Ȥʤ櫓ǤϤʤʤΤȤȤǤ
b, m, p ֤ˤ m ɽͳ뤿ˤϡؤμɬפǤܸ֤פü첻ǤȸƤФ졤ܸ첻Ǥ /ɴ/ ɽޤ1ĤβǤꡤܸüԤˤȤäʶʤ1ĤβȤǧƤޤºݾϿΰۤʤȯǼ¸ޤ֤פϤɤΤ褦ʲĶ˸뤫ˤäơۤʤȯȤƼ¸ΤǤ
ȡסܴ֡סֻӡפ3ñȯƤߤȡ֤פʬϤξĤȯȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥʬ뤫ȻפޤϥԻҲ m θˤۤʤޤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡ֤פȤ n ȯƤĤǤ⡤ξˤϼ¤ m ȯƤΤǤϸ³ m, b, p ƱξǤ뤿ˡľ֤פԲ n ǤϤʤξ m ˶ŤƤۤΤȤƥࡼȯǤ뤫Ǥȯ䤹褦äƸ̡ǥեȤ n 顤ȯꥹࡼ m ؤĴƤȤ櫓Ǥ
̯ѲȤгΤˤǤΤǡܸɽǤϡäȯĴϢưˡ֤פɽΤޤޤǤꤹƤޤϢưʤСȤƤϡ֤դɽȤʤǤ礦ˡΤ褦ȯΰ㤤̵ǤϤʤѸɽʤӡ˶ᤤإܥɽˤˤäƤϡ嵭βĶˤƤϡn 夨ơ긷̩ʲɽǤ m Ѥ櫓Ǥ
ܸüԤˤȤäƤϡֿɡסʤ夯ˤֿסʤФˤƱ֤ײޤΤ顤Ʊ֤ = n ɽѤФ褤ǤϤʤȤǤѸʤإܥˤǤ2ĤΡ֤פ¤ƱȯǤʤȤ¤Ż뤷ơԤˤ n ʸԤˤ m ʸơ̤ɽʤ路ȤȤǤ
ǽȤϤɼԤȤܸüԤǰƬˤΤǤ n ɽۤʬ䤹ΤϤޤǤ⤢ޤ¸ƤΤἰǤˤȡֿפ Sinbasi Ȥʤޤ餯JRʤޤŴƻƼҡˤϡɼԤȤüԡʤ餯ѸɽǤǤȻפ¿γ͡ˤꤷἰǤϤʤإܥʤ˥ɽѤƤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤShimbashi ϡܸȱѸˤޤĤ벻ءֻˤȤɤޤ餺ݲ줿ܤθȤؤΤʤΤǤ
ˤơ̾Ωʬۤä2Ĥΰۤʤ벻ǤǧꤵƤ2ĤββĶˤƤϡΩȤȤꤦ롥ϲ (neutralisation)뤤Ūʣ (phonemic overlap) ȸƤФ롥ë (15--17) ȤܸˤäƤβݤˤĤƤ
ܸΥԻҲȥԻҲͤ롥[s] [ʃ] ˤϡֲ [onsɑ] vs ָҡ [onʃɑ]֥ [kɑsɯ] vs ֲμ [kɑʃɯ]١ [seːdo] vs ֥ɡ [ʃeːdo]֤ [soɾi] vs ֽ [ʃoɾi] ʤɤκǾ (minimal_pair) Ĥ뤳ȤǤΩʬۤǧǤΤǡ̡β /s/ /ʃ/ ǧꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
ԤȥԤγƲɽǽФƤߤ褦Բ [ʃɑ], [ʃi], [ʃɯ], [ʃe], [ʃo] ľ˽ɽ碌뤬Բ [sɑ], [ʃi], [sɯ], [se], [so] Ȥʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ첻 [i] ³ˤϡԤȥԤβϹ줷ƤޤºݤȯȤƤ [ʃi] Ǥ [si] Ǥ졤ܸȤƤ϶̤ʤ֥פȤƲᤵΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̾ /s/ /ʃ/ ϰۤʤ2ĤΩ벻ǤȤȤ館Ƥ褤 [i] ³˸¤äƤϡΩ̵̣Ȥʤ롤ʤȹͤ櫓[ʃ] Ω줫ߤСΤ褦ʴĶˤƤϥԲ⥷Բô뤳ȤˤʤΤǡŪʣäƤɽǤ롥
ë ɿ͡1ϡηϤʬ ҡԡˡزīоȸإ 3īҽŹ2014ǯ1--29ǡ
ε#3719. ܸϳ졤ѸIJ ([2019-07-03-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡפȤߤȡܸȱѸоŪʸǤѸϻҲǽIJ (closed syllable) 줬¿ޤܸǤϵǤΤᡤIJıñܸ˼ƤäơIJ˲餫ĴäƳ (open syllable) ؤѴΤԹǤȤ櫓ϳѴȤǤΤ褦ĴΤǤñˡ1ĤϡҲ첻ä뤳ȤǤǸIJϡƤܸμʲפȤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤޤ
ɸǹͤƤߤޤ礦Ѹ make /meɪk/ ϻҲ /k/ ǽIJθǤܸȤˤϡ /k/ ΤȤ첻1źƤФ褤ΤǤŪˤ /u/ äơ֥ᥤ /meiku/ Ȥޤ̤Ȥ /mei.ku/ 23⡼ˤȤʤޤ̵˳Ȥʤޤ
ϡʤ첻 /u/ Ǥ뤫ȤǤmap ʥޥåס, lobe ʥ֡, dog ʥɥå, tough ʥա, love ʥ֡, rice ʥ饤, rose ʥ, dish ʥǥå, cool ʥ, game ʥ, sing ʥ ʤɤǤ⡤б륫ʸͤƤߤȡ٤Ƹ /u/ ղäƤޤ
ŪŤμѸǤ cake ʥˤ brush ʥ֥饷ˤΤ褦 /i/ ղäߤޤwatch ʥå, badge ʥХåˡgarage ʥ졼ˤʤɤƱͤǤĴŪˤϡȯ˴ޤޤƤŸ /ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/ 첻 /i/ ȤϿ⤤뤳ȤϤǤȤϻפޤ
/u/ /i/ ȤϻĤޤʤ¾첻ǤϤʤ2ĤΤƤΤǤ礦ϡξԤȤ첻Ȥʹ (sonority) Ǥ㤯û첻ȹͤƤޤۡpp. 55--56ˡˤϤʤ첻ΤǤ顤ƤäѷäȤϤʤ٤ΩʤѹˤȤɤƤȤǤDzŪ˱Ƥ /u/ /i/ ȤȤΤ褦Ǥ
פ㳰ޤñβ˸ /t/ /d/ ˤĤƤϡܸ첽 /i/, /u/ ǤϤʤ /o/ äΤŪǤcat ʥåȡˡbed ʥ٥åɡˤतǤϡ⤷ /u/ /i/ ղäȡܸβȤƵƤʤ [tu, ti, du, di] Ƥޤᡤ/u/ μ˹⤤ /o/ ѤΤȤޤܸ첽 [tsu, tʃi, dzu, dʒi] ȤƻȤƤϤ⤷ޤˡϺΤޤǤ
֥ᥤפ֥פ֥åȡפ⡤ܸ첻˰Ĥ̤βȤȤä櫓Ǥ
Ĥ2ϡȥ⡼ ҡԡˡزīоȸإ 3īҽŹ2014ǯ30--57ǡ
112俷ʹīˡɡͤαФפꤹ뵭ǺܤƤܥΥƥȤ¼Ϻˤ֤äʤ켭ŵפεǤ롥
〽ͼƤޥååȤӤؤΡͼƤȤӡפǡҶκ˻Ĥäᡥ֤ȤӤפΡ֤פ֥פȤ˶ɡκμϤʤäɡäդȰ㤤ΤǤϴŤݤ줬ʡȻפäƤ
ɡɡȴȱͤΰݤǤɡα˹ƶ롥̤ȯĤǼ餫ԤΤ벻ˡˮڤ侼¤βضʤʤɤǤɬܤɡܻۤѤäɡФΤϰεΥʤͤʤޤȱϲդޤĤʼĥˤϤ줬İˤҤ뤬Τޤޤサޤɡ̤⤢뵤롥
ݥȥDzΤܥΥɡϤȤ롥ݥ켫ΤħǤ뤬ʾˡδꤲĤ褦̵褵ȤжˤΤȯġġ祢٥ȤİȤ˻פ
ɡȤϿΤθˤΤǽˡξԤȯȱϾζѤ롥äĤƤɽˤؤ֤Ȥ¿Ȼפ
Υ֤ͤ /ŋ/ ȲĤޤҶäݤ /g/ Ȥ椬⤷ɡɡִŤݤפȤΤ⡤ԻĤȶǤ롥ɡݥƥʥϡͭΤ⤷ʤ
ؤ䲻Ω줫餤Сɡ1Ҳˤʤܸʶ̸ˤǤ /g/ ΰ۲ѸǤΩǤȤ㤤Ϥ뤬Ƹ1ˤǽŪˤ¾ΰ۲䲻ǤѤȤʤ˲餫Υտ路ƤȤС嵭Τ褦İпŪʲ (phonaesthesia) ꤫뤤ϼҲŪ
Ѹ /ŋ/ ҲŪʴ鰷äȤƤϡ-ing ˴ؤΤΤƤʡ#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1])#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])#1764. -ing -in' μҲŪͤεž ([2014-02-24-1]) ȡˡ̩ˤ /ŋ/ ΤΤȤ⡤/ŋ/ ޤǤΰ۷֤Ȥ٤εɤǤ館ʬ褦ˡտ魯륤ϡŪʤΤȤ⡤¿ʬ˸춦ƱΤ˰¸ҲŪʤΤ⤷ʤɸΡܸΥɡαפ⡤ʤΤȤ⡤ҲŪʤΤʤΤ⤷ʤ
(48) ϡѲ (phonological change) θȤ礭2̤Ƥ롥
(1) ŪưŤˤ (endogenous or internal motivations): ȤƲŪŪװ
(2) 쳰ŪưŤˤ (exogenous or external motivations): ¾졦¾ȤܿҲŪʸŪʤɤμҲŪװ
䤹ʬǤ롥 (2) θ쳰Ūװڻ뤵Ƥ¤ŦƤ¿βѲϡΤ (1) θŪװˤäƥޡȤƤ⤽ɤ餫Ȥ (1) ϡäѲ WHY ǤϤʤHOW εҤˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥ¿βѲλξǵΤϤʤȤֻư (actuation problem) ˤǤꡤWHY ˤϤɤƤ (2) 餶ʤ
ѲѲη̤ȤƲηϤɤΤ褦˱ƶȤʬहСʲ3ʬpp. 47--48ˡ
(1) ͻ (merger): ʣβǤΩ1ĤβǤ˹Τ롥
(2) ʬ (split): ñβǤʣβǤʬ뤳ȡ⤷ʬ̤β¾βǤͻ礷ǤѤʤˤϡ켡ʬ (primary split) ȸƤ֡ʬη̡ʲǤˤϡʬ (secondary split) ȸƤ֡
(3) (shift): ʬѲ̡ηϤȤʤäˡ경٤̤ʬϢŪ˲Ѳ뤳ȡ
դΤϡ(1) (2) ϲηϤ˱ƶͿѲǤ뤬(3) ǤѲDzηϤΤΤѤ餺ƲǤΤΤʤǺʬ̤ۤˤʤȤȤػҼꥲȤС(1) (2) ǤϰػҤμѤꡤ(3) ǤϰػҤɤŪʰ֤ѤȤȤˤʤ롥
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
ꥢοɸ֥磻 CHIANTI ʥƥˤߤĤġꥢ <chi> = /ki/ ˻פڤ<ch> Ȥ2Ż (digraph) ˴ؤơ衼åѤνϤƤ⡤ŵŪб벻ϤޤޤǤ롥첻 <i> դ <chi> ˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦פʸɽСѸǤ chill, chin Τ褦 /ʧi/եǤ Chine, chique Τ褦 /ʃi/ꥢǤ chianti, chimera Τ褦 /ki/ɥĸǤ China, Chinin Τ褦 /çi/ Ǥ롥Ʊ <ch> Ȥ2ŻȤäƤʤ顤б벻ХХʤΤϤäʤ
ˤϡʸ (arbitrariness) ȡƸβηϤȤˤΩˤĤɬפ롥ޤʸ顥ե٥åȤˤȤȡ<a> Ȥʸ /a/ ȤȷӤĤϤȹͤΤϡĹȽˤΤˤºݤˤξԤδ֤ɬŪʴطϤʤбطե٥åȤѤ¿θǸΤϡΥե٥åηϤѤˤäơѸ˸줿ηդδطѤˤʤ̤ʻ𤬤ʤꤤطѤΤݤȤȤ⤢ΤʸȲȤδط塹Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿餫̤ʻ𤬤СȤСб벻ʬθˤ¸ߤʤΤǤʸȤ줺;äƤޤ硽<a> Ѥˤ뤳ȤǤ뤷ޤäۤʤ¾βˤƤȤäƤǤ롥ȤС춦ƱΤ <a> = /t/ ȷꤷƱդСθˤƤϤǤ褤ΤǤ롥ʸϸŪʤΤǤ뤫顤ʬդС¾ͤ˴Ĥڹ礤ϤʤΤǤ롥<ch> ñǤϤʤ2ŻǤȤüϤ뤬2ʸη1ĤʸȤߤʤСʸƸϻ˱ƹʤ褦ѤƤ褤θ¸ߤɤʻҲ˳ƤƤ褤üʤȤ첻˳ƤƤ⡤̵˳ƤƤ褤Ĥޤꡤ<ch(i)> ɤߤϡޤäŪɬŪ˷ޤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ뤳ȤοǤ롥
ˡƸβηϤȤˤΩˤĤơޤǤʤȤƱθǤʤ줾ȼβηϤäƤ롥Ѹˤ /f, l, θ, ð, v/ ʤɤβǤ뤬ܸˤϤʤȤä褦ˡ줴ȤͭβǥåȤΤǤ롥ƸβηϤȯŸˤ⡤§ȤΩŪǤ롥μѤʤɤäǤ⡤αƶϸŪäơۤʤˤϰۤʤ벻ǥåȤꡤǥåȴ֤Ǹߤб褦ȤƤäƤΤ顤줤·ȤȤ˾ʤϤǤ롥ɽʸ륢ե٥åȤϸ§ȤƲǤ̤Τ顤ǥåȴ֤ǤޤбʤΤʸåȴ֤ˤб褦ȤȤǡϤɬ⤭줤ˤ·ʤϤǤ롥
ǵ衼åѤμפʸϡˤηаޤȤ˥ޥե٥åȤƤϤȤʤƥˤ <ch> Ȥ2ŻѤƤ뤳ȤΤäƤޤ§ȤƤΩȤĤĤ⡤ߤθܤǸƤΤ¤Ǥ롥ǡ2Ż <ch> Ѥ褦ȤǥΤϡθ⼫ƤΤ<ch> ɤβˤƤˤĤƤϡƸ˰ѤͤƤǡƸǤ <c> ŵŪɽ蘆벻ȶŪ̻Ū˴طο̤βбʸȤ <ch> ƤȤˤȤ櫓ĤޤꡤѸǤ /ʧi/եǤ /ʃi/ꥢǤ /ki/ɥĸǤ /çi/ Ǥ롥Ƥξ硤ƸˤˤơȤȤ /k/ ɽ魯Τ <ch> ѤƤ롥
ޤȤСθ⡤Ū <ch> Ȥ2ŻȤ³뤳ȤˤĤƤ϶̤ƤƸŪ˰ۤʤ벻ѲƤˡ<ch> ɽ蘆벻ϡߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥
Ѹˤ <ch> = /ʧ/ ˴ؤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ
#1893. إܥ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1])
#2367. űѸ <c> Ѹ <k> ء ([2015-10-20-1])
#2393. <Crist> <Christ> ([2015-11-15-1])
#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1])
Ѹ첻ˤǤϴȤơűѸ West-Saxon ˤ <æ> ֤Ĺ첻ϡε˱2˶̤롥줾Ū ǣ1 ǣ2 ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤʤȤ˸ԤˤäƤ 1 2 źžڤߤˡ2ϡѸʹߤˤˤƤˤäƤФж̤뤳Ȥ顤ƱѤʤɡѸ˸塤פôäƤ롥
(75--76) ˤСޥӸؾ塤ǣ1 ǣ2 εϰۤʤäƤ롥ǣ1 ޥʳǤ *[aː]- ɡ֤ West-Saxon ˤ岽Τǡnon-West-Saxon ǤϤ˾夲Ф [eː] Ȥʤä (ex. dǣd "deed", lǣtan "let", þǣr "there") ǣ2 ޥ *[aɪ] űѸޤǤ [ɑː] ѲΤ i-mutation ФϤǤ (ex. lǣran "teach", dǣlan "deal") ϡWest-Saxon Τߤʤ餺 Anglian Ǥݤ줿Kentish ǤϾ夲ˤ [eː] Ȥʤääơǣ1 ǣ2 βδطϡWest-Saxon Ǥ [æː] : [æː]Anglian Ǥ [eː] : [æː]Kentish Ǥ [eː] : [eː] Ȥʤ롥ޤȤСʲ̤ꡥ
PGmc aː > OE WS æː NWS æː > eː WGmc aɪ > OE ɑː > (i-mutation) WS, Angl æː K æː > eː
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
228դηǼĤǡcomfort(able) m ˤĤƼ䤬줿ƥͳ褹Ƭ com- Ҳϡp, b, m Ǥ computer, combine, communicate ˸褦 m ݤ뤬ʳξǤϸ³˱ n, l, r ʤɤѲꡤȤ˼줿ꤹΤ̤Ǥ롥com- f Ǥ con- ȤʤΤǤꡤconfer, conflict, confront, convict ʤɤ˸̤Ǥ롥comfort Ǥ f m Ƥ롥ϡɤȤѸǤбեñ confort(able) n ֤Ƥ櫓ʤΤǡޤޤ䤬ޤ롥碌ơñ m Ϥ褦ȯΤȤ
ѸǤʤ m ΤˤĤƤϡĴ٤ƤߤޤǼ褦ʲƤʤǤϡȤꤢ m ȯˤĤ˲⤷ƤѸǤϡ<m> ʸϤۤ11δط /m/ βǤб롥 /m/ κǤŵŪʼ¸ͭξɡ [m] ĶˤäƤϤʳΰ۲ (allophone) ȤƤ¸롥ľ [f] [v] Τ褦ʿ³ˤϡ/m/ ĴεչƱ (assimilation) ˤͭɡ [ɱ] ȤʤΤ̤Ǥ롥פˡ[f] ȯιɡ©ȴƤФ褤βñȤĴ뤳ȤϤʤȻפ뤬[f] [v] ³֤Ǥ̵ռΤ [ɱ] ĴȤʤäƤϤǤ롥comfort m Ϥޤˤΰ۲Ǽ¸롥
ʲˡJespersen Cruttenden 顤۲ [ɱ] ˤĤƿƤʬѤ褦
Before [f, v], as in nymph, pamphlet, comfort, triumph, triumvir, circumvent [nimf, pæmflit, kʌmfət, traiəmf, traiˈʌmvə, səkəmˈvent], the [m]-closure is frequently formed not by means of both lips, but of the lower lip alone, which is applied to the lower edge of the upper front teeth. (Jespersen 395)
When followed by a labiodental sound /f,v/, the front closure may be labiodental [ɱ] rather than bilabial, e.g. in nymph, comfort, triumph, come first, circumvent, warm vest. Additionally pronunciations of infant, enforce, unforced, etc. with assimilation of [n] to [ɱ] can be regarded as having an allophone of /m/. (Cruttenden 212)
In connected speech /m/ frequently results from a final /n/ of the citation form before a following bilabial, e.g. one mile /wʌm ˈmaɪl/, more and more /mɔːr əm ˈmɔː/, ten pairs /tem ˈpeəz/, gone back /gɒm ˈbak/; sometimes /m/ is a realisation of word-final /ən/ or /n/ following /p/ or /b/, e.g. happen /ˈhapm/, ribbon /ˈrɪbm/, or, in context, cap and gown /kap m ˈgaʊn/ . . . . (Cruttenden 212)
դΤϡconfer, conflict, confront, convict ʤɤˤƤϡտȯǤϡ [f] [v] ³ȤϤäɡ [n] ȯΤ̤ȤȤˤ衤comfort(able) ϤϤѤäñǤ롥
ʤܸǤ̾ [f] [v] ȯʤΤǡޤƤ [ɱ] ʤɸ뤳Ȥʤ褦˻פ뤬ü˲˳֤ǥԤȯȡƤ [ɱ] Ȥʤ롥˥äȺ˳̤ξФߤǡֽޤơפȤȤΡ֤פȡ֤ޡפλҲݱʤ [ɱ] ȤʤäƤޤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Ϣ Hockett ˸Ѹ˴ؤʸѡȤƤ뤬ƱʸѲμ (kinds) ȻȤ (mechanism) ζ̤ˤĤ Hockett θ
ŪʸѲλȤơ[f] [v] ΩβDz夲褦űѸǤξ1Ĥβ /f/ ΰ۲ˤʤäѸǤϸƬʤɤ [v] ĥեñμѤʤɤ̤ /f/ /v/ ǤȤƤΩ褦ˤʤä
ѲˤĤơɤΤ褦ȤŪʲˤϰڿ줺ˡλ¤٤СϡֲѲפǤɽǤ롥֤ѲǤʤСѲäѲǤʤѲǤȤ롥ϡѲμ (kind) ˤĤƤθȤ֡졤äʤɤ̤1Ĥθ˴ŤʬǤ뤫顤θ˰¸ĤߤȤäƤ褤ȤѤС˱ѲμʬѤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѲλȤ (mechanism) Ȥϡ[v] βDzǤСŪˤɤΤ褦ʲơ۲ [v] /f/ Ω /v/ βǤϰ̤ΤȤξܺ٤ΤȤǤ롥ΥޥäơѸ줬 [v] Ƭʤɤˤĥեñܿ˵ڤǡƬ [f] ĸȤκǾФΩ[v] βDzΩȤȤǤʤβDzμºݤξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ʤɤεȡˡȤߤˤ͡ʤΤ̤뤬㤨вѲ (sound change) (analogy) (borrowing) 3Ĥζ̤ꤹȤΥǼȤƴͿƤȤߤϡѤȤʤĤλȤߤꤹ뤫ˤĤƤŪ¿ͤΩ줬ꤦΤǡ¸αĤߤǤϤ롥
ѲμȻȤߤ̤٤ǤȤ Hockett μĥϡѲΥӥեȥե2üδطʬह뤳Ȥȡ2üδ֤ǺѤᥫ˥餫ˤ뤳ȤȤۤʤĤߤǤȤȤơαĤߤˤĤưȤγǰѸΥåȤƤ٤Ǥꡤ2ĤΤΤƱƤϤʤʤHockett (72) ۩
My last terminological recommendation, then, is that any individual scholar who has occasion to talk about historical linguistics, be it in an elementary class or textbook or in a more advanced class or book about some specific language, distinguish clearly between kinds and mechanisms. We must allow for differences of opinion as to how many kinds there are, and as to how many mechanisms there are---this is an issue which will work itself out in the future. But we can at least insist on the main point made here.
ϢơHockett (73) ϡѲλȤ (mechanism) ȸ (cause) ȤѸˤĤƤ⡤դƤ롥
'Mechanism' and 'cause' should not be confused. The term 'cause' is perhaps best used of specific sequences of historical events; a mechanism is then, so to speak, a kind of cause. One might wish to say that the 'cause' of the phonologization of the voiced-voiceless opposition for English spirants was the Norman invasion, or the failure of the British to repel it, or the drives which led the Normans to invade, or the like. We can speak with some sureness about the mechanism called borrowing; discussion of causes is fraught with peril.
Hockett εϡѲ what (= kind) how (= mechanism) why (= cause) Ѹ츯ˤĤƲƹͤƤ뵡Ȥʤä
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
2첻 (diphthong) ϡñ첻 (monophthong) 䤽¾Ρ첻פ̾ΤĤñ̤ȤȤˡ1Ĥ첻ηϤʤҲηϤΩΤȹͤ뤬ǡñ첻ȤҲȤۤʤ3ηϤʤȤͤ⤢褦Samuels (32) ۩
. . . it is uncertain whether diphthongs should be regarded as constituting a third system, distinct from those of vowels or consonants. They evidently perform the same function as vowels in structure, and in some systems it would be misleading to separate them since they patently complete a vowel-pattern that would otherwise be incomplete. At the same time, the degree of phonetic distinctiveness from neighbouring vowels that is achieved by the gliding property of diphthongs is often greater than might be expected, and they are therefore better regarded as a partly autonomous section of the vowel system as a whole; they possess an extra feature that enables them to remain close to, yet distinct from, vowels in the total vocalic space available, and their function can be important. It is probably for this reason that where, by simplificatory change, diphthongs merge with monophthongs (e.g. OE ēo > ME /e:/, ēa > /ɛ:/) a new series of diphthongs arises, as seen in ME dai, sauȝ . . .; or, conversely, where extra diphthongs are created, other diphthongs are monophthongised . . . .
ʤۤɡ¤줿 (phonological space) ¤˳Ѥ뤿ˤϡñ첻ǤϤʤƱεǽñ̤Ȥ2첻ʤΤФȤǤͭΤ褦˹ͤȡñ첻2첻ͭ¤β֤Ȥʤ˶ƱƤ뤫Τ褦˸Ƥ롥ƱǤȤȤϡߤ֤ǤϤ뤬ĤȤƤΩƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤȾΧŪȤȤˤʤ롥
ΰѤκǸǿƤ뤬ѸβˤҤȤȡ2첻礤ƤϤʤǤϤʤΤ褦ʻĹ³䤬ƿ2첻߽Фơñ첻ȤζƱƳƤ (#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) ɽˤ OE--ME 12th c. ) 2첻¸ߤȾе̳Ǥ뤫Τ褦˴벻ˤǤ롥
ϲˤϤޤܤʤΤ褦2첻θϸߤβȿǤƤΤ (cf. #1404. Optimality Theory ߤ첻 ([2013-03-01-1])#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬϡ ([2015-01-07-1])) ϢơĹ첻3첻ʤɤϤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤΤ2첻ƱͤȾΧŪηϤʤΤ뤤ñ첻ηϤ2첻ηϤβ̶ʬˤʤΤ̻ŪʲѲδŪäƤߤǤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
(118) Ĵ٤ˤȡѸˡˤƻҲۻ (silent_letter) ޤϡޤ420줢ȤҲ̤Ȱʲ̤ꡥ<b> (24 words), <c> (11), <ch> (4), <d> (17), <f> (2), <g> (41), <gh> (41), <h> (57), <k> (11), <l> (67), <m> (1), <n> (14), <s> (22), <p> (31), <ph> (2), <r> (1), <t> (37), <th> (2), <w> (33), <x> (2) ʸǤϡζ㤬ҤƤꡤԴѤǤ롥ʲɤǤƤ⤷äճäʤɤǤиȴФҲ𤷤
(1) <mb> <b> ۻȤʤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) ʤɤǵƤ⤦ɲäǤ롥űѸѸ <b> (= /b/) Ϥʤä <b> 줿ΤȤ limb, crumb, numb, thumb 롥ĤƤϼ¸Ƥ <b> = /b/ ̵Ȥơclimb, bomb, lamb, comb, dumb, plumb, succumb 롥<mb> Ȥ߹碌Ǥ⡤rhomb ɩ, zimb ʥ֤ΰ, iamb ʼ嶯ʡˤʤɤѸǤ <b> ȯ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
(2) #2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1]) ¾Ȥơmineralogy < mineralology, pacifism < pacificism, stipend < stipi-pendium, tragicomedy < tragic comedy 롥
(3) perhaps ϤȯǤ /præps/ Ȥʤꡤ<h> ۻȤʤ롥
(4) iron ˤơꥫѸǤ <r> ȯ뤬ꥹѸǤ <r> ̵ /ˈaɪən/ Ȥʤ롥
(5) kiln
ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) /kɪln/ ̤Ѹ <n> ̵ȤʤäŪȯ /kɪl/ ⤢롥Ʊͤ Milne /mɪln/ ̤Jones ȯŵ (1967) Ǥ /mɪl/ ΤߤǧƤȤ顤ֻȯϤĤǶΤȤΤ褦
(6) Christmas տȯǤ /ˈkrɪstməs/ Ȥʤ <t> ۻȤʤʤΤ褦ʻҲ˶ޤ줿ĶǤϡŪ <t> ̵ȤʤΤ̾ä (see #379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1]))
(7) ҳѸȤƤ southeast, northeast Ǥ <th> ̵Ȥʤ롥/saʊ ˈiːst/, /nɔːr ˈiːst/
ʸɤȡۻΥץˤʤ롪
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
ε#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ˰³ (19--21) ȤơҲʻˤбɽǤ롥
| consonantal phoneme | consonantal grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /p/ | p, gh, pp, ph, pe | 5 |
| 2 | /b/ | b, bh, bb, pb, be | 5 |
| 3 | /t/ | t, th, pt, ct, ed, tt, bt | 7 |
| 4 | /d/ | d, bd, dh, dd, ed, ddh | 6 |
| 5 | /k/ | k, c, kh, ch, que, qu, cque, cqu, q, cch, cc, ck, che, ke, x, gh, cu | 17 |
| 6 | /q/ | g, gu, gh, gg, gue | 5 |
| 7 | /ʧ/ | ch, tch, t, c, cz, te, ti | 7 |
| 8 | /ʤ/ | j, g, dg, gi, ge, dj, g, di, d, dge, gg, ch | 12 |
| 9 | /f/ | f, ph, gh, ff, v, pph, u, fe | 8 |
| 10 | /v/ | v, f, ph, vv, v | 5 |
| 11 | /θ/ | th | 1 |
| 12 | /ð/ | th | 1 |
| 13 | /s/ | s, sci, c, sch, ce, ps, ss, sw, se | 9 |
| 14 | /z/ | z, se, x, ss, cz, zz, sc | 7 |
| 15 | /ʃ/ | sh, shi, sch, s, si, ss, ssi, ti, ch, ci, ce, sci, chsi, se, c, psh, t | 17 |
| 16 | /ʒ/ | s, z, si, zi, ti, ge | 6 |
| 17 | /h/ | h, wh, x | 3 |
| 18 | /m/ | m, mb, mn, mm, mpd, gm, me | 7 |
| 19 | /n/ | n, mn, ne, pn, kn, gn, nn, mpt, ln, dn | 10 |
| 20 | /ŋ/ | ng, n, ngue, nd, ngh | 5 |
| 21 | /l/ | l, ll, le | 3 |
| 22 | /r/ | r, rh, rrh, rr, wr | 5 |
| 23 | /j/ | y, j, i, ll | 4 |
| 24 | /w/ | w, o, ou, u | 4 |
| 159 |
ѸβǤʸǤбˤĤƾܺ٤˵ҤʸꤷøįƤȡϳΤʤ褦ٿդʧĤᡤŪ褦ȤȤλäƤ롥ϡ (18--19) ˷ǤƤ첻˴ؤ벻ǤʸǤбɽƸơбޤºݤθˤĤƤϡľʸäƤ
| vocalic phoneme | vocalic grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /i/ | ee, ea, e, e...e, ei, ie. eo, i, ae, oe, ay, ey, eau, e, ui | 15 |
| 2 | /ɪ/ | i, ie, e, y, o, ui, ee, u, ay, ea, ei, ia, ai, a, ey, eight | 16 |
| 3 | /e/ | e, ea, ai, ay, eo, ie, ei, u, eh, ey, ae, egm, a, oe | 15 |
| 4 | /æ/ | a, ai | 2 |
| 5 | /ʌ/ | u, o, ou, oo, oe, ow | 6 |
| 6 | /ɑ/ | are, ah, al, ar, a, er, au, aa, ear, aar, ir | 11 |
| 7 | /ɐ/ | o, a, ow, ou, au, ach | 6 |
| 8 | /ɔ/ | aw, a, al, au, ough, oa, or, our, oo, ore, oar, as, o, augh | 15 |
| 9 | /ʊ/ | oo, o, ou, oul, oe, or | 7 |
| 10 | /uː/ | oo, o, o...e, u, wo, oe, ou, uh, ough, ow, ui, eux, ioux, eu, ew, ieu, ue, oeu | 18 |
| 11 | /ɜ/ | ur, urr, ear, ir, err, er, or, olo, our, eur, yr, yrrh | 12 |
| 12 | /ə/ | a, u, ar, o, e, ia, i, ough, gh, ou, er, o(u)r, or, ei, ure, eon, oi, or, oar | 19 |
| 13 | /eɪ/ | a...e, a, ea, ai, ei, ay, ao, eh, ey, eigh, ag, aig, e, alf, aa, au, ae, oi, e, et | 20 |
| 14 | /ɑɪ/ | i, i...e, eye, ay, ie, y, igh, uy, y...e, ign, ye, eigh, is, ui, oi, ey, ei, ais | 19 |
| 15 | /ɔɪ/ | oi, oy, eu, uoy | 4 |
| 16 | /əʊ/ | o...e, ol, ow, oh, owe, o, ou, oa, oe, eo, ew, ough, eau, au, ogn | 16 |
| 17 | /aʊ/ | ow, aou, ou, eo, au, ough, iaour | 7 |
| 18 | /ɪə/ | ear, eer, ia, ere, eir, ier, a, ea, eu, iu, e, eou, eor, iou, io, ir | 16 |
| 19 | /eə/ | are, air, ear, eir, ere, aire, ar, ayor | 8 |
| 20 | /ʊə/ | uo, oer, oor, ure, our, ua, ue, we, uou | 9 |
| 241 |
ε#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1]) ǤϡŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) ȤƤ <th> ȤƼ夲2ʸ <h> ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ȤѤƤȤҲ𤷤ޤŪˡܸեΥ夲ξǡ䥢ޤǸɤŪǤΤФơѸ <h> Ϥ켫ΤñʸǤȤƤѤȤۤŦ줫ˡȤƤ櫓ǤƤ櫓Ǥʤˤäơ褦ȯ̵ǽ̤٤ۤʤʤѰդƤΤȤȤĥäǤ롥
ˤĤʤƹͤƤߤû첻 /e/ Ĺ첻 /eː/ ̤ˡɤΤ褦ˡ뤫˼ޤ⤽ζ̤ʤȤ褬롥ƥû첻 edo (I eat) Ĺ첻 edo (I give out) Ǥ롥ƥʤɤǤϡؼԤȽ䤹褦Ԥ edōԤ ēdō ɽ뤳ȤϤ뤬¤θŵƥƥȤˤƤϤΤ褦Ĺ (macron) ϸʤ첻ĹûƤñǤ뤫ϡʸ̮ȽǤΤƥήäƱͤˡܸΡֱסʤˤȡֱʼסʤؤˤˤֱҡפˤƤ⡤첻ĹûŪ˼Ƥʤ
ˡȯѤơĹǤ뤳ȤȤˡ롥ҤΥƥؼѤĹ椬ޤˤѸʤɤǤ첻ξ˥դȤǡĹȤԤƤޤѸ Richard Hodges ˤ붵Ūֻˤ⥦饦ȵ椬ƳƤ (see #2002. Richard Hodges ֻפʤֻ ([2014-10-20-1])) Ȼ褦ȤơҲ̾ˤ֥פФ֥פ˸Ĺʲˤ롥֡פϡ֥פƱͤˤä1ʸʬΥڡȤǡʤȤ⸫ɤϥƥĹ䥢ۤŪǤϤʤǤϡIPA International Phonetic Alphabet; ݲɸʸˤĹ /ː/ ֡פ˻ƤȤ롥ǵƼϡñȤǤϰ̣ʤɬǽŪ˥ᥤʸ˽°뤫ѤƤ뤳Ȥդ
³ơʿ̾Ρ֤פΤ褦ˡƱʸ֤Ȥˡ롥ѸǤѸǤ met /met/ Ф meet /meːt/ ʤɤʸ֤Ȥ̤˸줿
ޤ#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1]) Ǥ夲褦ʡϢ³ʣʸ (discontinuous compound grapheme) λѤ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƹԤ줿red /red/ rede /reːd/ Τ褦ʽΩǤ롥rede 2ܤ <e> 1ܤ <e> ĹˤƷꤷƤ롥
ǸˡꥷǤϤޤäۤʤʸѤû첻 ǡĹ첻 ɽ魯
Τ褦ˡˤäƼʤۤʤ졤ۤƱǽ餫ˡǼƤʤ뤤ϡʤˤΤǤ롥
ε ([2015-12-15-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѸŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) Τ<ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> Τ褦2ĤʸǤ <h> ǤΤϾʤʤ٤ƤˤƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤŪˤäơ <h> εǽϡ1ʸǤɽ魯ŵŪʻҲǤΤIJ餫ħ (distinctive feature) ѲȤΤ岽˻ꡤꡤꡤꡤ̵ѲΤϰꤷƤʤ1ʸǤб벻Ǥˤ֤ǽäƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ겼Υ٥ħƯ뵡ǽäƤȤ̣ˤƤϡ<h> ϵǽŪˤΩʸȤȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ˶ᤤΤ褦˵ǽȤƤŪǤʤ顤κۤȤƤΩʸ <h> ٤äƤȤʤɤʤ
ܸβ̾դȯǤͤ褦ᥤʸǡ֤פαˡۤΩʤ褦äȡ֤פȤʤ롥ϡͭˤȤħƯƤꡤǽȤƤϾҤ <h> Ƥ롥Ʊͤˡեˡˤ <é>, <è>, <ê> ʤɤΥ⡤ᥤȤʤʸ <e> ŪղäơĤĴ䳫ĴĹĴʤɤɸ뤳Ȥ롥Ĥޤꡤᥤβμ̤ˤäȤѤäȤŪʵǽ̤Ƥ롥ܸեΥϡΤ褦ˡǽŪǤΤƱͤˡɤˤƤ⤢ޤŪǡޤΤǤ롥
Ȥʣʸ <th> ˤ <h> ϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥<h> ϡñȤǤʸǤȤƵǽ롥<h> ϥᥤ⥵֤̳ΤФ䥢ñȤǥᥤ̳뤳ȤϤǤʤСܸեǤϡ֤ܤŰȯȤ٥ñ̤¸ߤ뤬ѸǤϤ줬¸ߤޤǻŪΩ <h> Ȥ1ʸǽŪˤϥᥤΤߤʤ餺֤ˤѤȤȤǤ롥˰³ƶĴ뤬Τ褦˱ѸˡǤϡǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤѤƤȤʤΤǤ롥
ʤ2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ʬȤơ (ligature) 롥<ae>, <oe> 2ĤñʸǤ¤Ӥ <æ>, <œ> 1ĤʣʸǤб롥䡤ξ硤ϤǤʣʸǤǤ뤳ȤơñʸǤˤʤäƤȸ٤ (see #2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]))
Ѹˤ <ai>, <ea>, <ie>, <oo>, <ou>, <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <qu>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> 2ʸǤ1ñ̤ȤʤäβǤɽ魯Ż (digraph) ¸ߤ롥#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]) ۤεǼ夲ƤϤΤ褦 digraph ˤĤbeautiful ˤ <eau> ʤɤλŻ (trigraph) 䤽ʾȤ߹碌⤢뤬ǽҤ٤ digraph ε trigraph ʤɤˤƤϤޤϤǤ롥
⤽⡤ƥΤˡ̤Хꥷ䥻ϤθΤȯãƤ alphabet ȤϲŪˤ礭ۤʤǤѸˡΤޤޤޤŬѤȤȤϡ褦ʤޥե٥åȤƼ줿űѸꡤǤοʸοϰפʤäΤǤ롥ǤΤۤ¿äΤǡ̤ʸɽ褦ȤСɤƤʣʸȤ߹碌1ĤβǤбȤ褦ˡɬפȤʤ롥㤨 /æːa/, /ʤ/, /ʃ/ ϳơ <ea>, <cg>, <sc> digraph ɽ줿 (see #17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])) ĤޤꡤѸ줬ޥե٥åȤǽɽ뤳Ȥˤʤäǽʳ顤digraph Τ褦ʸȤ߹碌뤳ȤϡȾԲäȹͤ롥Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϡ餫ѤĤġ¿ͤʲѤäʤѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸؤȯŸƤä
"digraph" ȤѸˤĤƤǤ롥θƾΤϤɤ餫ȤʸǤ2Ȥ߹蘆äȤŪ¦̤˾ƤƤ뤬2Ĥ1ĤβǤбȤǽŪ¦̤Ĵ硤"compound grapheme" (Robert 14) ȤѸ줬ŬڤRobert (14) ˼褦
We term ai in French faire or th in English thither, compound graphemes, because they function as units in representing single phonemes, but are further divisible into units (a, i, t, h) which are significant within their respective graphemic systems.
compound grapheme ʣʸǡˤϢ³2ʸǤɬפʤ"[d]iscontinuous compound grapheme" Ϣ³ʣʸǡˤ⤢ꤦ롥ѸΡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) Ǥꡤ<name> <site> ˤơ<a .. e> <i .. e> Ϣ³Ȥ߹碌ˤ2첻 /eɪ/ /aɪ/ ɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʣʸǤˡϡˤ롥Robert ΰѤǼƤ褦ˡ<th> ȤʣʸǤϡñʸ <t> <h> Ȥ߹蘆äκۤƤʤ顤ñʸǤ뵡ǽ̤ƤȤ¤롥<t> <h> ñΤʸǤȤ1Ǥɽ魯ǽͭ뤬ƱˡΤˤϡͽۤ2ǤǤϤʤ̤1ǤˤбΤλŦϡʣʸǤȤϡΤΤΤ褦ʹ뤫⤷ʤǶĴΤϡʸ˥եåȤɽ븽ԤαѸˤƤϡ<th> ȤʸȤˡ(1) 2Ĥñʸ <t>, <h> ̤λʤǤν¤ΤʤΤ뤤 (2) 1Ĥʣʸ <th> ƤΤȽǤǤʤȤȤ(1) (2) ʸΥ٥뤬ۤʤäƤꡤ餫νʬäƤ褵ʤΤեåȤ th ɽ롥㤨С<catham> <catholic> ˤơƱɤ <th> ǤԤ (1)Ԥ (2) ȤƵǽƤ롥(*)<cat-ham>, *<ca(th)olic> ʤɤȡǫ˶̤ˡäƤ褵ŪˤϹԤƤʤʤɤʬɤϡʸŪȽǤˡǤζڤ꤬ɤǤ뤫ȤȽǡ뤤ϸȤƤǧΤ˺ѤޤƤΤǤ롥СѸ켰ʣʸǤλѤϡʬŪǤ졤ֻɽäƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
ΡʣʸǤפϤۤˤ櫓ǤʤŪˤϤ礭ǤϤʤ⤷ʤκۤƱ <th> ˸ʤ⡤2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ǵǽƤǽȤȤϡʸαդ٤Ǥ뤳ȤǧʤФʤʤǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤ˥եåȤ¤٤ȤפǤ롥
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
Ф餯δ֡ʸ (grapheme) ȤϲȤͤƤ롥ˤ벻 (phoneme) ˤʤ館ơʸˤʸǤꤹȤȤϡ٤θˤ롥ΤξԤˤʿŪ˹ͤ⾯ʤʤΤȽϺŪΰۤʤȤꡤȤʤƤᤤʳǤĤޤΤǤ롥
ΥϡǤ2ʬ (double_articulation) §Ǥ1ʬᤳǧΤΡ2ʬǤդǤȤˤȹͤƤ롥1ʬǤȤɤɽʸʤ뤤ɽʸˤȤʤꡤʿŪ2ʬޤǿʤɽʸñʸˤȤʤ롥
դλϺ夸äͤƤȤơ̤ϲǤʸǤˤĤʿԤȤƤߤPulgram ʰäƤƤΤǡƸʲP(honeme) G(rapheme) оȤǤ롥
| P1 | The smallest distinctive audible units of a dialect are its phonemes. | G1 | The smallest distinctive visual units of an alphabet are its graphemes. |
| P2 | A phoneme is a class of articulated speech sounds pertaining to one dialect. | G2 | A grapheme is a class of written characters pertaining to one alphabet. |
| P3 | The hic et nunc spoken realization of a phoneme is an articulated speech sound or phone. | G3 | The hic et nunc written realization of a grapheme is a written alphabet character or graph. |
| P4 | The number of phonemes in each dialect must be limited, the number of phones cannot be. | G4 | The number of graphemes in each alphabet must be limited, the number graphs cannot be. |
| P5 | By definition, all phones identifiable as members of one phoneme are its allophones. | G5 | By definition, all graphs identifiable as members of one grapheme are its allographs. |
| P6 | The phonetic shape of an allophone is dependent on its producer and on its phonetic surroundings. | G6 | The graphic shape of an allograph is dependent on its producer and on its graphic surroundings. |
| P7 | Phones which are not immediately and correctly identifiable as belonging to a certain phoneme when occurring in isolation, may be identified through their meaning position in a context. | G7 | Graphs which are not immediately and correctly identifiable as belonging to a certain grapheme when occurring in isolation, may be identified through their meaningful position in a context. |
| P8 | Dialects are subject to phonemic change and substitution. | G8 | Alphabets are subject to graphemic change and substitution. |
| P9 | The number, kind, and distribution of phonemes varies from dialect to dialect. | G9 | The number, kind, and distribution of graphemes varies from alphabet to alphabet. |
If today we distinguish between letter (or better grapheme) and speech sound (or better phoneme), the reason is that there has hardly ever existed in any language with some tradition of writing a strictly one to one ratio between the two.
Pulgram ϡǤʸǤʿ˵ŤƤʤ⡤̤鰷ȤΤǤϤʤȤʤǤʤ
Pulgram, Ernst. "Phoneme and Grapheme: A Parallel." Word 7 (1951): 15--20.
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