hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ڡ / page 9 (17)

language_change - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2015-11-01 Sun

#2379. Ƶ̾γŬ [exaptation][reflexive_pronoun][personal_pronoun][syntax][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change][language_change]

#2376. myself, thyself ˤ my- thy- ([2015-10-29-1]) Ǽ夲 Keenan ʸǤϡḽѸκƵ̾줬Ŭ (exaptation) ηޤ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ⤫Ƥ롥oneself η֤ϡ顤;̾оŪˡȤƻϤޤä줬Ʊؼ뤤϶ɽŪ«Ȥ褦ʺƵŪˡȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäȤ ("pron + self is selected because of its contrast function, and later, losing contrast, survives because of its local binding function" (250))
Keenan (346) ϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤ oneself ˡ̤ʬۤꡤΤȤ򼨤ȤűѸ줪ѸˤơƵŪˡϡ줿 oneself ľŪȤƤΤ20%٤ˤʤѸˤǡȤ80%ۤ롥ϡѲ®٤䥹塼Ȥϡ޷SȤȤˤʤꡤ̣ݤǤ롥
Keenan (347) ϡоˡƵˡؤγŬƻڤ򡤼Τ褦˹ͤƤ롥

. . . by the end of ME bare object occurrences of pron + self are losing their contrast interpretation. But this leads again to an ANTI-SYNONYMY violation on a paradigm level. Without the contrast interpretation a locally bound pron + self is synonymous with a locally bound bare pronoun. So him and him + self, her and her + self, etc. would become synonyms. This was avoided by an interpretative differentiation: pron + self in object position came to require local antecedents and bare pronouns came to reject local antecedents (in favor of the always possible non-local ones or deictic interpretations).


ʤKeenan ϡѲϤޤdzŬǤꡤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤϤʤȽǤƤ롥#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1]) #2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡŬʸˡȤδϢ뤳Ȥ¿ξԤδطɬñǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Keenan, Edward. "Explaining the Creation of Reflexive Pronouns in English." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. D. Minkova and R. Stockwell. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 325--54.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-02-25-1] [2015-11-02-1]

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2015-10-20 Tue

#2367. űѸ <c> Ѹ <k> [grapheme][graphemics][spelling][palatalisation][i-mutation][phonemicisation][anglo-norman][vowel][consonant][causation][language_change]

űѸŵŪ <cyning> 뤤 <cyng> ֤Ƥ줬ѸǤŵŪ <king> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥 /k/ ɽ魯ʸ <c> <k> ؤ֤줿ȤȤˤϤʤưŤäΤ
/k/ бʸ <c> <k> ִ줿аޤˤĤơScragg (45) ϵǽŪΩ줫鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . Old English orthography continued to represent the two sounds [= [k] and [ʧ]] by <c> (i.e. both of these words in late Old English were spelt cinn or cynn). Although <c> could still unambiguously represent /k/ before back vowels and consonants (as it still does in cat, cot, cut, climb, crumb), there was no agreed way of distinguishing the sounds graphically before front vowels. The use of <k> for the plosive appeared sporadically from the ninth century but it was not until the thirteenth that it was fully established in words like king and keen, by which time <ch> had been adopted for the affricate.


<c> <k> ؤѲϡ/y/ ߿Ȥ첻ѲͿƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥űѸǤϸ (palatalisation) θ̤ˤꡤ첻Ԥ /k/ [ʧ] ȤƼ¸褦ˤʤäƤ첻Ԥ /k/ [k] ȤƼ¸³ƤꡤߤʬۤʤᡤξϤޤƱ첻Ǥΰۤʤ¸Ǥˤʤääơɽ魯ʸ <c> 1Ĥǻ­ꤿ
Ȥ첻 /u/ i-mutation ˤ첻 /y/ Ȥʤꡤ߿ /i/ ؤѲȡcinn [ʧin] cynn [kin] Ωޤ졤ʬۤ롥 /ʧ/ /k/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤȤƶ̤褦ˤʤäDz (phonemicisation) βǤ롥
ʳˤơۤʤ벻ǤϰۤʤʸɽΤդ路ȤǽŪȯۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ͤˡϤĤμ¸ȼѤδ֤Ф夤Τϡ/k/ Ф <k> /ʧ/ Ф <ch> 򤢤Ƥˡä <c> ΤΤĤäƤʤȤդ줿
Ѹˤ <k> <ch> Ѥ줿طʤˤϡֻѤ륢󥰥Υޥ̻νͿƤScragg θ򤬲ǤʸǤб˴ؤ뵡ǽŪ˽ϤƤΤФOED K, n. εҤϡ󥰥ΥޥֻˤڤǤꡤХ󥹤μ줿Ȥ롥

Yet, in the Old English use of the Roman alphabet, both the guttural and the palatal sound were represented by C, although in the practice of individual scribes K was by no means infrequent for the guttural, especially in positions where C would have been liable to be taken as palatal, or would at least have been ambiguous, as in such words as Kent, kéne, kennan, akenned, kynn, kyning, kyðed, folkes, céak, þicke. But, even in these cases, C was much more usual down to the 11th century; and K can be regarded only as a supplemental symbol occasionally used instead of C for the guttural sound. After the Conquest, however, the Norman usage gradually prevailed, in accordance with which C was retained for the original guttural only before a, o, u, l, r, and K was substituted for the same sound before e, i, y, and (later) n; while the palatalized Old English c, now advanced to /ʧ/, was written Ch. Hence, in native words, initial K now appears only before e, i, y (y being moreover usually merged in i), and before n ( < Old English cn-), where it is no longer pronounced in Standard English, though retained in some dialects.


űѸǤ⤹Ǥ <k> ѤƤȤˤդ٤Ǥ롥ʸǤֻѲޤᡤѲˤϡʣξװͿƤȤ (multiple causation of language change) ˺ƤϤʤʤ
Ϣơ/k/ бʸŪˤĤơ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.

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2015-08-30 Sun

#2316. "English 3.0" by Joe Gilbert [link][internet][medium][netspeak][speed_of_change][language_change]

ǯ11ΤȤˤʤ뤬Joe Gilbert ˤ20ʬΥɥ󥿥꡼ "English 3.0 on Vimeo" 줿饤ǴվޤǤ롥Tom Chatfield, David Crystal, Robert McCrum, Fiona McPherson, Simon Horobin Ȥä̾Ωбؤˤꡤ󥿡ͥåȻαѸθ⤵롥
netspeak ɽ롤󥿡ͥåȾѤαѸäơ֤ˤ͡ʤȤ館롥ѸϤȤŪʸΩĤ嵭νбԤϸ·ơǤϤʤˤˤƤĤλˤ֤ⷫƤѲˤʤȸڤ롥󥿡ͥåȤоˤѲ®ȤȤ䡤#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1]) Τ褦ʿ (medium) ȤϳΤΤ褦ʤȤ˾¾εѳ׿κݤˤ⤪褽ƤȤǤꡤˤȤ鸫̤ǤϤʤȡ
μĥϡ褽4

(1) 󥿡ͥåȤоˤѲ®Ƥ
(2) 󥿡ͥåȱѸ˸άɽˤѸꤶƤ뤬ºݤˤϱѸ򼨤ڵϤʤ
(3) 礭ʵѳ׿λˤϸ䤹ºݤƤ뤳Ȥϡ˿ʼդäȤȤǤꡤѶŪɾ٤
(4) 塤ŪʵϼȡޤĤĤ꼫ͳʸѤȤΤ襤

⤳μĥˤϤܻۤ롥1ĵˤʤΤϡ(1) θѲβ®ȤˤĤƤǤ롥ƱδѻԤȤơŪˤߤƤѸѲ® (speed_of_change) ȤľϤ뤬Ѳ®٤ȤϤ⤽ɤΤ褦˵ҴŪ˷¬ǤΤʤΤ®٤Ȥñ̻դѲ̤ΤȤǤ뤫顤ޤѲ̤¬뤳ȤǤʤФʤʤǤϡѲ̤¬ȤäȤˡ¬оݤϲˤʤΤѸθѲȰˤäƤ⡤ѸȤñ̤ɤɤޤǤʤΤɸѼ˸¤ΤԥޤǴޤΤҲŪƬˤ꤬뤷ޤѲɶäʤΤʤΤʸˡʤΤȤ⤢롥ˡѲ®٤ޤäƤʤɤȷ뤿ˤϡӤΤ˲ΤĤλˤѲ®٤˳ФƤʤФʤʤ
ƱǤ뤫餳ľäƤϤʤȤΤǤСˤѲβ®Ȥ̿ϡ䤹ȤƼƤϤʤʤΤ⤷ʤƱɥ󥿥꡼Ф Wordorigins.org Υӥ塼Ǥ⡤̤γ٤Ѳ®٤ˤĤȽŪ˹ͻƤΤǡȤ줿

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2015-08-17 Mon

#2303. ѲΥ塼˴ؤ [schedule_of_language_change][language_change][lexical_diffusion][speed_of_change][unidirectionality][methodology][linguistics]

˸ؤ̻ؤʤɸѲ򰷤ΰˤƤ⡤ճʤȤˤλŪ¦̤򰷤ϤۤȯŸƤʤѲʶʤּ˷ѵǤϤ뤬ष椨˻֤ȤȤطʲ졤켫Τؤδؿ餿ʤäΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥󡤸óȻ (lexical_diffusion) Τ褦ʻּŻ뤹ϳȯ줬йƤǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) θѲˤĹ롥ޤ#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1]) ʤɤ⡤ѲּˤƹͻƤ롥Ǥ⡤ѲλŪ¦̤ˤĤƤϡޤʬ˿ʤǤȤϸʤ
νפʸơޤȤƤθѲλŪ¦̤ΰڤָѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ȸƤ֤Ȥˤˤϡactuation, implementation, diffusion ˴ؤ (see #1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])) 䡤Ѳν® (speed_of_change)ϩ³֡λ˴ؤꡤäˤ餬ɤΤ褦װˤꤵΤȤ䤤ʤɤޤޤƤ롥
Ѥ De Smet (6) ϡѲγȻˤĤŪ˹ͻ˼ָѲΥ塼פν˴ؿ󤻤Ƥ롥

. . . it is important to see that the problem of diachronic diffusion has two sides. On the one hand, we have to explain the phasedness of diffusional change---that is, to explain why diffusional change happens in stages with different environments being affected at different times, and what determines the order in which environments are affected. On the other hand, there is the more intractable question of what drives diffusion---that is, why does diffusion seem to go on and on, and what gives it its unidirectionality?


De Smet λŦ1ϡʤѲγȻʳŪ˿ʹԤʳνƤΤϲʤΤȤΤȤޤȤƤ褤2Ĥϡ⤽ѲγȻưƤΤϲʤΤ˿ʤޤϤϲʤΤȤΤưϤȤäƤ褤 (see #2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1])#2302. ȻŪѲΰ ([2015-08-16-1]))
De Smet ϡʳνȤ̩ܤ˴Ϣϩˤ⿨Ƥ롥"diffusion follows a path of least resistance" (6) ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡѲηϩװ1ĤȤơŪηϤˤ񹳡ʤ¿ˤǰƬˤƤ뤳ȤϵʤѲΥ塼νˤϡ֤̻֤ΩۤϡꥦΤ褦 "integrated synchrony" ɬפʤΤǤϤʤˤĤƤϡ#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1]) ȡĥäε碌ƻȤ줿

De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2015-08-16 Sun

#2302. ȻŪѲΰ [lexical_diffusion][language_change][causation][schedule_of_language_change][unidirectionality][drift]

#2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1]) ǰѤ De Smet (3) ϡѲγȻ˷֤2Ĥħ˿Ƥ롥"gradualness" "unidirectionality"

   . . . diffusional changes do have two recurrent characteristics. First, they are gradual and their gradualness is context bound, which means that different environments are affected by change at different times or in a different pace. This context-bound gradualness has been disputed for some changes . . . ; yet in many cases, . . . context-bound gradualness is immediately apparent from the data. While this suggests that gradualness is perhaps more pronounced for some changes than for others, there is no denying that it is a central aspect of some major grammatical developments.
   Second, diffusional changes are unidirectional, in the sense that once an environment has been conquered by change it is not normally yielded back. Unidirectionality here does not mean that diffusion proceeds indefinitely but simply that there is a time window in which distributions can grow continuously, without any serious fallback or fluctuation. This consistency of change sometimes seems natural. For instance, in actualization it might be thought of as a systematic bearing out of the logical consequences of syntactic reanalysis. In grammaticalization, consistent collocational expansion often follows from semantic bleaching. But in other cases, . . . a single straightforward explanation for directionality seems lacking, making the directionality observed all the more mystifying.


De Smet ε󤲤1ĤħѲϴĶȤ˽˳ȻƤȤħϡΤ˼Ƥ褤Aitchison ήˤ "rule generalisation" (95) ˤäơĿʤǤΤŵǤ롥
2ĤħѲΰ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƤϡ٤꤬Ĥ褦˻פ롥ޤDe Smet ѤκǸѲΰ "mystifying" Ǥ뤳ȻŦƤ褦ˡθ餫ˤȤ礭꤬ĤƤ롥ϡSapir drift ήˤͿ "mystical" Ȥɾפ (see #685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]))
ˡѲγȻˤϡܺäƤޤΡ뤤ϰŪǤϤήꡤʤȤ֥졼äꤹ륱뤳ȤǤ롥㤨С伫ȤιԤäѸˤ̾ʣ -s γȻȤǤϡˤưŪй -n δꡤ-s γȻˤϤष֥졼äθ塤-s γȻᤷΤǡǽŪˤϡפȤ뤫⤷ʤŪѲΰƤ褤ΤʤΤƹͤ¥ǤϤ롥
De Smet ⡤Τ褦㳰ˤߤβǽǰƬ֤ʤ顤Ť "unidirectionality" ȤǰƤ褦ǤϤ롥â񤭤1Ĥ "a time window" ¤ϡ줬ԹΤ褹복ǰ֤ʤΤǤϤʤȤפäƤ롥Ǥ -s ǤСȻ˥֥졼ľޤǤ1ĤλȤСΤ˰˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤ֥졼ľ夫⤦1ĤλȤСޤ˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥뤿ˤϡԹ褯ꤹ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥

De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-08-17-1]

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2015-08-13 Thu

#2299. Ȼζư3 [lexical_diffusion][language_change][causation][analogy][schedule_of_language_change]

ѲγȻ (diffusion) Υᥫ˥ˤĤơŪʴ#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1])#1642. lexical diffusion 3ĤS ([2013-10-25-1])#1907. ѲΥ塼οǥ ([2014-07-17-1])#2168. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ (2) ([2015-04-04-1]) 濴ˡlexical_diffusion γƵǰäƤ
ȻζưϤǤ뤫Ȥ䤤ФơDenison (58) Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤȤФƤ뤬De Smet (8) ϼ礿븶ưϤ (analogy) Ǥꡤ2ĤŪϤääƤȹͤƤ롥ޤϤǤѤ鸫Ƥߤ褦

Most innovations in diffusion appear to arise through analogy---that is, as a result of the bearing out of synchronic regularities. There are two reasons analogy can lead to unidirectional diffusion of a pattern. If we assume that analogy is sensitive to frequency, in that analogical pressure grows as the analogical model becomes more frequent, it follows that as diffusion proceeds analogy grows stronger and more and more environments will yield to its pressure. In this sense, diffusion is a self-feeding process, keeping itself going once it has been triggered. . . . But analogy can be self-feeding not only in a quantitative but also in a qualitative way. . . . [D]iffusion can proceed along analogical chains, whereby every actual change reshuffles the cards for any potential change. Because language users are tireless at inferring regularities from usage---and may even not mind some degree of inconsistency---each analogical extension changes the generalizations that are likely to be inferred, opening new horizons to further analogical extension.


ƤƤѰ۷٤Ȥװޤᥫ˥ϡDenison νҤ٤Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤˤᤤѲγȻϡȤᥫ˥बŪ˺Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƤΤ߶ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤ䤬礿븶ưϤȤʤĤĤ⡤ġѰۤŪǶɽŪϤƯȻηϩפȤͤDe Smet (8) ˤСŪϤ2ढ롥

Nevertheless, it would be simplistic to believe that analogical snowballs and chains operate exclusively on the basis of analogy. I see at least the following two auxiliary factors. First, if linguistic choices are determined by multiple and variable considerations that are weighed against each other, every usage event comes with a unique constellation of factors pulling linguistic choices one way or another. It is therefore inevitable that there are occasional contexts in which language users are strongly compelled to go against the default grammatical regularities of the system. The unusual choices that occasionally arise in this way may help break down resistance to change. Second, the construction from which a new spreading pattern derives usually occurs in a number of different environments. Because of this, the new pattern is present from the very start in a number of different places in the system, having as it were a diffusional headstart that can very quickly lead to the inference of new generalizations.


ŪϤ1ĤϡġѰۤƯװʣ߹礤ΤΤǤ롥ġѰۤȤޤĶǤ1ĤξηϤƤꡤηϤ¾ξηϤȼäƤ롥ηϤΤĤȼϡȤηϤΤİ񹳤ѲθưϤȤʤ2Ĥϡ餫͡ʴĶˤƸȤ¤ΤȤϡʳȻʤǤϤδĶ٤ޤäƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤȻưϤˤĤʤ2ĤŪϤϡȤ礿ưϤ΢ǻ٤ƤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ

Danison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2015-08-12 Wed

#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. [language_change][sociolinguistics][causation][invisible_hand][methodology][contact]

ܥ֥ǤϡѸˤ˴ؤ뵭Ʊ餤Ѳ (language_change) ˴ؤ뵭񤤤ƤѲȤѸ䳵ǰȤƤطʤˤ򤷤ƤʤФʤʤȤ롥ϡѲ (linguistic change) üԺ (speaker-innovation) ζ̤Ǥ (Milroy 77) 줬ѲΤϡüԤո뤫Ǥ롥
üԤոȤäơ줬Ѳľ뤹Ȥϸ¤ʤ٤η֤뤳ȤΤʤˤʤ⤷ʤĿŪѰۤˤȤɤޤ뤫⤷ʤ줬ηϤΤʤ夷춦Ʊ˳ȤäƤϤơѲȤ롥ֽǤСüԺϸѲԤ롥ޤüԺߤθѲϤꤨʤȤȤǤ⤢롥ΤȤϹͤƤߤмǤϤ뤬䤿ϡָѲפݤˡФиηϤΧΤȤưüԤƤɤ롥ռŪˤΤ褦ˡΤäƤΤǤϾʤȻפ뤬ոκμΤüԤǤȤ¤ϡǰƬˤƤɬפ롥
ѲμΤüԤȸΤưפˤؤΤϡѲؤΰܹԤ˴ؤᥫ˥ब褯ƤʤǤ⤢롥Υᥫ˥1ĤȤ (invisible_hand) ƤƤ뤬ޤơθȤäƤ褤
褦ѸηǰȤơüԡʽġˤɤܿƤˤ⤫餺ФСָܿ (language contact) ȤȤ롥ܿȤΤΤ꤬櫓ǤϤʤäƾüܿȤǧοǤ롥
ѲüԺζ̤üԺߤθѲˤĤƤϡʲεˤƤΤǡȤ줿

#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])
#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])
#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])
#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])

Milroy, James. "A Social Model for the Interpretation of Language Change." History of Englishes. Ed. Matti Rissanen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 72--91.

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2015-08-09 Sun

#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ [linguistics][language_change][diachrony][methodology][variation]

ѲȤ̻ŪѲΤȤǤ뤫顤ϸ츦̻Ǹ椵٤ΤǤ롤ȤΤ̤򤫤⤷ʤ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۤƱ츽ݤΰۤʤ¦̤ǤȤ䡤⤽⥽塼ߤ֤̻֤ζ̤ǤϤʤȤ뤳ȤͤȡѲ̻Ū椢뤤ŪȤư֤Ť뤳Ȥ⵿路ʤäƤ롥
Ѳϡ֤̻֤ζۤ뤤϶ѶŪۣˤ븦ΰǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ϡ֤ϳء뤤ϡ֡פȤɽ򤢤򤱤С֤ϳؤȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥ιͤϡϤäɽȤϤʤäܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤˤФƤ

#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1])
#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])
#2125. 르󡤥ͥ륲 ([2015-02-20-1])
#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1])
#2167. "orderly heterogeneity" diffusion ([2015-04-03-1])
#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])

־֤ϳءפȤƤθѲΤȤ館ϡʤԤФ󾧤Ƥ褷ư̲ƤȤϸʤ־֤ϳءפΰ⤤ľܤɽƤ Keller (125) Ѥ褦

. . . does a theory of change belong to the field of synchronic or diachronic linguistics? If we look again at the definition by Bally and Sechehaye, we observe that the answer can be either 'both . . . and' or 'neither . . . nor'. Now, if a question admits two contradictory propositions as answers, we can be sure that something is amiss with the concepts involved. In this case the conclusion is inevitable that the concepts 'synchrony' and 'diachrony' are not suitable for dealing with problems of language change. They are basically concepts which belong to a theory of the history of language, not to a theory of change. The concepts 'state (of being)' and 'history' are very different from those of 'stasis' and 'dynamics'. 'The past is the repository of that which has irrevocably happened and been created'; whatever belongs to history is static, but the place of dynamics is the present. A theory of change is not a theory of history, but a theory of the dynamics of a 'state'. An explanation of this type seems able to fulfil the claim for an 'integrated synchrony' made by Coseriu in 1980 in his article 'Vom Primat der Geschichte'. Its task would be to define the manner in which 'the functioning of language coincides with language change'.


Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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2015-07-18 Sat

#2273. Ѳͽ¬ǽˤĤƺơ [prediction_of_language_change][language_change]

#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѲεˤ "actuation problem" ˤ롥ʤξλ֤ˤѲΤ뤤ʤΤȤϲǽǤȤƼʤԤ⤤롥ȤΤϡ褷ȤȤϡѲθ̩ͽ¬ǽǤ뤳Ȥްդ뤬ºݤˤϤۤȤʤतΤΤѲͽ¬ (prediction_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡ#843. Ѳͽκ ([2011-08-18-1])#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ ([2011-08-19-1])#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2012-02-10-1])#2154. Ѳͽ¬Բǽ ([2015-03-21-1]) ǸƤ褦ˡȤδ֤ŪʸΩġ
Ūʸ¿ϡ̩ͽ¬ǽ˸Ƥ褦˻פ롥ˤ᤿ơͽ¬ǽϵ뤷ȤơȤ100%θ̵̩ǤäƤ⡤٤ʤ٤ƤȤ뤳ȤϤǤMilroy Smith ϡμݤǤͽ¬ǽٻƤ롥줾μĥѤ롥

Weather prediction is a convenient analogy here: we can predict from meteorological observations that it will rain on a particular day with a high probability of being correct, but if we predict that in a particular place it will start raining at one minute past eleven and stop at six minutes past twelve, the probability of the prediction being correct is vanishingly low. Nevertheless, we would be bad meteorologists if we did not try to improve the accuracy of our predictions, and of course this greater accuracy includes the ability to specify the conditions under which something will not happen as well as the conditions under which it will happen. In view of all this, we have no excuse as linguists for not addressing the actuation problem. (Milroy 20--21)


Predictability
There are several factors and processes that can be involved in a particular language change at a particular time, and these factors and processes are such and such; however, the interaction between these factors and processes is so complex and so various that exact predictability is not to be had. The precise nature of the interaction of these factors and processes can, it seems, only be distinguished after the event. (Smith 17)


Ѳͽ¬ǽĥ뤳Ԥϡ褷̵ʤȤĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤͽ¬ǽξ㴳ˤ뤳ȤˤäơŪˤΩȤƤΤȻפ⤳Ω˻Ǥ롥

Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Milroy, James. Linguistic Variation and Change. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-08-09-1]

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2015-07-05 Sun

#2260. ʲβ [evolution][language_change][linguistics]

ǯevolution, mutation, chance, natural selection, variation, exaptation ʤɡʲʪؤѸڤꤿʲ (linguistic evolution) ˤʤäƤƤ롥ˤֿʲפιͤˤĤƤ͡ʵꡤܥ֥Ǥ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1]) ۤ evolution γƵǤϢ夲ƤˤֿʲפΤ褯ޤȤ᤿ΤȤƤϡMcMahon 12 (314--40) ᤿McMahon (337) ϡ夳ǤθѲθ椬ͭ˾ȤߤƤ뤬ǼȤޤʤФʤʤϾʤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥

. . . many questions remain if we are to make full use of our evolutionary terminology in historical linguistics. We do not know which units selection might operate on in language history; are they words, rules, speakers, or languages themselves? We do not know whether linguistic evolution is governed only by general, universal tendencies, or whether these can be overridden by language-specific factors. And we have yet to formulate the conditions under which variation and selection might conspire to produce regularity.


(selection) Ѥñ̤ϲȤܼŪǤ롥ǡǡ졤硤ᡤʸΧ§üԡüԽġ줽Τθꤹ뤢Ȥñ̤Ȥʤꤦ롥ΤȤϡñ̤ܤƸοʲѲ򵭽ҤȤȤ벾˴Ť԰٤ǤȤȤפ롥
ʤߤˡ McMahon ʸϤϡäƤ SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference (The 9th Studies in the History of the English Language Conference) ǡȼθѲŸ Nikolaus Ritt ĴֱˤʬŪ˰ѡȤƤΤǤ⤢롥

McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-03-28-1] [2016-03-14-1]

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2015-06-30 Tue

#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤ [causation][language_change][methodology][history]

Ѳ˸¤餺оݤ˴ؤ5W1HμΤʤǺǤʪʤΤ Why Ǥ뤳Ȥؤʤ̤ˡ並ˤơǽŪΤꤿΤ Why Ǥ롥ε#2253. ̣ѲθΤʤ񤷤 ([2015-06-28-1]) Ǥˤ褦ˡ̣ѲϤȤѲνθõꡤȤΤʾκȼԤˤäơָѲθϸ§Ȥ multiple causation ǤפȤָѲ˸ʤɤʤפʤ͡Ω줬 (cf. #1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1]
Ѳθɵ˿ŤΩԤ⤤뤳Ȥλ򤷤Ƥ뤬񤷤䤤ǤȤ⡤˸ؤˤˤ Why Ȥ䤤ƤޤȤ۸뤳ȤϤǤʤȻϹͤƤ롥Ūˤϡ#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1]) ǰѤ Smith ٤ٻSmith ϡѲ˴ؤ (ix--x) Ǥ⡤Why 䤦Ȥɬ⤷Ƥ롥

Some levels of language, of course, are easier to discuss in 'why?' terms than others. With regard to the lexicon, for instance, it seems fairly undeniable that the presence of French-derived vocabulary in English relates to the geographical proximity of the two languages and to historical events (the Norman Conquest, for instance), while most scholars---not of course all---hold that inflectional loss during the transition from Old to Middle English relates in some way to contact developments such as the interaction between English and Norse. Sound change, as has been acknowledged by many scholars, is perhaps a trickier phenomenon to discuss in 'why?' terms. However, this book argues that it is nevertheless possible to develop historically plausible and worthwhile accounts of the changes which have taken place in the history of English sounds, bearing in mind all necessary caveats about the status of such explanations. After all, historians of politics, economics, religion, etc., have all felt able to ask 'why?' questions: Why did the Roman Empire collapse? Why did the Reformation happen? Why did the Jacobites fail? Why did the French Revolution or the First World War take place? Why did the Russian Revolution happen when it did? Why did the Industrial Revolution take place when and where it did? All these questions are considered entirely legitimate in historiography, even if no final, unequivocal, answers are forthcoming. If historical linguistics is a branch of history---and it is an argument of this book that it is---then it seems rather perverse not to allow historical linguists to address 'why?' questions as well.


ޤäƱݤǡ伫Ȥ Hotta (2) ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ȤΤǡѤƤ

In historical linguistics, the importance of asking not only the "how" but also the "why" of development must be stressed. In my view the question "why" should be a natural step that follows the question of "how," but linguists have long refrained from asking "why" through academic modesty. I believe, however, that it is allowable to speak less ambitiously of conditioning factors, rather than absolute causes, of language change.


餯Ѳ "the cause(s)" 뤳ȤϤǤʤ"conditioning factors" 褦ȤΤդԤɵΤȤؤơ "Why?" ָפȤɽѤƤѤƤĤǤ롥

Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." PhD thesis, University of Glasgow. Glasgow, November 2005.

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2015-06-28 Sun

#2253. ̣ѲθΤʤ񤷤 [causation][semantic_change][methodology][language_change][history_of_linguistics][language_change][link]

2֤ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1])#2252. Waldron ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-28-1]) ǰѡȤ Waldron ϡStern Ullmann ʤɤμפԸƧޤʤ顤̣ѲθˤĤƤƤ롥ˤĤƤβ餫οƶդäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ뤳Ȥʤ񤷤ΤȤ᥿ˤĤơ˻ͤˤʤŸƤ롥

   We have now considered a number of factors which may contribute to change of meaning and it is not difficult to see why so many different schemes of semantic change have been proposed over the last 150 years and why there is so little agreement among scholars as to the correct classification of the phenomena. For behind every change of meaning there lies a chain of causation which can be analysed at a number of different levels --- e.g. material, social, psychological, logical --- and at each level we should get a different answer to the question 'Why did this word change its meaning?' The position of a statistician analysing (let us suppose) the causes of death in a certain community would be somewhat similar, unless he decided beforehand what sort of causes he was going to pay attention to. For at one level of analysis, every death might presumably be regarded as a case of heart stopped beating; at different levels of analysis such categories as drowning, overwork, carbon-monoxide poisoning, typhoid, and smoke-polluted atmosphere might all be acceptable as causes; but there would be no guarantee that each death would fit into one and only one aetiological category, unless the causes were all analysed at more or less the same level. The doctor who has to insert a cause of death on a death certificate uses one of a set of terms which classify the causes on a fairly consistent level of medical diagnosis; and in matters of such complexity no system of classification for causes is serviceable unless consistency of level is observed. This, of course, is a consequence of the indeterminateness of our concept of cause: every event has many different causes.
   It is quite futile, therefore, for us to attempt to distinguish which sense-changes are due to linguistic causes and which to non-linguistic causes, or which are due to material causes and which to social causes; while it would perhaps be an exaggeration to contend that any change of meaning could be regarded as the consequence, immediate or remote, of any of the recognized causes, the various causal schemes undoubtedly show a good deal of overlapping.


̣Ѳθθ򡤿ͤλεˤʤ館Ǥ롥ʬϤΥ٥뤬͡ˤꤦʾ塤Ф븶ΤΤ¿¿ͤǤꡤޤФиߤ˽ŤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɬŪ multiple causation ꤻ򤨤ʤȤˤʤ롥
ΤȤϡ̣ѲθˤȤɤޤ餺Ѳ̤θˤĤƤ⤤ػˤˤƤ⡤ѲθͳưŤʤõ뤳ȡˤˤĤƤϴࡹε롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ cat:language_change causation γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿Ǥ⡤Ȥ櫓طΤȤưʲ󤲤Ƥ (##442,1123,1173,1282,1549,1582,1584,1986,2123,2143,2151,2161)

#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1])

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-30-1] [2015-06-28-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-06-28 Sun

#2253. ̣ѲθΤʤ񤷤 [causation][semantic_change][methodology][language_change][history_of_linguistics][language_change][link]

2֤ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1])#2252. Waldron ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-28-1]) ǰѡȤ Waldron ϡStern Ullmann ʤɤμפԸƧޤʤ顤̣ѲθˤĤƤƤ롥ˤĤƤβ餫οƶդäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ뤳Ȥʤ񤷤ΤȤ᥿ˤĤơ˻ͤˤʤŸƤ롥

   We have now considered a number of factors which may contribute to change of meaning and it is not difficult to see why so many different schemes of semantic change have been proposed over the last 150 years and why there is so little agreement among scholars as to the correct classification of the phenomena. For behind every change of meaning there lies a chain of causation which can be analysed at a number of different levels --- e.g. material, social, psychological, logical --- and at each level we should get a different answer to the question 'Why did this word change its meaning?' The position of a statistician analysing (let us suppose) the causes of death in a certain community would be somewhat similar, unless he decided beforehand what sort of causes he was going to pay attention to. For at one level of analysis, every death might presumably be regarded as a case of heart stopped beating; at different levels of analysis such categories as drowning, overwork, carbon-monoxide poisoning, typhoid, and smoke-polluted atmosphere might all be acceptable as causes; but there would be no guarantee that each death would fit into one and only one aetiological category, unless the causes were all analysed at more or less the same level. The doctor who has to insert a cause of death on a death certificate uses one of a set of terms which classify the causes on a fairly consistent level of medical diagnosis; and in matters of such complexity no system of classification for causes is serviceable unless consistency of level is observed. This, of course, is a consequence of the indeterminateness of our concept of cause: every event has many different causes.
   It is quite futile, therefore, for us to attempt to distinguish which sense-changes are due to linguistic causes and which to non-linguistic causes, or which are due to material causes and which to social causes; while it would perhaps be an exaggeration to contend that any change of meaning could be regarded as the consequence, immediate or remote, of any of the recognized causes, the various causal schemes undoubtedly show a good deal of overlapping.


̣Ѳθθ򡤿ͤλεˤʤ館Ǥ롥ʬϤΥ٥뤬͡ˤꤦʾ塤Ф븶ΤΤ¿¿ͤǤꡤޤФиߤ˽ŤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɬŪ multiple causation ꤻ򤨤ʤȤˤʤ롥
ΤȤϡ̣ѲθˤȤɤޤ餺Ѳ̤θˤĤƤ⤤ػˤˤƤ⡤ѲθͳưŤʤõ뤳ȡˤˤĤƤϴࡹε롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ cat:language_change causation γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿Ǥ⡤Ȥ櫓طΤȤưʲ󤲤Ƥ (##442,1123,1173,1282,1549,1582,1584,1986,2123,2143,2151,2161)

#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1])

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-30-1] [2015-06-28-1]

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2015-06-21 Sun

#2246. Meillet "tout se tient" --- Ҳˤ [sociolinguistics][linguistics][language_change]

ε#2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ ([2015-06-20-1]) ơηϤǤ뤳ȡˤƤ "tout se tient" ǤȽҤ٤ Meillet Ρ⤦1Ĥ¦̡ʤҲŪʸѤΤƤߤ褦
Meillet (16--18) ϡθ¤ϸŪʤΤǤƱ˼ҲŪʤΤǤ⤢뤳Ȥ򶯤ĥħǤȡΰѲսޤơĹϢʬ

   [La réalité d'une langue] est linguistique : car une langue constitue un système complexe de moyens d'expression, système où tout se tient et où une innovation individuelle ne peut que difficilement trouver place si, provenant d'un pur caprice, elle n'est pas exactement adaptée à ce système, c'est-à-dire si elle n'est pas en harmonie avec les règles générales de la langue.
   A un autre égard, la réalité de la langue est social : elle résulte de ce qu'une langue appartient à un ensemble défini de sujets parlants, de ce qu'elle est le moyen de communication entre les membres d'un même groupe et de ce qu'il ne dépend d'aucun des membres du groupe de la modifier ; la nécessité même d'être compris impose à tous les sujets le maintien de la plus grande identité possible dans les usages linguistiques : le ridicule est la sanction immédiate de toutes les déviations individuelles, et, dans les sociétés civilisées modernes, on exclut de tous les principaux emplois par des examens ceux des citoyens qui ne savent pas se soumettre aux règles de langage, parfois assez arbitraires, qu'a une fois adoptées la communauté. Comme l'a très bien dit, dans son Essai de sémantique, M. Bréal, la limitation de la liberté qu'a chaque sujet de modifier son language « tient au besoin d'être compris, c'est-à-dire qu'elle est de même sorte que les autres lois qui régissent notre vie sociale ».
   Dès lors il est probable a priori que toute modification de la structure sociale se traduira par un changement des conditions dans lesquelles se développe la langage. Le langage est une institution ayant son autonomie ; il faut donc en déterminer les conditions générales de développement à un point de vue purement linguistique, et c'est l'objet de la linguistique générale ; il a ses conditions anatomiques, physiologiques et psychiques, et il relève de l'anatomie, de la physiologie et de la psychologie qui l'éclairent à beaucoup d'égards et dont la considération est nécessaire pour établir les lois de la linguistique générale ; mais du fait que le langage est une institution sociale, it résulte que la linguistique est une science sociale, et le seul élément variable auquel on puisse recourir pour rendre compte du changement linguistique est le changement social dont les variations du langages ne sont que les conséquences parfois immédiates et directes, et le plus souvent médiates et indirectes.
   Il ne faut pas dire qu'on soit par là ramené à une conception historique, et qu'on retombe dans la simple considération des faits particuliers ; car s'il est vrai que la structure sociale est conditionnée par l'histoire, ce ne sont jamais les faits historiques eux-mêmes qui déterminent directement les changements linguistiques, et ce sont les changements de structure de la société qui seuls peuvent modifier les conditions d'existence du langage. Il faudra déterminer à quelle structure sociale répond une structure linguistique donnée et comment, d'une manière générale, les changements de structure sociale se traduisent par des changements de structure linguistique.


Meillet ϡ줬 "tout se tient" ηϤǤʾ塤ѲȤϸηϤѲΤȤˤۤʤ餺ϼҲηϤѲ˸ƱΤǤȹͤƤ롥ġΥߥʼҲѲǤϤʤޥʼҲηϤѲ֤ĶѤ̤ȤƴŪ˸ηϤɤ֤򤫤ΤäơܼŪϡǸʸˤ褦ˡͿθηϤʤҲηϤбƤꡤҲηϤѲɤΤ褦˸ηϤѲȤʤäƸΤȤˤ롥
ʹ¤˸ؤȼҲؤĤʤռMeillet οȾϢơ#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Meillet, Antoine. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1982.

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2015-06-20 Sat

#2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ [popular_passage][history_of_linguistics][systemic_regulation][functionalism][language_change]

ָηϤǤפȤ⤤ϡ塼Ρʹ¤˸ؤˤơŪʥơǤ롥θɽ⤦1ĤλȤơMeillet "tout se tient" 롥Meillet (16) ꡤսѤ褦

[La réalité d'une langue] est linguistique : car une langue constitue un système complexe de moyens d'expression, système où tout se tient et où une innovation individuelle ne peut que difficilement trouver place si, provenant d'un pur caprice, elle n'est pas exactement adaptée à ce système, c'est-à-dire si elle n'est pas en harmonie avec les règles générales de la langue.


"tout se tient" ϡ#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1])#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ǥ礤˽Фβ Jeremy J. Smith ⹥Ǹˤ롥ϡѲˤηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȤݤˡĤ⤳ "tout se tient" Ф (cf. #1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])) Meillet (11) Ȥ⡤ΰѤΩIJսǡѲ˴ؤƼΤ褦ʼĥҤ٤Ƥ롥

Les changements linguistiques ne prennent leur sens que si l'on considère tout l'ensemble du développement dont ils font partie ; un même changement a une signification absolument différente suivant le procès dont il relève, et il n'est jamais légitime d'essayer d'expliquer un détail en dehors de la considération du système général de la langue où il appraît.


"tout se tient" ϡΤ˹¤ؤˤ롤ƤθѲˤ1ĤλǤϤ뤬Meillet ̾ʼҲؼԤȤƤΤƤ¤˾Ȥ餷Ƥΰ⤤ľƤߤȡۤʤ᤬롥ȤΤϡΰʸϡäѤ줬ηϤǤȤȤ⤹ʸ̮˸ƤΤǤϤʤƱ˼ҲŪǤ⤢Ȥˤ2Ĥζ¸ĥʸ̮ˤƸƤ뤫Ĥޤꡤ"tout se tient" ϰ츫ȥι¤Ūʰ⤤¤ Meillet ϼҲŪ¦̤˰ռʤ顤ζˤƤΤǤ롥
Ǥϡ"tout se tient" ȽҤ٤ Meillet ϡѲˤȼҲѲˤδطɤΤ褦ˤߤƤΤεǰ

Meillet, Antoine. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1982.

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2015-06-13 Sat

#2238. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ (2) [wave_theory][phonetics][consonant][me_dialect][old_norse][language_change][geolinguistics][geography]

ˤĤƤϡǶᡤʲεƤ (##2219,2220,2226,2238)

#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬ໤ͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])

ѸˤƬ໤ͭ ("Southern Voicing") 򼨤ʬۤϡߤʬۤ⤺äΰ褬ˤޤdzȤäƤؤ򸫤ºݤޤʬۤεڤ⤢äˤζؤȲᤵ줿Ȥаޤ롥ؤβᤷޤơǤʤ "Southern Voicing" ʤäΤ
βᤷʬۤ˴ؤ Danelaw ΰȴϢŤΤε ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǥ̾󤲤 Poussa Ǥ롥Poussa ϡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1254. ѸäդθѲϽ񤭸դߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) Ǥ夲Ѹ᥯쥪첾μĥԤǤ롥Poussa (249) ηϡ

In sum, I submit that, whereas the original advance of the initial fricative voicing innovation through the OE dialects is a natural and not unusual phonetic process (it has its parallels in other Germanic dialects on the continent), the halting and then the reversing of such an innovation in ME is an unexpected development, requiring explanation. It can only be explained by some kind of intervention in the dialect continuum. The Scandinavian settlement of the north and east Midlands in the late OE period seems to supply the right kind of intervention at the right place and time to explain this remarkable linguistic U-turn.


Poussa ζŪʵ2롥1ĤϡťΥɸȤܿˤԥ󲽤뤤ϥ쥪벽桦αѸѼˤƤϡȤ෿ŪͭɸǤƬͭ໤ϺѤʤäȤ (Poussa 238) ⤦1ĤϡѸ East-Midland μҲŪʱƶϤɥɸѼη礭׸褦ˤʤˤĤơƬ໤⤿ʤƱΰҿޤäˡζ˲줿ΤȤҲŪǤ롥פˡθƬͭ໤Ͽˤդ路ʤȯȤɾȽEast-Midland üԤ濴˳ȤäȤȤǤ롥
Poussa (247) ѤƤ˼ҲؤʹͻȤƶ̣

   It seems to me that the voicing of initial /f-/, /s-/, /θ-/ and /ʃ-/ in OE and ME, which Fisiak convincingly argues are caused by one and the same lenition process, is precisely the type of rule which is typically jettisoned when a language is pidginized or creolized, and acquired only partially by learners of a new dialect. Furthermore, why should the speaker of a Danelaw dialect of English want to sound like a southerner, whether he lives in his home district, or has been transplanted to London? It would depend on what pronunciation he (or she), consciously or unconsciously, regarded as prestigious.
   If this explanation is accepted as the reason why such an expansive lenition innovation stopped at approximately the Danelaw boundary during the late OE or early ME period, then the reason why the area of voicing subsequently receded southwards is presumably related: migration of population and the rise in the social prestige of the East Midland dialect meant that the phonologically simpler variety became the standard to be imitated.


Poussa, Patricia. "A Note on the Voicing of Initial Fricatives in Middle English" Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Eaton, R., O. Fischer, W. Koopman, and F. van der Leeke. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1985. 235--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-22-1]

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2015-06-01 Mon

#2226. ѸǸƬ໤ͭäͳ [wave_theory][consonant][me_dialect][causation][language_change]

#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǽ夲"Southern Voicing" ȸ븽ݤˤĤƺƤӡεǤϡβʤʤäΤȤöŪʴʤȤѶŪʸƤϤʤäԤδؿ붽̣ͻ򸫤ĤΤǾҲ𤹤롥
βȤơΦϥޥ줫αƶ⤬Ƥ롥Nielsen (246--47) ˤСLow Franconian ǤϾʤȤ1100ǯޤǤƱͭƤڵ򤬤ꡤΦۤ󥰥ɤŤΤǤϤʤȤѸˤƤϡͭθ̤ե󥹼ѸˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ͭˤߤ뤳Ȥ顤βϸűѸ줫ѸˤƵäȤ롥Υߥ󥰤ϡΦŤȤˤȤäԹ礬褤

Since there are other indications of late linguistic cross-Channel relations between the south of England and the Netherlands, there is nothing extraordinary about interpreting the presence of initial voiced fricatives in both places in terms of late contact. . . . / Samuels . . . is probably right in placing the innovatory centre within Franconian. The voicing of fricatives has perhaps spread from here into Upper German . . . , and similarly it may have crossed the Channel --- from Flanders to the south of England. (Nielsen 247)


Nielsen ûΤʤǤβˤĤƹͻƤˤڵϽʬȤˤϤۤɱ󤤤̣ǤϤ롥εƤȹ碌ȡΦؤꡤ̤ؤŸťΥɸ첽ͭʲĶäƤؤϿƩʤäȤڽ񤭤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥

Nielsen, Hans F. Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages: A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenshaft, 1981.

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2015-05-26 Tue

#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ [old_norse][consonant][me_dialect][causation][language_change][methodology]

ε#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ǡѸˤƬ໤ͭȤѲҲ𤷤ǤϤͭʤäᡤפȤʤäƸȯãɸѸˤ⡤θ̤ȿǤƤʤˡɸѸä vane, vat, vixen ŪˤϰۼʤΤǤ롥
Ǥ̤ǤʤäѲȤΤϡѲ˸¤餺¿¸ߤ롥षΤ褦Ѳ̵ͭŪơʬߤƤȤäۤμεҤȤƤΤäơʤƬ໤ͭˤơˤʤäΤȤ䤤ϡ⤽פĤ⤷ʤä䤦ȤƤ⡤̾ϡʤ̵໤ͭΤȤ˰ռΤǤꡤʤ줬ǵʤäΤȤˤ
Knowles (41--42) ϡԤΤꤽˤʤۤε "speculative" Ȥʤ⡤ͳθȤơťΥɸˤƬͭ໤Ժߤ󤲤Ƥ롥

Danish may also have influenced the pronunciation of an initial <s> or <f> in words such as fox and sing. In the Danelaw, as in North Germanic, these remain unchanged [s, f], but there is widespread evidence of the pronunciation [z, v] in the area controlled by Wessex (Poussa, 1995). The distribution is confirmed by placename evidence (Fisiak, 1994). Similar forms are found on the European mainland: for example, the <s> of German singen is pronounced [z], and the <v> of Dutch viif ('five') is more like an English [v] than [f]. Some [v]-forms have become part of Standard English: for example, vat (cf. German Faß), and vixen alongside fox, but otherwise the [s, f] forms have become general, and [z, v] survive only in isolated pockets.


ͤ٤ȤưʲΤΤ󤲤Ƥ

Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995: 295--307).
Fisiak,J. "The Place-Name Evidence for the Distribution of Early Modern English Dialect Features: The Voicing of Initial /f/." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 97--110.

ѲǵʤäȤ˴ؤťΥɸδͿȤǽȡϡǤɾǤʤƤϡѲˤפʥåޤǤȹͤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ񹳡 ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲҲ𤷤ʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤϡä٤ѸǤϸƬ໤˴ؤƸűѸθݻ줿ˤ䤦Ȥʤ˸뤬ʤݻ줿Τ䤦ɬפȤΤ Milroy ŪȯۤʤΤǤꡤKnowles ⤽Τ褦˸ƤȤȤˤʤ롥ӸƤƤʤФʤʤѲФžȯۤ⤷

Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.

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2015-05-22 Fri

#2216. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡ [link][corpus][bnc][coca][ame_bre][sociolinguistics][language_change][gender_difference][link]

Ρ#2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ˰³520դǡּԡפޤWEBޥ Lingua   *
ϡʣΥѥѤ뤳Ȥ䤪⤷򲡤ФޤޤѸαƺȤ츫Ūˤ⡤ưŪ뤤̻Ū뤳Ȥˤꡤʸ⶯Ĵޤ
ΤʤǤ⿨ޤºݤˤϺΡּԡפǽҤ٤˻ˤϡäȾܤĴʤФʤޤ󡥤ѥѤơ㤨ФΤ褦ʸѲħȤ館뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽ򴶤äƤ館СȤǼɮޤԡԤǻμɮôϴǤʹߤ³WEBޥ Lingua εˤܤХåʥСͭѤǤʲWEBޥ Lingua γƵؤΥ󥯡ʺǿǡˤĥäƤޤ

1. ʤѥ ֿܡ
2. Ѹ쥳ѥθĥ BNCweb 򸡺Ƥߤ ԡ а桡
3. Ѹ쥳ѥθĥ BNCweb 򸡺Ƥߤ ʸԡ а桡
4. Google 򥳡ѥ˸ΩƤ ʿβʡ
5. פδáԡˡ ٺθ ʾӡͺϺ
6. פδáʸԡˡ ʾӡͺϺ
7. ѥѤŤƿΰ衧ե쥤 ʰ塡͡
8. ѥѤŤƿΰ衧ե쥤 ʰ塡͡
9. ؽԥѥȤϲ ʳҡΡ
10. ؽԥѥDzǤΤ ʳҡΡ
11. ѥ륳ѥβǽ ʿβʡ
12. ܸ쥳ѥ˸봷Ѷˡ ġץꥷ
13. ܸ쥳ѥ˸봷ѶѲǽ ġץꥷ
14. COCA Ȥäθ ġ͡
15. COCA Ȥäθ ġ͡
16. ѥäդõ롡 ڡ
17. ѥäդõ롡 ڡ
18. ؽԤäեѥȤäʬϡ1ɸ well, I mean, kind of, like λȤ ʻ
19. ؽԤäեѥȤäʬϡ2㤤ʪǤ׵ɽ ʻ
20. ǧθؤѤƥѥ̣õ롽 ëľ
21. ǧθؤѤƥѥ̣õ롽 ֻ졦ư ëľ
22. ѥõѸαƺԡ ġδ
23. ѥõѸαƺԡ ġδ

ʤμԤܤ gorgeous ˴ؤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεǰäƤޤΤǤȤ

#476. That's gorgeous! ([2010-08-16-1])
#477. That's gorgeous! (2) ([2010-08-17-1])
#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1])

ޤѸʸˤ˽ˤĤƤ gender_difference γƵǰäƤޤä˸˽ȥѥѤ᤿Ȥơ#913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-21-1]

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2015-05-14 Thu

#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ [verb][conjugation][tense][auxiliary_verb][indo-european][grammaticalisation][category][language_change][causation][future][sobokunagimon]

ɸμݤμ䤬󤻤줿ΤǡˤĤŪʴͤƤߤѸưˤϡνɽ魯ΤŵŪѤ롥Ʊͤˡߡʤ뤤סˤνŪɽ魯ˤϡưŵŪ˸߷dzѤ롥̤ν˴ؤƤϡư̤Ȥƶޤ褦ˡ¸ߤʤ will, shall, be going to ʤɤΡʽ˽ưѤȤŪˡȤƤ롥ĤޤꡤѸˤṲ̄Ϥˤ衤Ṳ̄ϤʤȤäƤ褤ñˡ̤פȤѸǤϡ졤֤ΤΥ٥ˤַפˤĤƸ򾷤ǽ뤳Ȥ顤ѸʸˡǤϤѸ줬򤱤뷹ΤǤϤʤ
ʽ˽ưѤŪ뤤ϱṲ̄ɽϡ餯űѸʹߤ will shall ʤɤŪˡŪʵǽĽư줬ջ֤̳ΰ̣ᡤñ˻֤ȤƤ̤ɽ魯ˡؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥˤλˤϡñ̤ɽ魯ΤòɽϡŪˤŪˤʤˡŪʰ̣ȼ鷺̤ɽʤϷ礱ƤȤäƤ褤űѸǤϡŪˤϸ߷ʤ뤤ΤˤˤѤ뤳ȤǸߤΤߤʤ餺̤ΤȤɽ魯ȤǤΤǤꡤƥ꡼ˤơ丽ߤȶ̤٤ʬȤƤ̤Ȥȯۤϴäθ will ʤɤѤ̤ɽиǤ⡤夫λƥ꡼ΤȤ館礭Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ̤Ȥʬ⤤Ƥ봶롥Ѹ̤Ȥǰ¸ߤʤȸڤΤϡŪˤϸ᤮Τ餤褦˻פ
嵭Τ褦ˡűѸλƥ꡼ϡŪˤСʤФСָߡפȸƾΤˤ2ʬʤäƤǸѸδ뵿ʤƼºݤ˴󤻤줿ˤϡʤűѸǤ̤ʤäΤʤư̤ζޤȯãʤäΤȤ䤤Ǥ롥μľΤϤ䤹ʤŪʳ٤4ŦƤ
ޤμˡߡ̤3ʬˡȤḽŪʻ֤δǰȻפ뤬֤ΤȤ館뤤ϤθؤȿǤǤƥ꡼ǡɬ⤳ȤƤ褤Ϥʤܿͤޤ᤿¿θͤˤȤäơ3ʬˡλִФ϶ˤƼ˻פ뤬줬ˤȤäƤ̵ͣλִѤǤȤߤʤȤϤǤʤޤ˷3ʬˡλִѤѤ줿ȤƤ⡤3ʬˡ줤ˤΤޤ޸ξˡƥ꡼ȤȿǤΤʤΤɤǤ롥ϥԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ؤǤꡤ̤ǤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤ
2ܤˡ¾ΰˤ⡤ܸˤߤ褦ˡ̤ɽϡƤջ֤̳ʤɤˡŪʵǽķʸˡ뤳Ȥˤȯ뤳Ȥ¿Ҥ̤ꡤϱѸˤˤƤѻ줿Ǥꡤɤ̸ŪˤߤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ߡ̤3ʬˡǤϡ̤Ťߤäξˤ֤Ƥ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ뤬⤷ȸ첽ǤξԤνŤߤϡФаۤʤΤ⤷ʤʤȤ⤤Ĥμ׸ˤ򻲾Ȥ¤ꡤ̤ϲ椷ƸȯŪǤꡤŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿
3ܤˡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤ2ʬˡϡʸš˱Ѹ˸¤餺ޥ˶̤פħ1ĤǤ롥ޤƱ²ϸŤҥåȸƱ2ʬˡäƤꡤĸˤƥ꡼Ʒä褷Ƥ롥̤ưĸ̤ȸƤӤΤäΤʤäΤ뤤ϡäȤơŪʤΤʤΤŪΤʤΤĤޤꡤ嵭μϡűѸФ٤ˤȤɤޤ餺ĸФƤ٤Ǥ⤢롥ĸ餫餭줤ʲߡ̤3ʬˡλäƤΤɤȤδ֤褬롥
Ǹˡ׿ʤȤ뤳Ȥ餬󥸥󥰤ʲǤȤǡ׿ʤȤʤä뤳Ȥ϶ˤ񤷤ΰ̣ǡűѸˤƤʤ̤ȯãʤäΤ򼨤Ȥϡ˾ŪʺȼѲŪΩ줫ϡϤפǤϤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ񹳡 ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲ˸ڤʤ󵯤褦ˡʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤ⡤ä٤

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