hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ڡ / page 16 (17)

language_change - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2011-07-01 Fri

#795. 󥿡ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® [speed_of_change][language_change][internet][netspeak][pde_language_change]

󥿡ͥåȤˤꡤλѤΤ뼡ˤ봷ѲĤĤ롥ϢäϤȤꡤNetSpeak ͭν񵭽ȯãάʸˡ¿ѡѴϺʤɡǯ̿ѤȯŸˤȤʤѲβžΨϡθ˾塤ǤΤȤ롥ơεѳ׿ˤȤ櫓礭ʱƶƤΤѸǤ뤳ȤϵƤʤ
¿θѲĹ餯¸³뤳ȤˤʤΤ뤤ϰΤΤǤ꼡褿뿷ѲִΤϸǤʬʤäơѲΨ˾äȤǤ뤫ɤ̤ΤʤȤѲβžΨʤ̡ˤȤǤϡ餯˾򸫤ʤȤơ⤳βžΨϤäƤ椯Τͽۤ롥
ĹCrystal, The English Language 8 "The Effect of Technology" κǽѤ롥

The speed with which Internet usages are taken up is unprecedented in language change --- another manifestation of the influence of the technology on English. Traditionally, a new word entering the language would take an appreciable time --- typically a decade or two --- before it became so widely used that it would be noted in dictionaries. But in the case of the Internet, a new usage can travel the world and receive repeated exposure within a few days. It is likely that the pace of language change will be much increased through this process. Moreover, as word-inventors all over the world now have a global audience at their disposal, it is also likely that the amount of linguistic innovation will increase. Not by any means all innovations will become a permanent feature of the English language; but the turnover of candidates for entry at any one time is certainly going to be greater than at any stage in the past. Nor is it solely a matter of new vocabulary, new spellings, grammatical constructions, patterns of discourse, and regional preferences (intranational and international) can also be circulated at an unprecedented rate, with consequences that as yet cannot be anticipated. (140)


ߥ˥󵻽Ѥγ׿λˤϡ礭Ѳ롥ʸ桤ѡץ饤á饸Dz衤ƥӡԥ塼󥿡ͥåȡȯθˤϡбѲȸѴѲ³ǯΥ󥿡ͥåȴϢѤϢΥߥ˥󵻽ѳ׿κǽϤäƤȤϹͤ줺ߤǤͽۤΤĤʤѤλȤϴְ㤤ʤʤȤ⸽ߤ˻뵻ѳ׿ˤΤʤǤϡΥ󥿡ͥåȤۤ絬Ϥ˸ѲͶѳ׿Ϥʤ

Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.

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2011-06-20 Mon

#784. ˸ؤ abductive discipline [abduction][language_change][abduction]

[2011-04-24-1]εָ츻ؤμΧפǿ줿 abductionʲˤȤϡ츻ؤФǤʤ˸ΤƤϤޤ롥ѲΡ֤ʤפФ˸ؼԤ٤ϡȤ櫓 abductive ˤʤ餶򤨤ʤ¿ξ硤βϤ餯ʣŪǤ롥٤Ƥװ夹뤳ȤϤǤʤװ֤δطװνŤߤ餫ˤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФкǤ롥Ǥ⡤ƺǽפȻפ뤤ĤװФ˾ơŪߤΤ˸ؤܤǤ롥
ʲΰ񤤤Ȥ롥

It is to be admitted that any answers to the "how" and "why" will only be plausible or provisional because historical linguistics is an abductive discipline (Andersen; Anttila 196--98, 285--86). This means that the suggested description and explanation of the language change is a reasoned inference made with reference to universals such as human experience, human nature, and culture, and to observed facts. The number of possible inferences made in this way is theoretically infinite, and therefore the best that historical linguists can offer is a subset of the theoretically possible descriptions and explanations. Being methodologically abductive, historical linguistics is different from natural science; it is no less tempting, however, to make such inferences in historical linguistics since it allows for different interpretations for a phenomenon. (Hotta 3)


⤽⤹٤ƤθѲ˸ͳΤȤФθͳΥ٥ŪҲŪ¾˸ؤȤơɤޤ餫ˤǤΤ䤤ΤΤȤƤꡤʤѲθͳä͡Ф뤳ȡabductive ˵ʤ뤳Ȥˤ˴ؤʬ̥ϤǤ롥˸ؤȯŸϡ (deduction) ǤⵢǼ (induction) ǤʤŪǤʤȤƤ abduction ˤäƤ롥ơabduction οηϰʲ̤ƿ, p. 54ˡ

ä٤£äѻ롤
⤷ȤǤСäλǤ
äơȤǤȹͤ٤ͳ롥


Andersen, Henning. "Abductive and deductive change." Language 49 (1873): 765-93.
Anttila, Raimo. Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Rev. ed. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1989.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
ƿ ͵ إ֥󡡲ȯ١Ҧ˼2009ǯ

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2011-06-12 Sun

#776. ʬƻ -ed [pde][phonetics][language_change]

[2011-01-30-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻפ[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פǡaged, jagged ʤɤ2Ȥȯ¤ˤĤaged ˤĤƤ、̾ˤäɤ줬뤳Ȥ˸ڤaged ɽʬƻ -ed ȯɤϡ̻ŪѲ߿ʹǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺ƤΤȹͤ롥Ѳϡ̵ -ed ƤȤꡤᲽǤ롥Bolinger (148fn) ϡ-ed Ჽ1920ˤƿʹԤƤǤŪʲѲǤɾƤ롥

The reduction of -ed has been perhaps the most striking phonological change in English in the past century and a half. Poutsma (Part II, §2, p. 569) quotes Bradley to the effect that "Within the memory of living persons it was still usual in the reading of the Bible or the Liturgy to make two syllables of such words as loved or changed, which are now pronounced in one syllable." As a child I gave striped and streaked two syllables each. The disintegration continues; I have heard jagged pronounced as one syllable by a-twelve-year old.


޸ȤƤ -ed α̿Ჽˤ뤳ȤϡѸˤή줫餫Ǥ롥礭Ĭή˹ĬήȤơ2ݻΥꥺ餹ȤΧŪװ롥СξĬή礭Ĭή򤻤ߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤ⡤ʹԤ٤餻뤯餤ˤϺѤƤȹͤ롥κѤ˸³ãĤĤȤȤaged, beloved, naked, wicked ʤɤ٤Ū⤤ -ed ΩǤʤʤϱ󤯤ʤΤ⤷ʤ

Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.

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2011-05-20 Fri

#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ [speed_of_change][language_change][religion][sociolinguistics][sobokunagimon]

[2011-05-12-1], [2011-05-13-1]εǤ줾졤뺧 Amen ȯ夲θ줬ݼŪʿ񤤤򼨤¤ΰü򸫤źˤޤĤѡȤŵθ䵷θݼŪǤꡤѲФ񹳤򼨤ΤǤ롥ꥹȶඵʩǤꡥǤϡʤθϸŤޤݤΤ
ʲפĤޤޤ˲ǽΤװ֥쥹ȤƤߤ¾ˤ⤤󤬤뤫⤷ʤ

Ťޤޤθ줢뤤ǽθΤۤŪʿ꤬ߤ뤫
б٤ɽ魯ѡפǤʤФʤʤ
Ĥθդ򤽤Τޤޤ뤳Ȥפ
ŵ䵷ʸʤɤäʸ줿ȤǤϡ˽񤭸դǤݼͿΤǤ
θˤϸ˸褦ʥȥåѤƤ礬¿Τ褦ʥȥåϸ뤳Ȥ񤷤
ȿˤƤϡ̱ˤȤäǽʸǤۤθȤʤԳ餬Ҥݤ䤹

װȤ߹蘆äơθѲʤʤȤѲ®٤ˤȤȤˤʤΤǤϤʤѲ®٤ˤĤƤ speed_of_change γƵˤƤäˡָѲ˳װפε[2010-07-01-1]Ǹ줬ѲˤĶˤĤˤѤǤϤǤ롥
㤨С[2010-07-01-1]εǸѲ˳װ3ܤȤƵ󤲤 "political and social stability" ϡҲȤƤνˤĤƤΤޤƤϤޤ4ܤ "attitudes of ethnic and linguistic purism" ˤĤƤϡ "religious purism" ޤƤ⼫ʸ̮Ǥ롥Ū purism ɵ᤹ΤǤС purism ɵ᤹뤳ȤˤʤѸˤǤ⡤פλǸŪ purism ε5ܤ "a strong written tradition" ˿줿̤Ǥ롥
1ܡ2ܤ "isolation", "separation" ΤϡǤ롥æƤʷϵ򤫤⤹ˤϡŤΤüᤤƱˡ꤬ߤ򤫤⤹ȤǤ롥
⡤ȤħפȤߤ˴طƤ롥θθŤϡߤħθȸΤǤϤʤ

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2011-04-26 Tue

#729. ѲΥޥɥޥå [language_change][causation][linguistics][flash][methodology][mindmap]

ؤμȤDZѸˤˤŪʸѲˤäơФиѲ⤹ɬפΤγغŪʬ˾ǤŬڤʻʤѲ򰷤ܼʤɤȤΤǤϤʤȻפäƤ뤬õ⼫ʬǤޤȤ᤿ۤüᤤȹͤBussmann θؼŵ "language change" ι򻲾ȤޥɥޥåפƤߤΡɤĤǤFlashɤ

Mindmap of Language Change

äƤϡۤ[2010-07-13-1]εָѲθפʤɤ򻲾Ȥ椯椯 language_change γƵޤȤơޥɥޥåפβǤꤿȻפäƤ롥̣ǡΥ֥Τ̤ƸѲ˴ؤͻϿȤƤȤΤǡν񤭤᤬ο
ѸθѲ˴ؤ륦־λȤƤϡRaymond Hickey's Studying the History of English Language change ¤Ƥ롥

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-02-18-1]

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2011-01-15 Sat

#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ (2) [language_change][speed_of_change][ame_bre][americanisation][wsse]

ε[2011-01-14-1]ǡThe Brown family of corpora λѤǰƬˡ2Ѽ2ΥӤˤäƴѻ롤ܤٺ˴ؤ෿ Mair (109--12) ˵äƳ⤷ŪʷǤޤȤ褦ȤΤLeech et al. (43) ෿Ǥ롥ǤǰƬˤΤ The Brown family of corpora 4ѥ ( Brown, Frown, LOB, F-LOB ) ෿Ūʥ٥ǤĤͭѤѸƳƤ롥

(a) regionally specific change: Ѽˤ̻Ѳ뤬¾Ѽˤϸʤ硥դˡʤɤΤ褦ѲǤξѼ̻Ѳ regionally general change ȸƤФ롥
(b) convergent change: ξѼǼ«̻ѲƤ硥դˡʬѲƤ divergent change ȸƤФ롥
(c) parallel change: ξѼʿŪ̻ѲƤ硥˵Ƥ contrary change ȸƤФ롥
(d) different rates of change: ξѼƱ̻ѲƤȤƤ⡤Ѳ®٤ۤʤäƤ礬롥®٤褽ƱǤСsimilar rates of change ȸƤФ롥
(e) different starting/ending points: ξѼ̻Ѳγϻ뤤ϽλۤʤäƤ硥褽Ʊߥ󥰤ǤСsimilar staring/ending points ȸƤФ.
(f) the follow-my-leader pattern: ξѼʿŪ̻ѲƤ뤬¾꡼ɤƤȹͤ硥(c) β̶ʬȹͤ롥

෿ȳݤ碌ʣ褹1Ѽ˸ꤷƤ̻Ѳ򰷤桤뤤2Ѽ夲ƶŪӤ븦Ǥ齽ʬʣ꤬ΤǤ뤫顤2Ѽ2ΥӤθ椬ʣˤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫Ǥ
ѸѼ Americanization 1ĤĬήǤȤȡѼ郎 AmE 򻲾ȤŪˤɤΤ褦̻ѲФƤ뤫ûŪ˴ѻ븦ϤɤɤƤ뤫⤷ʤޤAmE ǤȤΤΤȤ⤷줺塤WSSE ( World Standard Spoken English ) 䥤ɱѸʤ̤Ѽ郎ˤʤäƤ椯Ȥǽ⡤ʤȤʬŪˤǤʤѼαƶϤ򸫶ˤ뤿ˡ"diachronic comparative corpus linguistics"2Ѽ2Ӹ椬ϤäܤƤΤǤϤʤ

Mair, Christian. "Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics 6 (2002): 105--31.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.

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2011-01-14 Fri

#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ [language_change][speed_of_change][corpus][brown][ame_bre]

[2010-06-29-1]εǤߤ褦ˡThe Brown family of corpora 4ѥ ( Brown, Frown, LOB, F-LOB ) Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƱѸαѼ֤30ǯ֤ۤɤ̻Ѳ٤뤳ȤǤ롥Τ褦˿ꤹ­Ӳǽ򼨤ʣΥѥѤ̻ "diachronic comparative corpus linguistics" (Leech et al. 24) ȸƤФƤꡤߤ30ǯۤɤδֳ֤򤢤ѼΥѥ̤ξظäԻƤ椯ΤȻפ롥
ϰѼǯȤ2ĤΥѥ᡼ˤäܤ٤κˤĤơŪʲʣꤦ롥Brown family ξˤϤɤΤ褦ʲ᤬뤫Mair (109--12) Ƥ2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۡʤ̵ͭˤ෿ ( "typology of contrasts" ) Ѥǰʲ˼"=" Ѳνȯ"+/-" ѲȤ򼨤

(1) nothing happening
BrE: = =
AmE: = =

(2) stable regional contrast
BrE: = =
AmE: +/- +/-

(3) parallel diachronic development
BrE: = +/-
AmE: = +/-

(4) convergence: Americanization
BrE: +/- =
AmE: = =

(5) convergence: 'Britishization'
BrE: = =
AmE: +/- =

(6) incipient divergence: British English innovating
BrE: = +/-
AmE: = =

(7) incipient divergence: American English innovating
BrE: = =
AmE: = +/-

(8) random fluctuation
BrE: = +/-
AmE: +/- +/-

(1), (8) ϺǤ¿ѻԤδؿʤʿޤʥפκۡʤηǡˤǤ롥(2) ϳΩ줿ưαƺ㤨 <honour> vs. <honor> ֻ got vs. gotten λѤȤʤ롥(3) Mair Ǥϵ󤲤Ƥʤ(4) Americanization λ㡤㤨 help 褦ˤʤäƤƤ뷹פ⤫٤뤳ȤǤʤ BrE ǤΤηϤ٤Ƥ Americanization ˵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ˤޤ 'Britishization' Ǥ롥㤨 AmE Ǥνưɽ have got to ι BrE ˸ƤǽȵƤ롥(6) ϡBrE prevent "O + from + V-ing" ǤϤʤ "O + V-ing" 򹥤򤹤褦ˤʤФƤ뷹˵󤲤롥(7) ϡAmE begin to Ǥʤ V-ing ٤ޤФƤ뷹Ȥʤ롥
ŪˤϡѲ®٤θʤФʤʤ㤨 (3) Τ褦ξѼƱ̻ѲƤǤ⡤Ѽ֤Ѳ®٤˺з̤ȤʿԤˤϤʤʤ嵭෿®٤Ȥȡ˺٤ʬɬפˤʤϤǤ롥Τ褦ʣʲϻĤäƤ뤬2Ѽ2Ӥ "diachronic comparative corpus linguistics" ŪȤơ嵭 "typology of contrasts" ͭѤ󡤤ΥݥϡBrE AmE ˤ30ǯۤɤȤû֤̻ѲǤʤʹߤξѼ̻Ūȯã򵭽ҤǥȤƤͭǤ롥ϡ[2010-10-09-1]εǰäѸ convergence divergence ˤŬѤǤȻפ롥

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Mair, Christian. Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics'' 6 (2002): 105--31.

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2011-01-12 Wed

#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 [pde][language_change][grammaticalisation][colloquialisation][americanisation][sociolinguistics][pde_language_change]

Svartvik and Leech ˤȡѸν񤭸ʸˡѲϰʲ3Ĥη򼨤ƤȤ (206)

Grammaticalization --- Items of vocabulary are gradually getting subsumed into grammatical forms, a well-known process of language change.
Colloquialization --- The use of written grammar is tending to become more colloquial or informal, more like speech.
Americanization --- The use of grammar in other countries (such as the UK) is tending to follow US usage.


grammaticalization ( see [2010-06-18-1] ) ϸѸͭѲʤΥᥫ˥ˤȤ櫓ǤϤʤSvartvik and Leech ϸѸ˸ȹͤƤΤԤǰƬˤϡ㤨[2010-05-31-1]ε[2011-01-11-1]ǿ줿 semi-auxiliaries extension of the progressive Τ
2ܤ colloquialization ϸä̱粽 ( democratization ) ȤϢ뤬ñ˽񤭸դäդƱĤĤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤƱͤˡ3ܤ Americanization ñ BrE AmE ĤĤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤ2ĤηϳΤʬŪ˽ŤʤäƤꡤ줾켫Ȥñ˵ҤǤʤʣʲǤ롥
ҤԤ1ͤǤ Leech ̤ζԤ路 Leech et al. ΤʤǤϡ⤦1ĤηȤ "densification" (50) 뤤 "the effects of 'information explosion'" (22) ŦƤ롥ˤȡ礷³ǤѥȤ˸Ψ褯첽褦Ȥߵ᤬ޤäƤȤζŪ줬brunch, smog ʤɤ Ф ( blend ) AIDS, NATO ʤɤ Ƭ ( acronym ) New York City Ballet School instructor ʤɤ̾Ϣ
˸Ѹν񤭸ʸˡѲ˴ؤ colloquialization, Americanization, densification ʤɤȤäȤȡʸˡѲȼҲѲشط򵿤虜ʤ⤷ҲѲʸˡѲƤȤСϼ¤˶̣衤Τ˼ҲѲѲͶȯȤȤϸξǤäܿܿν¦̤Ѳη⤿餹ȤǤäʼºݤ Americanization ϸԤˡʳμҲѲŪ˸ "the broader changes in the communicative climate of the age" Ūʤ⡤ΤʤǤȤ櫓ŪǤʸˡ˱ƶڤܤȤΤϡ褷ƼΤȤǤϤʤä
Leech et al. ϡҲѲʸˡѲ˵ڤܤƶˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

More often than not there are links between grammatical changes, on the one hand, and social and cultural changes, on the other. Such links may not be as obvious as the links between social change and lexical change, and they are certainly more indirect. Again and again, however, the authors have discovered that, especially when it comes to explaining the spread of innovations through different styles and genres, apparently disparate grammatical 'symptoms' can be traced back to common 'causes' at the discourse level. Exploring the connections between the observed shifts in grammatical usage (the nuts and bolts of the system, as it were) and the broader changes in the communicative climate of the age, which are reflected in the performance data that the corpora are made up of, is a fascinating challenge not only for the linguist. (Leech et al. 22)


Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.

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2011-01-11 Tue

#624. ѸʸˡѲΰ [language_change][grammatical_change][pde]

[2010-05-31-1]εǡָѸ˵äƤѲפվ񤭤ʸˡѲŪʤäơ⤦ܤ٤ܤɲäʲϡLeech et al. ˤ "A consensus list of grammatical topics worth exploring" Ǥ (18--19) ΥꥹȼΤ Barber (130--44) ˴ŤƤΤǤ롥Ĥιܤˤ hellog δϢؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤ

decline of the inflected form whom (see [2011-01-09-1].)
use of less instead of fewer with countable nouns (e.g. less people)
regularization of irregular morphology (e.g. dreamt dreamed) (for octopuses, see [2009-08-26-1], [2010-09-30-1]; for oxes, see [2010-08-22-1])
a tendency towards analytical comparison of disyllabic adjectives (politer, politest more polite, most polite) (see [2010-06-04-1], [2010-07-27-1])
spread of the s-genitive to non-human nouns (the book's cover)
revival of the 'mandative' subjunctive, probably inspired by formal US usage (we demand that she take part in the meeting) (see [2010-03-18-1], [2010-03-19-1], [2010-04-07-1], [2009-08-17-1] )
elimination of shall as a future marker in the first person (see [2010-03-21-1], [2010-07-22-1])
development of new, auxiliary-like uses of certain lexical verbs (e.g. want to wanna --- cf., e.g., the way you look, you wanna see a doctor soon)
further auxiliation of semi-auxiliaries and modal idioms such as be going to ( gonna) or have got to ( gotta) (see [2009-07-01-1])
extension of the progressive to new constructions (especially modal, present perfect and past perfect passive progressives of the type the road would not be being built / has not been being built / had not been being built)
use of like, same as, and immediately as conjunctions
omission of the definite article in combinations of premodifying descriptive noun phrase and proper name (e.g. renowned Nobel laureate Derek Walcott)
increase in the number and types of multi-word verbs (phrasal verbs, have / take / give a + verb)
placement of frequency adverbs before auxiliary verbs (even if no emphasis is intended --- I never have said so)
do-support for have (Have you any money? and No, I haven't any money Do you have / have you got any money? and No, I don't have any money / I haven't got any money)
spread of 'singular' they (Everybody came in their car) to formal and standard usage. ( see [2010-01-27-1] )

¾û (e.g. isn't) áط that طλѡNew York City Ballet School instructor ̾Ϣʤɤä

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Barber, Charles. Linguistic Change in Present-Day English. Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd, 1964.

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2011-01-09 Sun

#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ [language_change][grammatical_change][speed_of_change][style][relative_pronoun][interrogative_pronoun][pde_language_change]

[2011-01-07-1],[2011-01-08-1]ǡʸˡѲ֤򤫤ƽ˿ʹԤΤǤ뤳ȤҤ٤顤ŵŪˤϡʸˡѲδѻϾʤȤˤ錄ĹŪʺȤȤȤˤʤ롥Ĺ֤ˤ錄äʸˡѲεܤܤ˽˼äƤ椯®٤פˤϡΤĤλǿܤ٤Ĵ٤뤳Ȥɬפˤʤ롥ˡѥѤŪʸΰյƤ롥Leech et al. (50) ϡ̻ѲθǤ٤ꤳפǤ⤷Ƥ롥

Theorizing about diachronic changes has focused primarily on the processes whereby new forms are initiated and spread, and until recently has paid comparatively little attention to the processes by which the range and frequency of usage contracts, and eventually disappears from the language. . . . one of the message we wish to convey is that frequency evidence is far more important in tracing diachronic change than has generally been acknowledged in the past.


Leech et al. (8) ˰ѤƤʲ Denison ɾƱͤμݤѲˤĤƽҤ٤Τ¿쾯ʤѲˤƤϤޤֻžԡˡ

Since relatively few categorial losses or innovations have occurred in the last two centuries, syntactic change has more often been statistical in nature, with a given construction occurring throughout the period and either becoming more or less common generally or in particular registers. The overall, rather elusive effect can seem more a matter of stylistic than of syntactic change, so it is useful to be able to track frequencies of occurrence from eModE through to the present day. (Denison 93)


ΰʸνפϡˤѲŪ ( statistical ) ǤƱʸŪ ( stylistic ) Ǥ뤳ȤŦƤǤ롥㤨СѸˤ뵿̾졦ط̾ whom οϡʹʸˡѲȤƤ褯夲뤬 ( case ) ˴ؤŪǤʾˡŪʸŪȤȤ館٤⤷ʤŪפȤΤϡĶˤ whom who ζ̤켫Τ϶Ѹ褢ޤѲƤޤξԤ٤ꡤ̻ѥٹ礤ǧ٤Ǥ롥
ʸŪפȤΤϡ񤭸դäդ̡ޤƥȤΥˤä whom ٤礭ۤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ʤȤŪʶ̤ˤʤäƤȤϤwhom / who ˤ formality ȤʸŪǤ礭ؤäƤȤȤϡϤ䤳ѲȤȤ館ǤԽʬǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥
whom / who ˴ؤʸˡѲˤĤƤ¿Ը椬뤬ȻʸˤĤƤ Leech et al. 1ϡä pp. 1--4, 12--16 ͭѤǤ롥

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 92--329.

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2011-01-08 Sat

#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ® [language_change][grammatical_change][speed_of_change]

ε[2011-01-07-1] "grammar blindness" ͳ򤤤ͻä (3) ǿ줿Ѳ®٤ˤĤơʸˡʷ֤ˤѲӤƤߤ褦Ѳˤ˻֤ΤΤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨Сͭ̾ʤȤǤ1400?1700ǯˤƽ˿ʹԤ ( see [2009-11-18-1] ) ¿ξ硤ѲξﲼǿʹԤΤǡ̤Ȥȱ߳˿ܤΤǤ롥
ǡ֡ѲϲѲۤȤƤʣǤꡤԵ§⤤ޤʣʸˡƥ꡼ߤ˴ؤ礦ˡ߳ˤϿʤߤˤˡ֡ϲȰۤʤ̣ôäƤ뤿ˡ̣ϢۤȤʣװ򤸤ꡤԵ§Ѳ򼨤ʤ֤ǤСΤۤҤǻ
嵭ޤȤСʸˡѲϲѲ٤ƻ֤ꡤľŪ˿ʹԤ̤Ե§ˤʤ뷹줬ʸˡѲŪ˰ռˤͳ1ĤǤ롥ʾεä˷ѲȲѲοʹԤλκۤˤĤƤϡǤ夲ƤΤǡͤޤǤ˲˰Ѥ롥

Morphological change is likely to diffuse more slowly than phonological change. This is because there are more morphemes than phonemes and there are more morphological environments to work through than phonological ones (Aitchison, "Missing Link" 25).
     Another difference is that morphological change usually shows a higher degree of irregularity than phonological change because slower changes are more likely to get involved in unexpected interferences as they proceed. The irregularity of morphological change is due also to the complexities of morphological categories. To take Early Middle English nouns for example, there are intertwined categories such as case, number, gender, and declension type. The complex interdependence of these categories make it difficult for any morphological change to proceed regularly.
     Furthermore, morphemes are associated with meanings while phonemes are normally not (phonaesthesia aside, of course). It is no wonder, therefore, that morphology is more subject to semantic association and analogy than phonology.
     One final point is that since morphology is more closely related to syntax than phonology, it is more likely to be conditioned by syntactic contexts as well. (Hotta 125)

Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Aitchison, Jean. "The Missing Link: The Role of the Lexicon." Historical Linguistics and Philology. Ed. J. Fisiak. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1990. 11--28.

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2011-01-07 Fri

#620. ʸˡѲϤʤդˤ [language_change][grammatical_change]

ε[2011-01-06-1]ǡʸˡѲѲѲ٤ƵդˤȤ˿줿ѸˤĤơ "grammar blindness" ͳ͡뤳ȤǤ롥Leech et al. (7--8) 鲿Ŧ褦

(1) ѸΤ褦ʬŪʸˤʸˡѲϡ޸ѲΤ褦˶Ūܤ˸ΤǤϤʤѲ乽ʸΰʬϤΤ褦Ūʻ㤬¿"audible/visible" Ǥʤ
(2) ξŪʹʸʬϤϤȤʸˡѲηˤʤȹͤ뤬ȤξŪǤȤȤξζܤۣǤ뤳ȤްդʸˡѲƤ뤫ɤƤʤȤ¿Ȥˤʤ롥
(3) ʸˡѲϡ֤򤫤ƽ˿ʹԤΤǤꡤѻԤΰΤǤ鵤դˤΤǤ롥

Strang (60--62) ϡ͡ʸˡؤΰռ㤵򡤳Τʸˡλ礱Ƥ뤳Ȥ˵Τ褦󤲤Ƥ롥

(4) ʸˡ§ϲ§¿õ§ۤɼǤϤʤ꼰Τ񤷤äơ⤽ѼԤѰۤѲ˵դλȤȤߤۣǤ롥
(5) ͡ʱѸ variation Ū¸ߤʸˡפǧǽפऽΤΤ¿ͲƤƤꡤʸˡλƤ롥
(6) ͡ϵʸˡˤ1Ĥʸˡפ뤳Ȥ򿮤Ƥ뤿ˡʸˡФƻʤꡤΤޤޤʸˡʵʸˡˤȤѲؤΰռ㤯ʤ餶򤨤ʤ
(7) Ѹذ̤οŸˤ⤫餺ʸˡθϤޤޤŪʳαޤäƤꡤŬڤʻ󶡤ˤ­Ǥ롥

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

ʸ嵭2011/01/08(Sat)ʲ Mair ʸ pp. 107--09 "Observing grammatical change in progress" ʤ᤬ꡤBloomfield Bauer ΰѤʸˡѲδѻǽƤ

Mair, Christian. Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics'' 6 (2002): 105--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-01-09-1] [2011-01-08-1]

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2011-01-06 Thu

#619. ΩƤ븽ѸʸˡѲ [language_change][grammatical_change]

Leech et al. 1Ϥ "'grammar blindness' in the recent history of English" (1) ŦƤ롥

Surprising though this may be in view of a vast and growing body of literature on recent and ongoing changes in the language, there is very little we know about grammatical change in written standard English in the twentieth century. (Leech et al. 1)


ǯΥѥȱѸ˸νв񤤤ˤꤳξϾIJƤƤȻפġʸˡѲλ㸦ĶʸˡѲŪĬήȤ褦ʵŪͤϳΤ˾ʤѸˤǤϡä˸űѸ줫ѸˤƤ synthesis analysis ؤʸˡѲʸˡѲλȤƹ椵Ƥ뤬 ( see synthesis_to_analysis ) ѸˤƤʸˡѲϰϼǤ롥ʴϢȤ[2010-04-01-1]򻲾ȡޤѸθѲˤĤƤ[2010-05-31-1]򻲾ȡ
ŵŪѸˤ Strang ϡѸȤŤʳαѸȤΤʸˡѲΰ礭ۤʤäƤ¤ŦͳϸѸʸˡѲʤǤϤʤʸˡѲ˵դȤȤ񤷤ǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

The most promising direction of search for an explanation would seem to lie in the assumption that there is grammatical change in progress at the moment, as in the past, but that we are considerably less perceptive of it than of other kinds of linguistic change. (Strang 59--60)



ʹʸˡѲѲѲ٤ƵդˤθѲǤ뤳Ȥ͡˻ŦƤ롥ǤϡʤʸˡѲϵդΤ񤷤ΤˤĤƤεǡ

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-01-07-1]

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2010-12-05 Sun

#587. 墡๼japanese] [language_change]

ؤθμȤȾäƤơѸˤμȤǰƤ˸ѸؤȶŤƤޤDZѸ줬ФƤθѲ򿶤֤äƤߤСѲȤϤɤǤ⤤ĤǤⵯΤȤȤͽ¬ǤȻפ䡤¿γ鼡Τ褦ʼ䤬Ф롥ߤѸѲƤΤ줫ѲΤμطʤˤϡѸ줬ǤȤƸꤷʤ뤤ϾʤȤꤷĤĤˤΤǤϤʤȤ󤬤뤫뤤ϸѲŪʻǤ뤫Τ褦ªƤȤȤΤ⤷ʤ
Τ˥ƥä̼ѤȤ첻ܤȤˤƤȡѲϷŪʤΤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤ夫鿶֤äƤߤ絬Ϥ˻פ뤳θѲ⡤ΤʤǸѤƤüԤˤȤäƤŷѲΤ褦˼ΤȤǤ롥ʾˡռŪ˸ѻƤ뾯μ԰ʳϡѲäƤ뤳Ȥ鵤Ťʤ¿θѲϿ͡ΰռˤΤܤʤ餤̩˻ϤޤꡤäȿʤΤǤꡤǯ塤ƤߤѤäʤȵŤ٤ΤΤǤ롥
δФ̣臘ˤϡܸǵäƤѲʤ뤤ѲȹͤΡˤ˵󤲤Τ褤Ȼפޤ޼ˤܸɽ˼äƼȤߤȤѲδФ褯ʬäȤȿ¿äΤǡ˷Ǻܤ롥
īƥӤŷͽ򸫤ƤŷФ󤬡ֺΥåݥȡפǸ夫鱫ߤΤޤꤿ߻äƲȤФޤ礦ȡΥåݥȤν񤫤줿եåפǤƸäΤȤŷФϡ֤ꤿߤפȯƤꡤեåפˤ֤ꤿߥפȽ񤫤Ƥ֤ꤿפäƤʤȤ˰´򴶤Ƥ˰ͤùߤ졤²ˤ⤽ͤùߤγǧä100ͶγνޤȤǤ⥢󥱡ȤΤä顤Τ˿櫓ǤϤʤ֤ꤿߤפ̾ȯȤ̾Ū¿֤ꤿߤפä
֤פΤ褦ʸ줬ʣȤˡ֤ꤿߤפ븽ݤܸؤǤϢȤΤƤ롥Ϣε§ϴˤ꼰ǤŪȤƤ뤬ʣξǤβŪʸˡỤ̄Ūʴطˤꤪ褽ηϻŦƤ롥ξˤϢ򵯤֤껱ס礤פФĤ⻱פ뤬줾ȤƤϢ̵ͭɤƤʤ֤ꤿߤפȯüԤʤʤ¸ߤȤȤϡޤꤿ߻פϢˤĤƤɤϤƤȤȤ⤷ʤ֤ꤿߤפϤ򿭤ФƤ椯ǽǤ⤷ȺϸѲκǽȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ
⤷ѲβǽȸƤǤ褤ΤǤСѲȤϤۤɤ˾¾ΤʤΤǤ롥˻پ㤬ʤɤդưռƤʤ¤ꤽ⤽ïⵤŤʤΤ̤Ǥ롥⤷ǯ˳֤ꤿߤפȯ褦ˤʤäƤС֤äơΤȤѲϤƤΤʤȻפȤ
פѸ㳰ǤϤʤ¾ʤïδؿ椫ʤʾѲμ郎˼Ƥ롥Ѹ줬1500ǯȤĹΤ˷ФƤѲϡ֤äƤߤФ˴ؿͤ뵬ϤѲ˸롥֤ꤿߤפΤ褦ʿФѤäơ컳Ȥʤ롥

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2010-10-09 Sat

#530. ꥫѸ conversion / diversion [ame][americanisation][language_change]

106ʿˡ7ڡˤʸؤȶ߷ؤǡ̾ Manfred Görlach ιֱ񤬳줿߷ؤǤܤ "English in America: the US, Canada and the Caribbean" ǡAmE ˴ؤ diversion conversion 줿
Υ֥Ǥ BrE 椷 AmE ˤĤ͡˽񤤤Ƥ褽괬ѸĬή Americanisation ǤȤݤǰոҤ٤Ƥ㤨[2010-04-21-1]ε򻲾ȡˡGörlachˤˤĤƼ䤷Ƥߤ顤衼åѤǤϤޤޤ BrE ήǤȤβäΤˡ衼åѤϤȤƥꥹ̱ϤŪطʤä¿ϰ褬ꥹѸɤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤŪطʤΰۤʤ¾¿ι񡹡äܤޤ᤿ EFL ȸƤФ񡹤ǤϡѸȤХꥫѸȤȯۤ㤤͡δ֤ˤΤ褦¸ߤ롥Ѹ Americanisation 露ˤߤ錄äƤƤΤϵ褦ʤ
Americanisation ȤɽϡꥫѸȤ1Ĥؤδʼ«̣ΤǤϤʤޤǡȤ AmE αѸѼ˱ƶڤܤƤȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⡤ conversion äƤ褤ǡαѸѼ diversion ⼨Ƥ롥ϰ٥Ǥ ESL Ѽ EFL Ѽ郎ȸƤΤȻפ롥conversion diversion Ʊ˵äƤȤΤϰ츫̷⤷Ƥ褦ɬ⤽ǤϤʤˤϤĤꤦ뤬Görlach ֱǼˤȡäȯȤǤϡָפۤʤȤȤǤ롥¿Ѽ֤ǡäϼ« ( conversion ) ȯȯ ( diversion ) ΤȤΤˡ㤨 BrE Ǹä Americanise ƤƤ뤳Ȥ礤ˤäƤ⡤ȯޤǤ⤬Ʊ٤ AmE ˱ƶ뤳ȤϤʤȤΰ֤ʤɤؤαƶ controversy harass ʤɤ˸Ϥ뤬BrE βηϤŪɤ뤬櫓ǤϤʤȤϸѸǤܸǤ⡤äʸˡϤۤɸѼ˽äƤʤ顤ɤƤ⤪¤꤬ȴʤüԤϤ롥ȯϤФ䤹ȤȤ
ơŪGörlachϡ轵ˤƴ̤ǹֱȥߥʡͽǤʾܺ٤ˡǰʤɤäǤʤΤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӻȡѤƤäƤʤΤǺܤƤ椭

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2010-10-02 Sat

#523. εǽȸѲ [function_of_language][language_change][phatic_communion]

ҥȤθˤ͡ʵǽ롥سǽȤϥߥ˥Τˤ櫓ǤϤʤHinzen (128) ꡤεǽ󤷤Ƥߤ褦

(1) ؤ ( reference )
(2) ݡʻ¡ˤεϿ ( the recording of natural phenomena (facts) )
(3) ׹ͤɽ ( the expression of one's thoughts )
(4) ¤Ū ( creative imagination )
(5) ¾ͤ뤳 ( the manipulation of others )
(6) ᥿Ūǽ ( the metalinguistic function (using language to talk about language itself ) )
(7) Ūǽ ( the phatic function (establishing and maintaining contact) )
(8) Ūǽ ( the poetic function )

(7) "phatic" ˤĤƤϡ926 Merriam-Webster's Word of the Day Ǥθ夲ƤΤǡ򻲾ȤȼΤ褦ˤ롥

adjective : of, relating to, or being speech used for social or emotive purposes rather than for communicating information


פˡȤδطۡݻ뤿ȯäǡ¼Ūʾ򴹤ȼʤHow are you? --- Fine, thank you. And you? --- Fine, thank you. बŵǤ롥դ˵ͤޤäȤΡֺ뤤ǤͤפƱͤ
ˤεǽȡϥߥ˥ΤȤ⡤ष̤ŪǻȤƤ뤳ȤΤۤ¿ΤǤϤʤȤ䤬롥εȿʲ˴ؤǯθˤС⤽⥳ߥ˥εǽ1ĤȤǧƤ褤ɤȤ嵭ΥꥹȤǤ⡤Ф֥ߥ˥פȤܤϴޤޤƤʤ

Whether communication is a distinct function additional to all these, or simply an abstraction denoting one joint overall effect of several of them on certain occasions, is unclear. It is certainly true that we continuously use language without quite literally 'communicating our thoughts' or wanting to do so in talking to others, let alone in talking to ourselves. We may be just talking for social reasons, for purposes of manipulation, or for fun. (Hinzen 128)


줬ߥ˥ΤˤΤʤΤȤϡ֥ߥ˥פɤΤ褦뤫ˤäƤ롥㤨С (144) ˤ뼡ꤷƤߤ褦

äʹȤδ֤ǤȤФˤջפã򴹤Ԥ졤ˤä򡦶򤬤ʤ롤뤤ϡޤ뤳ȡ


Ȥȡ嵭 (1) (8) θεǽΤʤǥߥ˥̤ȤǤΤ (1), (2), (3) 餤ǡʬŪˤ塤βäʸϤϤ٤󥳥ߥ˥ˤʤ뤫顤Υ֥ʸϤؤιֵ⥳ߥ˥ǤϤʤȤˤʤ롥
εǽǤ뤫õ򤹤뤳ȤϡοʲѲǤŪʰ̣ġȤΤϡѲϸεǽ礭»ʤʤϰϤȤȤǤ뤫뤤ϡ⤷εǽ»ʤ褦ʸѲΤǤСҥȤˤȤäƸȤϲʤΤƹͤȤʤ롥
Τ˥ߥ˥˳ؤθѲȤΤ¿롥ǤͻȤƱ۵ηʤɤ⤷줬˥ߥ˥Τ¸ߤΤǤСΤ褦ʸѲϵʤϤ
ϥߥ˥ΤˤȤQϰΤɤΤ餤ʤΤ

Hinzen, Wolfram. Mind Design and Minimal Syntax. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ

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2010-09-29 Wed

#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 [evolution][language_change][variation]

ε[2010-09-28-1]ǡǯˤʤäƤƤεȿʲθħˤּ˱äҥȤθήܤǡ˸ؤˤȡεȿʲθ϶̤Ƥ롥बʳοʲˤäƸ˲äȤȤȡ㤨иűѸ͡ʷ֤Τꤨ̾ʣѸˤ -s ذ층Ƥ椯ˤɤΤ褦ʴϢ뤫ȹͤȡϼǤϤʤ2ĤϳΤ˸Ѳ򰷤äƤˤϤʤμ뤤¸ؤۤʤäƤ褦ˤפ롥Ԥ׸ꡤԤϸ̸ȤФ褤
ȵȿʲʬǤ⡤(biological) evolution of language cultural evolution of language ̤Ƥ褦Ǥ, p. 176ˡʪŪʲδϡҥȤθȯ貿ѤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ롥ˤĤѤäƤΤϡޤѲʪŪʲǡʸŪ¦̤ѲƤȤˤʤȡ˸ؤѸˤʤɤθ̸ˤǰäƤ褦ʶŪʸѲλϡ٤ơ֡ʺΤȤѲʪŪʲǤʸŪʲפȤȤˤʤǤ⡤ʪŪʲǡʸŪʲȤƸβɤѤäƤƤΤõ뤳ȤϡεǽܼʪŪʲФʸŪʲħʪŪʲβǽʤɤ˸ƤΤȹͤ롥
Τ褦ʤȤͤƤȤˡWeinreich et al. ʸǴϢ뤳ȤƤȤפФʸϡ쵯ޤ褷Ƥʤ1968ǯȤᤤ˽񤫤Ƥ뤬Ѱ ( variation ) ιͤꤷŪȯۤǽ񤫤Ƥ롥ʸˡɡ¤ءʸˡʤɤˤѲѤȽҲŪʴä˸ variationist ȸƤФƤ륢ץǿѲۤ뤿ͽʸȤäƤǤ롥ǤϡѲ ( theory of language change ) Ϥ礭ʸʲ ( theory of linguistic evolution ) ΰȤʤ٤ȤμĥʤƤ롥ޤˤäơԤ cultural evolutionԤ biological evolution бΤȹͤ롥

We think of a theory of language change as part of a larger theoretical inquiry into linguistic evolution as a whole. A theory of linguistic evolution would have to show how forms of communication characteristic of other biological genera evolved (with whatever mutations) into a proto-language distinctively human, and then into languages with the structures and complexity of the speech forms we observe today. It would have to indicate how present-day languages evolved from the earliest attested (or inferred) forms for which we have evidence; and finally it would determine if the present course of linguistic evolution is following the same direction, and is governed by the same factors, as those which have operated in the past. (103)


ʲϡ֥뤫ҥȤκǽΥߥ˥֤ؤȯŸ鸽ߤθ칽¤ˤޤǤθʲ򰷤οʲ鸽ߤˤưӤΤǤ뤫ɤ䤦פΤˤʤWeinreich et al. λιؿμȯۤθ˶ä
ޤΤ褦˶󤲤ơѲȸʲ򼨤Ƥ롥

Investigations of the long-range effects of language planning, of mass literacy and mass media, have therefore a special relevance to the over-all study of linguistic evolution, though these factors, whose effect is recent at best, may be set aside for certain limited studies of language change. (103 fn.)


ʪŪʲʸŪʲϽ̤٤ǤȤȤ1ʤξԤδ碌ƸѲõ٤ǤȤȤ1ιͤϡޤ褯ޤȤޤäƤʤ

ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.

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2010-08-28 Sat

#488. ȯɤ򼨤ΰ [pronunciation][language_change][h]

ѸˤߤȯɤˤĤơܥ֥ǤϤޤ controversy, harass, Caribbean ȶ夲Ƥɤ ( fluctuation ) ȤȤϸѲμǤѰ ( variation ) ȤȤǤꡤѲޤ˵äƤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Τȹͤ롥
[2010-05-31-1]εǸѸ˵äƤѲɽŪʤΤ礴Ȥ󤷤äȯˤĤơɤ򼨤Ƥ㡤βѲ򼨺ˤƤȡѲå㡼ȤƤȹͤǡLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ȯĴ ( Pronunciation Preference Polls ) Ǽ夲Ƥ롤ɤ򼨤򥢥ե٥åȽ˼ФƤߤȯĴη̤ȤȤ˾ܤ⤵ƤФʤΤǡѲδϡܸפȤߤʤƤ褤ɤδϱƺ庹˴ؤΤ¿줴Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤΤǤΰϤޤܰ¤ªƤޤsay ϸФȤƤ say ȤʤäƤ뤬ºݤɤ3ñ says ȯ [sez] [seɪz] ȤʤΤǡġˤĤƤϼ򻲾Ȥ줿

absorb, absurd, accomplish, address, adult, again, ally, almond, alto, amphitheater, applicable, Asia, associate, association, assume, asterisk, ate, attitude, auction, aunt, baptize, bath, because, bedroom, been, bequeath, booth, bouquet, brochure, broom, capsize, caramel, Caribbean, casual, caviar, chance, chromosome, chrysanthemum, cigaret, circumstance, citizen, clandestine, coffee, communal, complex, congratulate, contribute, controversy, costume, coupon, covert, cream, create, creek, crescent, cyclical, data, debris, debut, decade, defect, deity, delirious, demonstrable, depot, deprivation, detail, diagnose, diphthong, direct, direction, discount, dispute, dissect, distribute, donate, drama, drastic, due, during, economic, ecosystem, egotistic, electoral, electronic, envelope, ephemeral, equation, equinox, evolution, exasperate, exit, exquisite, extraordinarily, falcon, false, February, fiance, finance, financial, forehead, formidable, garage, gibberish, giga-, Glasgow, gone, gradual, graph, greasy, H, halt, handkerchief, harass, herb, hero, historic, homogeneous, homosexual, hurricane, ice, idea, ideology, illustrate, impious, incomparable, increase, inherent, innovative, inquiry, insurance, involve, irrefutable, issue, jump, jury, justifiable, juvenile, kilometer, lamentable, lather, lawyer, length, -less, licorice, longitude, lure, luxurious, luxury, maintain, mall, malpractice, marry, masquerade, Massachusetts, mayonnaise, measure, migraine, mischievous, Muslim, necessarily, necessary, nephew, new, newspaper, niche, nuclear, often, ogle, omega, ominous, one, onerous, opposite, oral, orange, ordinary, pajama, palm, patriotic, patronise, perpetual, plaque, plastic, poem, Polynesia, poor, predecessor, premature, Presley, prestigious, presume, primarily, princess, privacy, process, project, protester, puncture, quagmire, quarter, questionnaire, real, really, regulatory, research, resource, respiratory, restaurant, room, route, salt, sandwich, say, scallop, schedule, schism, scone, semi-, shortcut, simultaneous, situation, soot, sorry, soviet, spectator, stereo, strength, student, submarine, subsidence, substantial, suggest, suit, sure, syrup, thanksgiving, thespian, tinnitus, tomorrow, transferable, transistor, transition, translate, tube, tune, umbrella, usage, vacation, vehicle, via, visa, voluntarily, were, white, with, year, yours, youth, zebra


ƤǶäΤϡե٥åȤ8ʸܤ H ꥹѸμǯؤ [heɪtʃ] ȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤȤȤLPD ΰʲĴ̤򻲾ȡ

Pronunciation of <em>H</em>

Irish English Ǥ [heɪtʃ] ɸȤȤΤʤä[h] æ spelling-pronunciation ˤˤĤƤϡޤǤĤεǰäƤʸ̾ȤƤ H ȤؤäƤȤϡ

Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

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2010-08-14 Sat

#474. ֱѸ줬Ѳפ2̤ΰ̣Ȥߴط [sociolinguistics][language_change][wsse]

ѸʸˤѲȤȤ̤ꤵƤΤϡȯʸˡäʤɤθηϤιǤѲȤȤŪѲ ( linguistic change ) ȸƤܤ
⤦1Ĥΰ̣ǤѲꤦ롥ϼҲŪʴˤѲǡ㤨мҲˤѸΰ֤ŤǤȤѸ줬Ѥʬ䵡γǤȤѸȤμҲŪǽѲؤҲŪѲ ( sociolinguistic change ) ȸƤܤ
Ѹˤ̤ˤϤ2Ѳ̤ɬפ뤬2ԤϸߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤҲŪѲŪѲͶƤϡְ㤤ʤѸˤˤ롥Ĺ餯ƥե󥹸ΤӤΤȤϲäƤѸ줬Ѹꥤꥹ뤲ƤѸ줬ꥹΤʬΰ ( domain ) Ѥ褦ˤʤꡤ˱ֻɸಽʤǤ³Ѹˤϡʸˡ񤬿¿졤ѸεϤΩ줿
ҲŪѲŪѲ򸣰ǯǤϡѸ줬 ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) ȤƹȤ褦ˤʤȼWSSE ( World Standard Spoken English ) ȸƤФ뿷פαѸѼ郎ĤĤ롥WSSE Ǥϡϰ迧ζȯ򤱤뷹ȤʾϡѸ줬ƻ׵ᤵҲŪǽбƸŪѲȤ
ǤϡդαƶĤޤŪѲҲŪѲͶϤΤϡŤ˵٤ϡ㤨СֱѸʸˡñ㲽餳ϰ̤ǤΤפȤ褦Ƥݤ˴طƤ롥ʲ2Ĥ̿ˤơ (1) 椨 (2) פȤǤ롥

(1) Ѹʸˡñ㲽ʸŪѲ
(2) Ѹ줬ϰ̤ʼҲŪѲ

Ѹ̤ˤĤƤҤ1ͤǤ Crystal Ϥ¯ȤऱƤ (7--10) Crystal ΰոˤϻǡ(1) (2) ⤿餷Ȥ̴طϤʤȤͤǤ롥äѸ줬ϰ̤ΩʬĬή˾ȤޤäǤϡ(1) (2) 岡뤯餤θ̤ϤΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥ΰոϡ (1) 椨 (2) פȤľܤΰ̴طտޤΤǤϤʤ
ŪѲη̤ȤƼҲŪѲȤ餫ʻϰΤΤ

Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2010-07-20 Tue

#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤ [language_change]

ε[2010-07-19-1]˰³Vendryes θѤ򼨤⤦Ĥΰݿ̵ǡ֤椯Ϥή䤨ơפȤݤǤ롥

The construction of a written language marks a stopping-place in the development of language. The forms crystallize and ossify, losing the elasticity natural to life. It is an illusion, however, to imagine that language can ever be arrested. What gives this impression of arrest is the fact that an artificial language is superposed on the natural one; the discrepancy between the two, slight at first, becomes increasingly greater in the course of time, until eventually the contrast becomes so marked that there is a break. This creation of written language may be compared to the formation of a film of ice on the surface of a river. The ice borrows its substance from the river, it is indeed the actual water of the river itself---and yet it is not the river. A child, seeing the ice, thinks that the river exists no more, that its course has been arrested. But this is only an illusion. Under the layer of ice the water continues to flow down to the plain. Should the ice break, one sees the water suddenly bubble up as it goes gushing and murmuring on its way. This is an image of the stream of language. The written tongue is the film of ice upon its waters; the stream which still flows under the ice that imprisons it is the popular and natural language; the cold which produces the ice and would fain restrain the flood, is the stabilizing action exerted by the grammarians and pedagogues; and the sunbeam which gives language its liberty is the indomitable force of life, triumphing over rules and breaking the fetters of tradition. (275--76)



Ǥϡ͹Ūʽ񤭸դȼäդ¿ȿΤǤʤ顤ξԤΤȤʤäƸȤƤȤѤ̤ĥäɹȤβήήȤǹߤ̤Ƥ롥ϤˤäƸ경줿ɹؤϿήˤ빿˸Ư򤹤뤬ɹβοήΤΤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤषɹ줿֤ȿήΤۤȤФͭͤѻΤǤꡤưɹβǤƤΤȤ¾ξ˱ơɹʤ뤳Ȥ⤢СɹϤƤʤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢
ȤǤСƥϤޤǴɹĥäȹͤ롥ѸϤȤɤɹ⤫ǤɸѸϤäȤߤΤɹĥäƤ뤬¤ϤβήȤä
[2010-06-01-1]εǿ줿ŪʡָȤŴϤǤ᤿ꤹ벹٤ϲפȤ䤤פФ롥

Vendryes, J. Language: A Linguistic Introduction to History. Trans. Paul Radin. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925.

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