å ofפȸƤФˡ乽ʸˤĤơ#1775. rob A of B ([2014-03-07-1]) εDZѸˤδ龯ͤƤߤʤʤǡѸŪˤ⤭줤ˤϲ褷Ƥʤ褦Ǥ롥
Blake (134) (case) ̣ (semantic_role) δ餳äƤߤĤΤǡѤ
(39) a. The vandals stripped the branches off the tree agent patient source b. The vandals stripped the tree of its branches agent source patient
The roles appropriate for (39a) are noncontroversial. The vandals are clearly the agent, the branches patient and the tree source. Of the two sentences (39a) would appear to be unmarked, since it exhibits a normal association of role and relation: patient with direct object and source with a noncore or peripheral relation. The ascription of roles in (39b) is more problematic. Under a common interpretation of constructions like this the tree in (39b) would still be the source and the branches the patient. But note the different in meaning. (39a) presents the situation from the point of view of the effect of the activity on the branches, whereas (39b) emphasises the fate of the tree. In fact, the phrase of its branches can be omitted from (39b). This makes it problematic for those who claim that every clause has a patient. The problem could be avoided by claiming that the tree in (39b) has been reinterpreted as a patient, but that creates the further problem of finding a different role for the branches.
åιʸˤĤƳʤŪΤ褽䤿ľŪռ̤ȤʤäƤꡤɤΤȤ̤ʤΤǤ롥Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡ(39b) ˤ the tree ΰ̣ patient ȤΤǤСof its branches ΰ̣ϲˤʤΤơΰ̣ô碌ֻ of ΰ̣ˡϤʤΤǤꡤ of θ¾μɤΤ褦Τȹͤ٤ʤΤ
1ĵˤʤΤϡξʸѤƤֻ줬Ʊ off of Ǥ뤳ȤʤԤ from ǤˡξƱ쵯ˤĤƤϡ#55. through θ츻 ([2009-06-22-1])#4095. 2Ÿʬ ([2020-07-13-1]) ȡ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ɸϡŪʷȤƻŦƤ롥ܸʤɤ SO ĸϡ餫ηŪʳɸIJǽ⤤Ȥºݡܸˤϡ֤ס֤ס֤Ρפʤɤγʽ줬ꡤ̾˸ܤ뤳ȤdzʤɸȤߤѸŵȤ SV ĸϡΤ褦ʷŪɸʸˤϡˤ⤿ʤȤѸˤ;̾ˤϤʤγѲϤ뤷̾ˤ 's Ȥͭʤɸʤ뤬ŪˤзŪʳɸλȤߤϼȤäƤ褤ѸŤϸ礬 SV ɬꤵƤ餺SO ʤɤθ⤢Τ嵭ͽ¬̤ꡤϷŪʳɸλȤߤ⸲˵ǽƤ
嵭λŦϡBlake ɤǤܤˤȤޤäΤȤȤ Greenberg ˴ŤΤΤ褦Blake (15) طսѤ롥
It has frequently been observed that there is a correlation between the presence of case marking on noun phrases for the subject-object distinction and flexible word order and this would appear to hold true. From the work of Greenberg it would also appear that there is a tendency for languages that mark the subject-object distinction on noun phrases to have a basic order of subject-object-verb (SOV), and conversely a tendency for languages lacking such a distinction to have the order subject-verb-object (SVO) . . . . The following figures are based on a sample of 100 languages. They show the relationship between case and marking for the 85 languages in the sample that exhibit one of the more commonly attested basic word orders. The notation [+ case] in this context means having some kind of marking, including appositions, on noun phrases to mark the subject-object distinction . . . .
| VSO | [+ case] | 3 | SVO | [+ case] | 9 | SOV | [+ case] | 34 |
| [- case] | 6 | [- case] | 26 | [- case] | 7 |
The SVO 'caseless' languages are concentrated in western Europe (e.g. English), southern Africa (e.g. Swahili) and east and southeast Asia (e.g. Chinese and Vietnamese).
ŪŪʰյϲʤΤ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
2֤ۤ̾ hellog #4186. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ ([2020-10-12-1]) Ǽ夲ФѤʵǤȯ˴ؤǤ⤢ޤΤǥ饸ʤ٤άƤߤޤμǤİǤǤ礦
ݥȤϡñΤʤˤϼȶȤۤʤȯĤΤȤȤǤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤʸˡṲ̄¿ߤޤñϥǥեȤǤϼȯޤ Yes, I am. 褦ˡ˲άƤơʸĤ̤ʾˤ϶ޤʤȤ⡤ʤФʤޤˡѽФʸˡŪʸ餳ΡäݤʸݤǤϤޤȶ2ĤȤҳФƤƤ
ϢˤĤƤ##4186,3713,3776εå
ǶᡤرλŦ˥ϥäȤ뤳Ȥ¿ؤդƤ롥ɸ귿ʸȤߤʤƤꡤȤꤿƤʬŪ˹ͤȤʤäŦơֳΤˡפȴdear ϡֿưʤפ̣̤ηƻǤ뤫顤my dear friend ʤ褯ʬ롥Ƭΰ (salutation) ʤɤǤϡŪ˳ʤȤ⤤ Dear my friend 롥Dear Mr. Smith ʤɤȤƤɤʤΤ
ŪʴФȤƤϡƬΰ Dear ϽƻȤϡΤδ (interjection) ˶ᤤΤǤꡤɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤäƤ褤Τ⤷ʤĤޤꡤ my dear friend ȡ˳ʤ Dear my friend ٤ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤȤ⤷ʤCGEL (775) Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦˰ƳޡȤߤʤƺѤޤƤ롥
It is conventional to place a salutation above the body of the letter. The salutation, which is on a line of its own, is generally introduced by Dear;
Dear RuthDear Dr BrownDear MadamDear Sir
̻Ūˤߤе䤬ͯƤ롥Dear my friend Τ褦ʸ礬Ƹ줿ΤϤĤʤΤθɸβϤʤΤäΤѸǤ Dear my lord Dear my lady 㤬¿褦 milord, milady θòȤؤ꤬˰㤤ʤ
ѸξˤĤưҤ٤ƤСCOCA ǸƤߤ¤ꡤ¤ϡdear my ̾פϷ褷¿ʤŪˤ⤤ʴ롤⤷ơޤǤʢK꤬Ȥˡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
줿ѤʵǤɸΤ褦 yes/no ʸؤβǡNo, I'm not. ϵƤޤ*Yes, I'm. ϵƤ줺Yes, I am. ȴʤФʤޤѸؽκǽ I am ξά I'm ǤȽ櫓ǤάȤʤ礬ΤǤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
ϡʸ˾ά֤ȤϤǤʤפȤʸˡ§뤫Ǥ⤦ΤˤСĸ˴ؤƤϡǤ϶Ǽ¸ʤФʤʤȤȤǤĸȤΤϡȤʤäƤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤɤޤޤޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])ˡȤʸˡŪʵǽ̤ΤȤǤ
θϡ̾ʸ̮Ǥϼ夯ȯ졤ά뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤñȤȯˤϡֶפȤʤޤam ǤСɸβΤ褦ʸˤˤϡ̾μ /əm, m/ ǤϤʤ̤ʶ /æm/ ȤƼ¸ʤФʤޤ
ǤϡʤǶȤʤʤФʤʤΤǤ礦̾be ưˤưˤֻˤ衤졤ư졤Ūʤ̤Ǥ³뤿ᡤ켫Τ뤳ȤϤޤŪʾά (ellipsis) ư (movement) ؤˤϡ˵뤳Ȥ⤢ޤ
Are you a student? --- Yes, I am (a student).
I am taller than you are (tall).
She doesn't know who the man is.
Sam kicked the ball harder than Dennis did (kick the ball hard).
They ran home as fast as they could (run fast).
What are you looking at?
This is the very book I was looking for.
Τ褦üΤȤǤϡˤäεǽ϶Ǽ¸ޤϡ̾ξ¤δפ̤Ƥ뤿ᡤȤƤۤ¸뤫ȹͤޤYes, I am (a student). ΥǤСbe ưˤϡ a student άƤȤȤɸ䤬դƤꡤ̾ I'm a student. be ưֽաפôäƤȤΤǤ
ʤNo, I'm not. ƤΤϡbe ư줬櫓ǤϤʤȹͤƤޤ뤤ϡbe ư + notפ蘆äƸ³Ǥξάɸ뵡ǽôäƤΤǤϤʤȤͤޤ (cf. No, it isn't.)
ε#4022. ѸˤˤʸˡѲĬήǤС礫ʬϤءס ([2020-04-27-1]) ˤĤưƤ
١ȤŪߤȳΤˡ (synthesis) ȡʬϡ (analysis) ֤뤬ºŪˤ100%Ūʸ100%ʬŪʸȤΤ¸ߤʤɤθ⡤ʬϤξˤȤľΤɤ˥ץåȤ롥űѸϿľ¦ζ˥ץåȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤˤʤűѸ⡤λ夫ߤнʬ˿ʿʤǤ뤫ƱͤˡѸʬ¦ζǤϤʤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤȤȤǤ롥Ѹˤư̾ζޤʤɤϤĤäƤ뤫
äơűѸ줫鸽ѸؤʸˡѲĬήħŤ礫ʬϤءפϡľ0100ؤǤϤʤȤȤդʤФʤʤŪˤСľ30餤80餤ؤ٤ȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⽽ʬ˷ŪʥեȤȤϻפ
#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) #1816. drift ˬ ([2014-04-17-1]) ǵľ餷ޤϡ0100ؤɽƤ뤫Τ褦ɤ뤬ĥǤ롥οޤϤ⥲ޥɤ˸ꤷ֤Ūʰ֤ΤǤꡤ깭Ūʻ줿ޤǤϤʤνθʤСűѸ줫鸽ѸؤΥեȤϤ֤ƤȤ館Ƥɬפ
Smith (41) 礫ʬϤءפвˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Traditionally, the history of English grammar has been described in terms of the shift from synthesis to analysis, i.e. from a language which expresses the relationship between words by means of inflexional endings joined to lexical stems to one which maps such relationships by means of function-words such as prepositions. This broad characterization, of course, needs considerable nuancing, and can better be expressed as a comparatively short shift along a cline. Old English, in comparison with Present-day English, is comparatively synthetic, but nowhere near as synthetic as (say) non-Indo-European languages such as Present-day Finnish or Zulu, older Indo-European languages such as classical Latin --- or even earlier manifestations of Germanic such as 4th-century Gothic, which, unlike OE, regularly distinguished nominative and accusative plural forms of the noun; cf. OE hlāfas 'loaves' (both NOM and ACC), Go. hláibōs (NOM), hláibans (ACC). Present-day English is comparatively analytic, but not as analytic as (say) Present-day Mandarin Chinese; a 21st-century English-speaker still marks person, number and case, and sustains grammatical cohesion, with concord between verbal and pronominal inflexions, for instance, e.g. I love bananas beside she hates bananas.
礫ʬϤءפϥåե졼ȤƤϤȤƤɤ嵭դĤŪƤɬפ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
#1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1]) ǵꥹȤˡDance (1735) ȤĤܤɲäƤ¾ڤԤ벾Ȥ٥Ǥ롥
(1) the marked increase in productivity of the derivational verbal affixes -n- (as in harden, deepen) and -l- (e.g. crackle, sparkle)
(2) the rise of the "phrasal verb" (verb plus adverb/preposition) at the expense of the verbal prefix, most persuasively the development of up in an aspectual (completive) function
(3) certain aspects of v2 syntax (including the development of 'CP-v2' syntax in northern Middle English)
(4) the general shift to VO order
嵭 (1) ˤĤƤϡ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]) ǴϢ˿ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
(2) ˤĤƤϡϢơ#2396. ե줫ζμѤФ뿵 ([2015-11-18-1]) ȡ
(3), (4) 츽ݤȤ櫓 (4) 礭ʲǤ롥ˤĤƤرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡؽ2011ǯˤ54ǤƤ롥˰ʲε碌Ƥɤ
#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
Ǹ˥ꥹȤ˲äΤ˺Ƥ⤦1Ĥιܤä
(5) the spread of the s-plural
ϡ伫Ȥܺ٤ƤǤ롥ܤ Hotta
Dance, Richard. "English in Contact: Norse." Chapter 110 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1724--37.
δ졡رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Fischer et al. (4--6) ˱ѸμפŪѲΰɽ롥ѤʤΤǡ"Overview of syntactic categories and their changes" ꤵ줿ΰƸƤĤįǤ⡤ѸˤɤΤ褦꤬ΤĤ롥
| Changes in: | Old English | Middle English | Modern English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| case form and function: | genitive | various functions | genitive case for subjective/poss.; of-phrase elsewhere | same |
| dative | various functions/PP sporadic | increase in to-phrase; impersonal dative lost | same | |
| accusative | main function: direct object | accusative case lost, direct object mainly marked by position | same | |
| determiners: | system | articles present in embryo form, system developing | articles used for presentational and referential functions | also in use in predicative and generic contexts |
| double det. | present | rare | absent | |
| quantifiers: | position of | relatively free | more restricted | fairly fixed |
| adjectives: | position | both pre- and postnominal | mainly prenominal | prenominal with some lexical exceptions |
| form/function | strong/weak forms, functionally distinct | remnants of strong/weak forms; not functional | one form only | |
| as head | fully operative | reduced; introduction of one | restricted to generic reference/idiomatic | |
| 'stacking' of | not possible | possible | possible | |
| adjectival or relative clause | relative: se, se þe, þe, zero subject rel. | new: þæt, wh-relative (except who), zero obj. rel. | who relative introduced | |
| adj. + to-inf. | only active infinitives | active and passive inf. | mainly active inf. | |
| aspect-system: | use of perfect | embryonic | more frequent; in competition with 'past' | perfect and 'past' grammaticalized in different functions |
| form of perfect | BE/HAVE (past part. sometimes declined) | BE/HAVE; HAVE becomes more frequent | mainly HAVE | |
| use and form of progressive | BE + -ende; function not clear | BE + -ing, infrequent, more aspectual | frequent, grammaticalizing | |
| tense-system: | 'present' | used for present tense, progressive, future | used for present tense and progr.; (future tense develops) | becomes restricted to 'timeless' and 'reporting' uses |
| 'past' | used for past tense, (plu)perfect, past progr. | still used also for past progr. and perfect; new: modal past | restricted in function by grammaticalization of perfect and progr. | |
| mood-system: | expressed by | subjunctive, modal verbs (+ epistemic advbs) | mainly modal verbs (+ develop. quasi-modals); modal past tense verbs (with exception features) | same + development of new modal expressions |
| category of core modals | verbs (with exception features) | verbs (with exception features) | auxiliaries (with verbal features) | |
| voice-system: | passive form | beon/weorðan + (inflected) past part. | BE + uninfl. past part | same; new GET passive |
| indirect pass. | absent | developing | (fully) present | |
| prep. pass. | absent | developing | (fully) present | |
| pass. infin. | only after modal verbs | after full verbs, with some nouns and adject. | same | |
| negative system | ne + verb (+ other negator) | (ne) + verb + not; rare not + verb | Aux + not + verb; (verb + not) | |
| interrog. system | inversion: VS | inversion: VS | Aux SV | |
| DO as operator | absent | infrequent, not grammaticalized | becoming fully grammaticalized | |
| subject: | position filled | some pro-drop possible; dummy subjects not compulsory | pro-drop rare; dummy subjects become the norm | pro-drop highly marked stylistically; dummy subj. obligat. |
| clauses | absent | that-clauses and infinitival clauses | new: for NP to V clauses | |
| subjectless/impersonal constructions | common | subject position becomes obligatorily filled | extinct (some lexicalized express.) | |
| position with respect to V | both S (...) V and VS | S (...) V; VS becomes restricted to yes/no quest. | only S (adv) V; VS > Aux SV | |
| object: | clauses | mainly finite þæt-cl., also zero/to-infinitive | stark increase in infinitival cl. | introduction of a.c.i. and for NP to V cl. |
| position with respect to V | VO and OV | VO; OV becomes restricted | VO everywhere | |
| position IO-DO | both orders; pronominal IO-DO preferred | nominal IO-DO the norm, introduction of DO for/to IO | IO-DO with full NPs; pronominal DO-IO predominates | |
| clitic pronouns | syntactic clitics | clitics disappearing | clitics absent | |
| adverbs: | position | fairly free | more restricted | further restricted |
| clauses | use of correlatives + different word orders | distinct conjunctions; word order mainly SVO | all word order SVO (exc. some conditional clauses) | |
| phrasal verbs | position particle: both pre- and postverbal | great increase; position: postverbal | same | |
| preposition stranding | only with pronouns (incl. R-pronouns: þær, etc.) and relative þe | no longer with pronouns, but new with prep. passives, interrog., and other relative clauses | no longer after R-pronouns (there, etc.) except in fixed expressions | |
ϢѤƤ Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading Saenger ϡʬ (distinctiones) δȯãƤطʤˤϡƥ줫ޥϽθθ경ǤΤǤϤʤƤ롥
Ūˤ䤫äƥθ礬եʤɤȯŸSVOδܸظ경ƤäȤˤꡤɼԤθʶ˶ФռʤäƤΤǤϤʤȤޤθ경¹ԤƶޤοȤѲʹԤƤꡤԤɼԤθʶˤǧλ˱ƶͿƤȹͤ롥ơ⤦ʬȯã⡤ʤʶ˶ǧ̩ܤ˴ؤ롥θݤϤʶ˶ƱŻ뤹ȤͭƤꡤߤ䴰礦طˤäΤǤϤʤˤϡΤ褦ʣŪװؤäɤ®ɤνȯãƤˤʤȤΤ Saenger ήεŸ
̣1ĤϡʸϤɲˤäƤû˴ؤΤǤ롥礬Ūͳǡ³ŵƥˤƤϡɼԤ1ʸĹʸäɤƤФʤʤʸǸޤɤǡΤΰ̣ǧɬפ롥ɤǤɼԤûˤŤô뤳Ȥˤʤǡϯɤ߾夲뤳ȤˤäƤô餫ڸ褦ȤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ƥޥʤɤΤ褦ˡٸ礬ޤäƤꡤʬʤƤСʸǼˤɤΤ褦Ǥ뤫ͽۤ䤹ʤƱˡñ켫Ϥڤʬݤ뤿ˡûˤô˸롥虜虜ϯɤ߾夲ʤȤ⡤®䤫ɲǤΤμͳ³ʿŪǤꡤθ경ʬ⡤180ٰۤʤΤΡϤʿŪȤȤǤ롥
⤦1ĤΤ⤷ϡ礦ɶޤοʤȸθ경ˤʸˡȹͤƤΤƱͤˡ³ʬؤΥեȤȹͤƤȤȤȽˡϡΤ褦˥ڥǤȤ館Ƥ褦
Saenger (17) ΤޤȤʸϼ̤ꡥ
The evolution of rigorous conventions, both of word order and of word separation, had the similar and complementary physiological effect of enhancing the medieval reader's ability to comprehend written text rapidly and silently by facilitating lexical access.
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997.
ѸˤμȤˤƿҤͤ줿䡥ޤľ塥Τ
ޤѸŪˤ뤳ȤϡűѸѸǤϡŪʻȤǤΡִ (article) ̤ȯãäȤȤǤthe a(n) ȤǺऽΤΤϸűѸ줫餢äΤǤ줾츽괧괧ȤƤѤƤޤǤĤޤꡤűѸˤ the a(n) ȤñΤͤϳΤˤɤ⡤Ϥޤ̾ź٤ɬܤιܤȤơϳƤʤäȤȤǤ
ȤȤϡ䤿Ȥʬ˶ϫƤ븽ѸΡִפȤܤϡѸˤߤΤʤǡ˳ƤΤȤȤˤʤޤϱѸˤκǽ餫餢ä櫓ǤϤʤޤλ¤Ƥɬפޤ
ʤΤˤΤʤdzƤȤΤϡʤˤѸ˸¤ޤ⤽Ѹޤ衼åѤ饤ɤ˵ڤ¿θΥ롼ĤǤĸˤϴϤޤǤ²°ŵꥷ졤˥졤ɸȤ̤θϤᡤޥɡޥɡȸɤνХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ˤβǴȯãƤȤ狼ޤʡ#2855. νˤ봧ʬ (1) ([2017-02-19-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ²ΥνܤƤߤƤ⡤ȤܤϤ˳ǧޤΤȤƤϾɤǤϤޤˡŪˤϥ衼åѡեꥫʿΤʤɤˤкߤƤ褦ǡؤΩ줫϶̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ơѸäᤷޤ礦űѸˤⴧμȤʤΤϤäˤ衤ʤθ夽줬δŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ礦1ĤˤϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˸경ƤȤ¤طƤ褦˻פޤ#2856. νˤ봧ʬ (2) ([2017-02-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡָ礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤פΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ꡦȤϡɽλؤƤΤʸ̮äʹˤȤäƴΤ̤Τꤵ뤫ʤȤä̤ΤȤǤäŵŪʥѥϡǤȤǤäʤ鿷ƳƤȤΤǤΤ褦ʾή¤ (information_structure) ȸƤФޤϾ¤ɸ뤿μʤäƤȹͤޤ䴧⤽Τ褦ʼʤθȤʤޤ礬ͳǤСǤƬˤäƤꡤǤ֤ʤɤˡѤǤǤ礦cf. #3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡμͳ٤㤯ʤ̤μʤʤɬפƤޤѸѸˤƸμͳ٤äƤä̡¤ɸ뤿οƻȤơǺȤƼˤä the a(n) ʤɤѤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
1Ĥβˤޤɸμ˥ХƤ櫓ǤϤʤʤɤȤǤ
ȯ˴ؤΰϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ȤƤϢơѸˤˤθ경ˤĤơ#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
814ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ9ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ6Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤưεʸʸˤ do ΤפǤ do λѤϡѸ礤ʤȤäƤ褤ΤǤŪˤߤƤ⡤ʤΤ褦ɽdo ˡȸƤӤޤˤиΤˤĤƤ͡ʲ⤬ꡤʤǮоݤˤʤäƤޤ

ĸδܸ SOV äȹͤƤ뤬Ǥϴܸ礬ѲΤ⤢롥Ѹĸ줫饲ޥĸФ˻˵ڤĹˤΤʤǡܸ SVO ؤѲƤʸˡήˤСO ΰư (movement) Ȥ櫓 (fronting) η̤ȤƤθ礬ǥեȤȤ夷Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ
#3127. ĸ줫鸽Ѹؤδܸοܡ ([2017-11-18-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
O ǤϤʤ V ֤줿 VSO ȤѰŪʸ礬䤬ƥǥեȤȤ夷줬롥٥ȸ (Insular Celtic) Fortson (144) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
If verb-initial order generated in this way [= by fronting] becomes stereotyped, it can be reanalyzed by learners as the neutral order; and in fact in Insular Celtic, VSO order became the norm for precisely this reason (the perhaps older verb-final order is still the rule in the Continental Celtic language Celtiberian). A similar reanalysis happened in Lycian . . . .
βǤȡ餯ŪװˤѰ۸1ĤˤʤäΤǥեȤθȤƺʬ (reanalysis) 졤夷ȤȤˤʤȡġΰˤܸϡ褽 SOV ƳФ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ʿʸ VSO ȤߤΤʤȤȤƤϡʤưǻϤޤȤФϥޥĤʤȤ#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡVSO θΤʤǤ褷ƵʸǤϤʤθδܸˤĤƤϰʲ⻲ȡ
#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])
#3124. ܸ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])
#3125. ܸ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])
#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])
#3129. ܸ (4) ([2017-11-20-1])
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
714ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ8ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱܵѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤפǺܤƤޤɤ

ɸ䤤üŪʤС (1) űѸζޤŪͳѸˤƿहȤȤˡ(2) 쳰ŪͳĤޤꥤɤ轱ǤťΥɸȤ̤ܿơޤοब¥ʤ줿顤Ȥʤޤ
ˤĤƤϡرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡؽ2011ǯˤ54ǤޤΤǡ⤴ȤϡΤ褦ʼҲŪװˤä礭Ѥꤹ뤳ȤΤǤ
Ϣơʲεɤ
#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])
δ졡ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ5ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ8桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ71462--63ǡ
δ졡رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
39ڡˤ15:00?18:15ˡī㡼ɶˤơֱѸˡפꤹ륷ֺ¤2ƤȤ̲ȱѸäޤüԤˤϡǯʾΥγưաʸťΥɸˤ䤿γؤǤѸˤ¿ʱƶڤܤƤʬäƤȻפޤܥ֥ǤϡޤǤťΥɸ (old_norse) ˴ؤ˭٤˼夲ƤޤΤǡ⻲Ȥ
ϼΤ褦ʼݤǤäޤ
ѸΩˡ8 ȾФ11ˤƥ衼åѤʴ̲ΥȤθʸťΥɸˤ礭ͿƤ뤳ȤϤޤΤƤޤ㤨 Though they are both weak fellows, she gives them gifts. ȤʸϡäȤˤ٤ƸťΥɸ줫ƶñ줫ΩäƤޤޤѸΡּưŪפȤ礬Ωطʤˤ⡤γưؤäƤޤ䤿ѸΤʤˡŪǤõäƤߤޤ礦
1. ̲γư
2. ѸȸťΥɸδط
3. ťΥɸ줬Ѹθä˵ڤܤƶ
4. ťΥɸ줬Ѹʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ
5. ʤѸθϡּưŪפǸʤΤ
ֺ¤ǻѤ饤ɻ˥åפƤޤ饤椫顤ܥ֥δϢؤ⤿ΥĥƤޤΤǡǡ̲ȱѸפδطˤĤĤġƤ館ФȻפޤ
1. ֱѸˡ 2̲ȱѸ
2. ֺܹ¤Τͤ餤
3. 1. ̲γư
4. ֥ƥˡ
5. Υ֥ƥ轱
6. ϢѸ
7. 2. ѸȸťΥɸδط
8. 3. ťΥɸ줬Ѹθä˵ڤܤƶ
9. ťΥɸ줫μѸ
10. ťΥɼѸ
11. ɤ̾θťΥɸ
12. Ѹ̾θťΥɸ
13. ťΥɸ줫ΰ̣
14. ưؤαƶ
15. 4. ťΥɸ줬Ѹʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ
16. Ρ֤ġפȡ֤ɤ
17. űѸǤ϶ޤ椨˸礬ͳ
18. űѸǤ϶ޤ椨ֻ줬ɬܤǤʤ
19. űѸǤʸˡ
20. űѸ϶̿θ
21. űѸʸϤ
22. οʿ
23. ֻ˰¸
24. ʸˡ鼫
25. ʤοʿäΤ (1)
26. ʤοʿäΤ (2)
27. ʤοʿäΤ (3)
28. Ρ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפȡ֤ʤ
29. ʸˡΰѲ礫ʬϤ
30. 5. ʤѸθϡּưŪפǸʤΤ
31. ֺܹ¤ΤޤȤ
32. ʸ
Ȥаޤˤꡤ119ڡˤ15ػĥѥ446ֶˤˤơܸز϶ιֱˤƤä뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤȥϡֱѸ may ʸεȯãפǤס̵ǤΤǡؿθϤӤ
May the Force be with you! ʥեˤȤˤɽ may ѤʸˤˤĤƤϡǯ֡ؿ³ƤޤرѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡʸҡ2016ǯˤ4.5Ǥ夲ޤܥ֥Ǥ#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1])#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1])#2484. may ʸǤޤǡס ([2016-02-14-1]) ʤ optative γƵˤƤ̤Ǥ
ʤˤä may Ȥư줬ѤƤΤʤ VS ˤʤɬפΤʤɡŪ椬¿ʤΤǤ̻ŪˤߤȤ٤ͳʬäƤޤ̻ŪˤߤƤȤʬ¿ĤäƤꡤ;ϤޤܳŪĴ٤Ƥߤ褦ȻפΩäΤŪǶǤΤǡ٤ιֱǤϤޤǤʬäƤ뤳ȤޤȤꡤܲͤƤȤäȤȤˤʤޤԲĻĤ̥ŪʹʸˤĤơŪʻޤĤĵƤߤȻפäƤޤ
ȤۤȯɽϤˤΤǤʸƱνǤꡤܸز϶ڤƤʼΥץå⤢Ҳ𤷤Ƥߤޤʤߤ˰ϡǯ121--2˳Ťܸز212ܤ˹Ԥʤ줿1ץˤơʤͥޤԤǤαξμ̿ȡ
Stein ϱѸ2 (inversion) Ȥꤢ줾줬Ūˤʤ뵡ǽѲ뤲ƤƤ롥Stein (135, 139) ΰäֹ¤ϡ type A type B Ǥ type A ϿƳ̤type B ̤ѸƬƤΤǤꡤűѸֹ¤ľܤ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤϤʤ
[ type A ]
In came Chomsky.
Down with the rebound comes . . .
Beyond it rose the peopled hills.
Developing offshore drilling in California are two Texas oil men.
[ type B ]
Rarely did I hear such overtones of gratitude as went into the utterance of this compound noun.
Not until the Book of Splendour did appear in Spain in the thirteenth century did a formidable metaphysical text on cabalism appear.
Often did she visit the inhabitants of that gloomy village
Only of late have I learned about the complexities of subjectivity
Never did I hear about cabalism.
ֹ¤ŪܤϡStein (146--47) ˤм̤Ǥ롥
Prior to the central structural process, the grammaticalisation of SVO, inversion (or not) did have non-propositional meaning, which is best described as 'textual' or discourse meaning, but no affective meaning. . . After the dissolution of the Old English types of inversions, the late Middle English situation shows an incipient tendency for use as a focussing device. The modern developments include the rise of the B type (the emotional type), expressive and subjective in meaning, as well as the rise of the A type, with a discourse-cum-affective type of meaning. The latter type is in part a renaissance of a discourse meaning that was present in the Old English (VSO) pattern, which did not have the affective component. To that extent the development has gone full circle.
ʾޤȤСŪ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤϡ֤εǽŪʤΤòƤSVOظѸǤŪǽϼƾεǽȯãSVO礬ΩˤƤϴŪʵǽ̤ǽФƤȤȤˡʬŪŪʵǽ褷ƤȤή
֤ηǤϤʤǽŪܤȤΤ⡤ͤùǤȤ⤷ʤˤ
Stein, Dieter. "Subjective Meanings and the History of Inversions." Subjectivity and Sbujectivisation: Linguistic Perspective. Ed. Dieter Stein and Susan Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 129--50.
2֤ε#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ ([2018-12-13-1])#3518. ȵʸζᤵ ([2018-12-14-1]) ǡỤ̄Ūʴֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פõäƤ֤ˡ⤦1ġִòפȤɤ⻲ä
òʸǤϡʸŵŪ˵ V + S θ礬ФкѤ롥Jespersen (499) ʸ褦
Sh Merch II. 2. 106 Lord, how art thou chang'd
Sh Merch II. 3.16 Alacke, what heinous sinne is it in me To be ashamed to be my Fathers childe
BJo 3.133 what a vile wretch was I
Farquhar B 321 What a rogue is my father!
Defoe G 44 what fool must he be now that they have given him a place!
Goldsm 658 What a fool was I, to think a young man could learn modesty by travelling
Macaulay H 2.209 What a generation of vipers do we live among!
Thack N 180 What a festival is that day to her | What (how great) was my surprise when they were engaged!
Bennett C 2.12 What a night, isn't it?
ǸʸǤղõ䤬ĤƤ뤬ʤɤϤޤ˴òʸȵʸͻȤ⤤٤òȵ䤬蘆ä#2258. òʸ ([2015-07-03-1]) 㤬˭٤Ǥ롥
ޤòȴ˾ߤ˶ᤷȤפʤmay ʸ V + S Τ⡤ò V + S Ȳ餫δط뤫餫⤷ʤ
may ʸȴϢơJespersen (502) ˡDickinson, European Anarchy 74 ζ̣ʸäΤǵƤ
"The war may come", says one party. "Yes", says the other; and secretly mutters, "May the war come!"
[ | ѥڡ ]
may ϡʸŵŪ V + S ˾䴶òΤ˥ꥯ롼ȤȹͤƤߤΤ⤪⤷
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
ε#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ ([2018-12-13-1]) ǡV + S ξưŵŪ³ˡˤȯãˤĤƼꤢѸǺǤ̤ V + S θȤΤϵʸǤ롥Ȥȡȵʸδ֤˲餫ΤʤΤȤ䤬ͯˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦
ȵʸϡΤ˶ᤤطˤ롥ޤܵƳ³ if Ѥ뤳ȤפHe asked if I liked Chinese food. ϻȿҤͤפ Let me know if she is coming 뤫Τ餻ƤפʤɡԤǤ if ?ɤפ̾ƳΤ?ʤСפƳΤʸ̮˱ưۤʤȤξŪޤˤξ־פȡֵפȤʤΤǤ롥ܸ˸뷸֤פ⡤ŵŪ˵ɽ魯Ȥա
̣Ū뤤ŪˤС⵿ʸ "nonassertive" ǤȤǶ̤Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤ̿ˤĤꤷƤʤȤȤǤ롥̿Ȥ̤βǽްդȤǡ"alternative possible worlds" ȤƤȸƤ褤ξԤۤʤΤϡϤǤϲȯù٤ˤʤʤʸǤϤǡֵ䡦פȤȯù٤Ȥʤ뤳ȤĤǤˤСִ˾פ̿ɽ魯֤ޤäƤʤȤȤΤ nonassertion Τ⤦1ĤŵǤ롥may ʸʤɤñȤǡִ˾פȯù٤Ȥʤǵʸȶ̤롥
Τ褦˹ͤƤȡʤʸƱͤ V + S θȤΤܤʤξԤƤΤǤϤʤεǤ⼨̤ꡤֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פȤɤϸߤ˥Ƥ褦
(non)assertion ˤĤƤϡ#679. assertion and nonassertion (1) ([2011-03-07-1])#680. assertion and nonassertion (2) ([2011-03-08-1])#950. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (3) ([2011-12-03-1]) εȤ줿
Leuschner, Torsten and Daan Van den Nest. "Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German." Languages in Contrast 15 (2015): 34--63.
Ѹˤϡɽ魯Τ if Ѥˡư֤Ѥ빽ʸ롥ʸ褦
Were I to take over my father's business, I would make a drastic reform.
Had World War II ended two years earlier, how many lives would have been saved!
Should anything happen to him, call me at once.
ѸǤϡwere, should, had ǻϤޤΤ˸ꤵƤꡤ̣ŪˤȿŪ˶Ƥ뤬ĤƤϵʸηƱͤ˰̤ư줬֤뤳Ȥ⤢äΩŪˤѤ줿Leuschner and Nest (2) ꡤűѸѸ줫褦
Fulga nu se mete ðære wambe willan, & sio wamb ðæs metes, ðonne towyrpð God ægðer. (YCOE: Cura Pastoralis, late 9th cent.)
"If the food now follow.SUBJ the will of the belly and the belly that of the food, God annihilates both."
Do þu hit eanes awei; ne schalt tu neauer nan oðer swuch acourin. (PPCME2: Hali Meidhad, c. 1225)
"If you get rid of it once, you will never (re)gain anything like it."
Deceyueth me the foxe / so haue I ylle lerned my casus (PPCME2: Caxton's History of Reynard the Fox, 1481)
"If the fox deceives me, I have learned my lesson badly."
ǽ2Ĥʸˤơ֤Ƥư³ˡηǤ롥
ʤɽ魯Τ֤ΤȤˤĤƤϡJespersen (373--74) ֵʸҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
A condition is very often denoted by a clause without any conjunction, but containing a verb placed before its subject. This construction, which is found in all the Gothonic language, is often explained from a question with implied positive answer: Will you come? [Yes, then] we can start at once.---A clear instance of this is AV 1. Cor. 7.27 Art thou bound vnto a wife? seeke not to bee loosed. Art thou loosed from a wife? seeke not a wife.
Jespersen (374) ϡֵʸǤʤȤͤƤꡤ³ơ³ˡȤƤˡβǽˤڤƤ롥
But interrogative sentences, though undoubtedly explaining much, are not the only sources of our construction. Pretty frequently we find a subjunctive used in such a way that it cannot have arisen from a question, but must be due to a main sentence expressing a desire, permission, or the like: AR 164 uor beo hit enes tobroken, ibet ne bið hit neuer | Towneley 171 Gett I those land lepars, I breke ilka bone | Sh Merch III. 2.61 Liue thou, I liue with much more dismay | Cymb IV. 3.30 come more, for more you're ready | John III. 3.31 and creep the time nere so slow, Yet it shall come, for me to doe these good.
ֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פȤɤ餫ηǸߤ˷ӤĤƤȤФ롥VS ȯãϡǶ夲Ƥ may ȯãˤꤲƤ뤫⤷ʤ (cf. #3515. Ѹεʸ2 [2018-12-11-1]#3516. ˡ may Ʊ ([2018-12-12-1]))
Leuschner, Torsten and Daan Van den Nest. "Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German." Languages in Contrast 15 (2015): 34--63.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
ٹ (158--59) ˤСѸˤϡߤޤ̤Ρ֤Ҥʴꤤפɽ魯ˡ (optative) ηȤơ2郎ǧ롥1ĤϲˡŪ³ˡ (subjunctive)ˤѤˡʰʲ (a)ˡ⤦1ĤϸƬ may ΩƤơּưפ³ˡǤʰʲ (b)ˡ줾
(a) ̾ʸƬΩơˡߤưҸȤ롥κݶΤƻ졦ʤɤΩƼȽҸȤž֤뤳Ȥ¿ȤС
Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done.---Matthew, vi. 10.
God bless and reward you for all your kindness.---Stowe.
God forgive me!---Miss Mulock.
Long live the Duke!---Charles Reade.
Mine be a cot beside the hill!---Rogers.
So be it, O Queen!---H. Hoggard.
So help me God!---Hardy.
Τ褦ʤΤΤϾѤ줿ǤϤ뤬ǤϻӾθꤷΤۤϤޤ¿Ѥʤ˰äդ٤ϡΤ褦ʼͤθǤϺʤ̤ѤȤȤǤ롥
Murrain take thee!---Scott.
Devil take me!---Lamb.
Generosity be hanged!---Thackeray.
Dauphin be damned!---Shaw.
(b) ξ硤ˡѤȤ mayѤ롥ξ may ϤĤΩĤΤǤ롥ȤС
May no evil dream disturb my rest!---Evening Hymn.
May he rest in peace!---Irving.
So may it be for ages!---William Morris.
ˡѤˤˡư may Ѥˤ衤ˡ (mood) ؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ФСˡ (optative mood) ȸƤФʤǤ롥ޤ(a) ξϿդ(b) ξɬ֤ȤħŪϡ̾νҤǤϤʤȤͭɸȯù٤Ǥ뤳ȤޡȤƵǽƤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥դǤϡ̾ﴶò (exclamation mark) ȼȤħ⤢롥
ʤmay бɥĸ mögen ³ˡ1⡤may ƱͤŪȤСMöge das neue Jahr viel Glück bringen! ʿǯ¿Ǥޤ褦ˡסMöge er glücklich werden! ˹졪ˤʤɡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
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