hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 / page 17 (17)

language_change - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2010-07-19 Mon

#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤ [language_change][teleology][drift]

[2010-07-03-1]εǡѲ켫ΤϿǤǤʤܤѤäƤ椯ȤȰʳβΤǤʤȤȤ򼨺ѸˤʤɤθˤȡѲ˰礭ή졤ɺή ( drift ) 褦˸뤳ȤϳΤϰηǤꡤŪŪ ( teleological ) ̣ŪǤϤʤˤĤƤϡĹ浭٤Ƭǡ֤椯Ϥή䤨ơ⡤Ȥοˤ餺ߤ֤ϡľäķӤơפȤɤޤꤿʤ
Vendryes ̾κǸʲΰ⡤ѲޤäȤꤷƤ롥ϸߤμҲŪʽװȲθŪʰ仺Ȥݤ蘆뤳Ȥˤäơή褦ѲƤΤȤ̵Ѥɤ߼롥϶ݿ

We can now see how the hypothesis of progress in language must be understood. Progress in the absolute sense is impossible, just as it is in morality or politics. It is simply that different states exist, succeeding each other, each dominated by certain general laws imposed by the equilibrium of the forces with which they are confronted. So is it with language. In the history of languages a certain relative progress can be observed. Languages may be adapted in a greater or lesser degree to certain states of civilization. Progress consists in the best possible adaptation of a language to the needs of the people using it. But, however real this progress may be, it is never definitive. The characteristics of a language are maintained just so long as the people speaking it preserve the same habits of thought; and they are liable to modification and degeneration, or to complete disappearance. It is quite wrong to think of language as an ideal entity evolving independently of men and pursuing its own ends. Language does not exist apart from the people who think and speak it; its roots go deep into the consciousness of each one of us; thence it is that it draws the sustenance enabling it to blossom in speech. But personal consciousness is only one of the elements of the collective consciousness whose laws are imposed upon every individual. The evolution of language thus constitutes only one aspect of the evolution of society: we should not see in it anything in the nature of direct advance toward a definite goal. The task of the philologist comes to an end when he has recognized in language the play of social forces and the influence of history. (359)


Vendryes, J. Language: A Linguistic Introduction to History. Trans. Paul Radin. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925.

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2010-07-14 Wed

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ [language_change][causation]

ε[2010-07-13-1]ǡѲθˤϸŪʤΤȸ쳰ŪʤΤȽҤ٤װߴطʣǤ롥ˤĤƤϻռƹͤ³ƤBrinton and Arnovick μΰɤǾä

Scholars generally agree that external causes of change are less important than internal causes; in fact, some argue that the external ones do not 'cause' change at all, but simply speed up changes already underway in the language, exploiting imbalances or weaknesses already present in the internal system of the language, and encouraging the choice of one variant form over another. This view may underplay the extensiveness of the changes brought about by external influences, which operate indirectly over long periods of time and are difficult to assess, but the argument is nevertheless a useful antidote to the popular view, which tends to attribute far too many changes to external causes. (59)


Ū쳰ŪξװˤĤơԤΤۤԤ "important" ǤȤƱդ褽Դ֤˹ߤȤΤľäƤΤ褦ʤȤϽʹषθ "the popular view" ˶᤯ŪװϸѲξΩƤ򤷤Ƥˤ쳰ŪװѲ©᤭ߡͿ̤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ
ΤˡΰˤȤꡤǤ˸Ū˻ưƤѲܿʤɤγŪװˤ®ȤϡѸˤˤ¿롥㤨СѸθξüȤտ魯θ경ȤѸ˾礭ʸѲϡŪװˤäƻϤޤꡤťΥɸե󥹸ȤܿȤ쳰Ūװˤä¥ʤ줿ȤΤŪ˼ƤǤ롥ξ硤Brinton and Arnovick θǤϡθѲװȤƤפʤΤϸŪװǤꡤ쳰ŪװϤޤǤ¥ʤȤˤʤΤθǤϡŪװѲʹԤƤ椯ΤΩƤ򤷤Ƥˤ¼Ū˿䤷ʤ᤿Τϸ쳰ŪװǤȤˤʤ롥Ʊݤ򸫤ΤĤβ᤬ȤȤˤʤ롥
ΰոϡѲװˤĤƲä "important" ȤߤʤȤ˴ԸΤǤϤʤѲѰ۷ ( variants ) ¸ߤ󤹤ΤǤСѰ۷󶡤װפȤȤˤʤ롥ơѰ۷󶡤װˤϡŪʤΤ⤢и쳰ŪʤΤ⤢롥ɤξԤŪʽ٤¬뤳ȤǤΤʤȤ⤽ǸԴ֤ƱդȤϻפBriton and Arnovick ΰո˵Ǥ롥

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-07-13 Tue

#442. Ѳθ [language_change][functionalism][contact][causation]

Ѳʤ뤫θˤĤƤ͡ʸ椬ʤƤѲ causation ˴ؤϡŪˤϸդεǤ롥뤤ϺƤѲѻڵ򤫤鲿ȿ¬롥¿ξ硤Τ褦˿¬줿θѲˤĤƤΤͭǤꡤ̤ѲŬѤꡤѲͽ¬ΤˤΩʤޤۤܤ٤ƤθѲˤƸϰĤǤϤʤʣθʣŪȤ߹蘆äƤȹͤ졤causation εǤϰΩˤ
Ūˤ¿θѲƤϤޤȹͤ뷹ϤꡤʬवƤ롥ʬФ꤬ʤŪƱդƤȻפΤϡŪ ( language-internal ) ʸȸ쳰Ū ( language-external ) ʸȤʬǤ롥Brinton and Arnovick ( 56--62 ) ˽äơɽŪʸվ񤭤褦ĤιܤˡϢ륭ɤܥ֥ؤΥ󥯤դ

Language-Internal Causes

[ üԤ褽̵ռŪ ]
ease of articulation ( assimilation )
perceptual clarity ( dissimilation )
phonological symmetry ( [2009-11-27-1] )
universal tendencies
efficiency or transparency

[ üԤ褽ռŪ ]
spelling pronunciation ( spelling_pronunciation )
hypercorrection
overgeneralization
analogy ( analogy )
renewal
reanalysis ( reanalysis, metanalysis )

Language-External Causes

contact-induced language change ( contact )
extreme language mixture ( leading to pidgins, creoles, and bilingual mixed languages ) ( pidgin, creole )
language death ( language_death )

ŪʸˤĤƤϡüԤѲˤĤ̵ռŪʤΤռŪʤΤʬƤ뤬ռ̵ͭ٤ʤΤŪʴˤϤʤʤ
Ϣ뵭Ȥơ[2010-07-01-1], [2010-06-01-1]ε⻲ȡ

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-07-03 Sat

#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ [language_change][evolution][teleology][language_myth][language_equality]

Aitchison (6--7) ˤȡѲФ͡٤ϻʬ롥

(1) Ѳϴʾ֤δǤ
(2) ѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤ
(3) ѲϿǤǤʤ

Ѳ򰷤̻ؤǤ (3) QǤ롥Ѳñ˸θɽƤǤꡤǤǤʤñ㲽ǤʣǤʤ¦̤ñ㲽äƤ褦˸Ƥ¾¦̤ǤʣäƤΤǤꡤȤƤθΨϤۤѤʤ ( see [2010-02-14-1] )
(1) (2) ΰոϤޤ˿͸դƤ롥(1) Ԥϡ줬ĤƤŪʾ֤֤ƤƤꡤ˵äƤѲϤ褽Ǥȹͤ롥ܤǤ⡤Ԥθդ졤ʸФпʹʤɤˤΤܤ뤬 (1) ιͤȴطƤ롥ꥹǤϡShakespeare ɽʸͤ줿16Ⱦ Elizabeth īդ꤬ѸβǤꡤʹߤۤλѤäƤƤΤȤͤäȤߤʤΤϿ͡ξʤΤ⤷ʤ
˱ѸˤĤơBrinton and Arnovick ϡ(1) ιͤޤ˹ԤϤäƤΤϼΤ褦ͳ뤫ǤȽҤ٤Ƥ (20--21)

Ťֶۤ΢֤Сؤò
ʸؤƴʳαƶӽѸ Americanisation ؤδʤɡ
ҲŪиʤ¤λ롤ܳȯؤƴʤɡ
ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤι٤˶ŪʸΤۤͥƤȤռä˱Ѹ϶ŪǤʤظѲ뤲ƤƤΤǡ
񤭸դνŻʽ񤭸դäդ٤ƤޤѲʤΤǡͥƤȤȯۤˤĤʤ

(2) ˤĤƤϡ19ӸؼԤƤʲŪʸѤȿǤƤ롥ʪñ㤫ʣؤȿʲƤ褦ˡब̤ʸؿʲƤ褦ˡ⸶ϤΨŪʷ֤鸽θΨŪʷ֤ؤȿʲƤȤȯۤǤ롥αѸˤ֤ƤΥꥢڡѡǤ⡤Ѹˤˤޤñ㲽βʤɤؤơֱѸϸΨŪˡȤ䤹˿ʲƤȤ狼äפȤ괶ʤʤʲŪʸѤ̢䤷Ƥڵ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-07-01 Thu

#430. Ѳ˳װ [language_change][sociolinguistics][icelandic][old_norse][speed_of_change]

ѲϤۤȤɤξ硤ͰŪ椬ʤȤˤϼ˵äƤޤΤǤ롥ֻפѴʤɡ͡ռŪ˸褦Ȥ⤢뤬ɬ⤦ޤʤȤ¿Keller Τ褦ˡġοʹ֤ϸʤȤƤҲΤȤʤäƸѲ⤿餷Ƥ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥ơѲε䤹ʹ®٤⡤ҲˤäѲȹͤ롥
ѸѲФƤȻפϥꥹ濴ȤѸҲŪư¿Ҳäȸ롥ꥹϴ¿ꡤ͸ȤؤΦʸۼ⳰ӽФȤʤä¿η㤷ҲưФǤ뤫顤θ礭㤷ѤꤹȤΤ򤷤䤹
ȤȿФˡ̤˼ҲưʤȸѲ⾯ʤȹͤ롥ǤϸѲ˳װͤƤߤʲϡBrinton and Arnovick (16) ˵󤲤ƤװǤ롥

geographic isolation, which protects a language from foreign influence;
separation from the mother tongue, which leads to conservatism on the part of speakers who are reluctant to depart from tradition;
political and social stability, which eliminates the need for linguistic change to meet changing social conditions;
attitudes of ethnic and linguistic purism, which encourage the vigilance of speakers of a language against external influences and internal change; and
a strong written tradition.


Brinton and Arnovick Ϥ¾˸Ū侩 mass communication Ѳ˳װǤȤƤ롥ˡpurism written tradition Ȥ⿼ط뤬ڡä˸춵ڤ⵬ϼ ( prescriptivism ) ¥ʤ뤿ᡤѲ˳װΰĤȹͤ
ơװ¿碌ļҲŵ Iceland 롥Iceland äƤ Modern Icelandic ϡOld Icelandic λ夫Ū礭ѲƤʤ ( see [2010-04-20-1] ) ä˽񤭸դ˴ؤ¤ꡤѲ϶ϾǤ롥ϡIceland (1) Ū˸ΩƤꡤ(2) Scandinavia θϤ󤯳֤äƤ뤳ȤˤݼŪǤꡤ(3) ҲŪ˰ꤷƤꡤ(4) ѸѤ򤹤붯äƤꡤ(5) 11Ĺ񤭸դͭƤ뤳Ȥˤȹͤ롥
ǡѸ줬Ūû֤δ֤ѲűѸѸΥꥹҲͤƤߤ褦Ǥϡ(1)(2) ʤΦȤδطΩƤ ( see [2009-10-03-1] ) षΦΥ󥰡ʥޥɤƱ˦ˤΥޥͤȷ㤷ܿƤޤ(3) ˤưҲǤꡤ(4) ̱²ˤꤽ⤽ǤƤǤϤʤ(5) ΥޥͤΥե󥹸줬񤭸դɸȤʤäˡѸν񤭸դϤܼۤ줿Ѳ˳װڸʤΤǤ롥
ǤϡѸϤɤglobalisation ҲβưȤ¦̤ͤСѸǤϸѲ㤷Ȥǽͽۤ롥ǡޥǥδ䶵ڤȤ¦̤ͤȡѲ˳ȤǽͽۤǤ롥Ѳ¥ʺޤޤɤΤ褦ƯƤäȸäƤ

Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-06-18 Fri

#417. ʸˡȤϡ [grammaticalisation][language_change][semantic_change]

ѲŵŪʥѥΰĤˡʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) 롥رѸ׸켭ŵ٤ˤʸˡȤϡָѲΰǡ켫ΤθỤ̄ĸޤ϶礬ʸˡطɽܼ ( AFFIX ) ʤɤѤ븽ݤ򤤤פȤ롥
ܸ줫ФС֤ΡפϷΤʪŪ¸ߤȤƤΡʪΡפֿȤϤʤΤפΡ֤ΡפϤʪΤؤ櫓ǤϤʤ Such will be life.Life tends to be like that. ۤɤΰ̣Ǥꡤ֤ΡפθϵǤ롥Ʊͤˡ֥Ȥ͡פˤơ֤ȤפϡָפȤ¼Ūʰ̣ưѤɽˡָפ櫓ǤϤʤñˡ֥פȡֿ͡פƱʤȤʸˡطǷ֤ۤɤǤ롥Ūʡָפΰ̣ϤǤϵǤ롥
ѸɽȤƤ while 롥űѸǤϤñϡֻ֡פɽ̾äΰյϸѸ for a while It is worth while to see that movie. ˸ߤĤäƤ롥ֻ֡פɽ̾ȤƤˡ顤䤬³ˡȯã롥While I was watching TV, my wife was cooking. ˤ while ϡֻ֡פȤ̾줫?δ֤ˡפȤ³ʤʸˡŪȤʻΰġˤƤƤ롥?δ֤ˡפۤɤΰ̣ǤФޤ֤δǰ뤬While I am stupid, my brother is clever. Ȥ while ˤϻ֤δǰϳ̵Ǥ롥ǤĴ롤ʸˡŪʵǽ̤³ȤƵǽƤˤʤȤȤΡֻ֡פϱɽʸˡǽˤޤȯŸƤޤä櫓Ǥ롥
ΰ̣εȤ19Ƥ grammaticalisation Ȥ٥ŽäΤ Meillet (1912 [=1921, Vol. 1, p. 131]) Ǥ롥Meillet l'attribution du caractére grammatical à un mot jadis autonome ְΩŪǤäʸˡŪʤͿ뤳ȡפɽ
 ʸˡϰ̤˰ʲλĤħĤȤ

(1) ʸˡǤϸ¤Ƥ롥㤨̤ɽϡäѤջ̳֡ŪϤؤαưɽư칽¤롥will, shall,be going to Ǥ롥

(2) ʸˡϰѲ롥while ˸褦ˡ̿Ụ̄ʡֻ֡סˢỤ̄ʡ?δ֤ˡסˢɽỤ̄ʡ?椷ơסˤؤȯãΤ̤Ǥ롥

(3) Ȥΰ̣ݻޤޤ˿̣ʬ롥㤨 while ϰ̣ѲФΤˤ⡤Ρֻ֡פ for a while ʤɤ˻¸Ƥ롥

ʸˡε϶ǯǡ嵭ħȿ㤬Ŧ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ѲŵŪʥѥΰĤǤ뤳Ȥ̸ŪˤΤƤ롥

߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ׸켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ298--99ǡ
Meillet, Antoine. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales." Scientia 12 (1912). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Tome 1. Paris: Champion, 1921--36. Tome 2, Paris: Klincksieck.

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2010-06-07 Mon

#406. Labov New York City /r/ [sociolinguistics][phonetics][language_change][ame_bre][rhotic]

car, hear ʤɤˤߤ <r> ȯ뤫 ( rhotic )ȯʤ ( non-rhotic ) ϡ̤˱ѸαƺȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿̤ non-rhotic Ȥߤʤ륤ꥹѸǤ⡤ɥ濴ȤʳǤϹ /r/ ʹ뤷̤ rhotic Ȥߤʤ륢ꥫѸǤ⡤New England Southern Ǥ /r/ ȯʤäơ̤˸Ƥ /r/ αƺϡޤǥꥹѸȥꥫѸɸŪѼ٤ƤäǤ롥
New York City ( NYC ) ⡤20ȾˤϥꥫѸ餷 non-rhotic ϰǤäνϿDz褫餫Ǥ롥ʹߡߤ˻ޤǡꥫѸȾĴ碌뤫ΤȤ NYC Ǥ /r/ ȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ǯδ֤˰ĤθѲäƤȤȤˤʤ뤬ѲܤҲؤŪĴԤäΤ University of Pennsylvania William Labov äθϸμҲؤΤᤶޤȯŸ˹׸ŪʼˡϺʤ͡ζ̣Ƥޤʤ
20ȾθؼԤ NYC ο͡ /r/ ȯꤷʤäꤹ¤ˤϵŤƤλȤʬʬۤϥǤꡤġͤιߤˤʤȹͤƤLabov ϤʬۤϥǤϤʤ餫κ򤬤ϤȹͤǡҲ񳬵ˤäʬۤۤʤΤǤϤʤȤΩơ򸡾ڤ٤Τ褦Ĵײ褷٥ι⤤ۤ͡ /r/ ȯ뷹ꡤ㤤ͤۤ /r/ ȯʤȲꤷNYC ˤؤΰۤʤ뻰ĤɴŹȯĴ뤳ȤˤΤǤ롥ȤΤϡ̤θǡϼʵؤä˹碌äȤƤΤǡȯбؤȯɽƤϤȹͤǤ롥
Labov ϡⳬ Saks Fifth Avenue泬 Macy's㳬 Klein's ȤɴŹ򥿡åȤˤɴŹ⡤쳬ϵҤǹ߹äƤ꾦ʤ¿󤵤Ƥ̱ŪʥեǾ峬ϵҤʤʤޤФǹ鴶ΤեȤʤäƤ롥Labov Ϥޤ쳬ˡͳƤ뤳Ȥ餫狼äƤ뾦ʤ󤲤ơϤɤǤȿҤͤ fourth floor ȤˤꡤĤ /r/ ̵ͭΤ뤳ȤǤȤ櫓ˡLabov Ϥʹʤä褦⤦١٤Ϥռ줿ǫȯ򤽤Ф4˾夬ꡤϲ˿Ҥͤ뤳ȤǡƤ /r/ ̵ͭΥǡФΤ褦ˤ¿Υǡ򽸤ᡤ͡ʥѥ᡼ʬϤȤͽ̤η̤Ȥʤä
ĤɴŹŪ٤ȡⳬ Saks rhotic ΨäȤ⤯㳬 Klein's ǤäȤ㤫äޤɴŹˤĤƥǡ򸫤ȡ쳬سǤȯۤ /r/ ¿ޤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äޤ Klein's ˤĤƤϡʹ֤ܤȯΤۤܤ¿ /r/ ޤǤ뤳Ȥ狼ä̤ȤơNYC üԤϳ餬⤤ۤɡޤռȯۤ rhotic Ǥ뤳ȤȽơҲŪװ rhotic non-rhotic ̵ռΤ˻ȤʬƤȤȤ餫ˤʤäΤǤ롥
Ĵξܺ٤ Labov ˾ܤ Aitchison (42--45) ˵ä

Labov, William. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1972.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2010-06-03 Thu

#402. Southern Hemisphere Shift [gvs][vowel][language_change][new_zealand_english][australian_english][south_africa]

[2010-05-28-1]εƹԻԤǵäƤû첻ηŪܤǤ Northern Cities Shift ˿줿NCS ˵û첻ܤȤƱѸŪʰյͿ뤳Ȥ뤬¤ΤȤηŪû첻ܤϱѸ¾ѼǤⵯäƤ롥㤨 Australian English ( AusE ), New Zealand English ( NZE ), South African English ( SAE ) μѼ˶̤Ƥû첻 ( Southern Hemisphere Shift ) 󤲤롥SHS ǤϡʲΤ褦ϢŪʿ ( chain shift ) ǧ롥

/æ/ -> /e/ -> /ɪ/ -> /i/ or /ə/


/ɪ/ ܤϡAusE Ǥ /i/NZE Ǥ /ə/ ˤʤȤۤϤ뤬ΤȤȾȤƤޤȤƤ褤٤˶̤Ƥ롥øƤФƤȸƤ˼ôϤȤHere's Dad ȤȤ He's dead ȯˤʤäƤޤΤդɬפǤ롥
ĿŪθȤƤϡФ餯 New Zealand ںߤƤȤˡbread /brɪd/ 뤤 /bri:d/ ȤȯƤΤˤȤޤɤäѥΤȤäƤΤȵդޤǤˤФ餯äޤںˤ Sega ΥƥӥˤͶƤΤ cigar ʹ㤨ơͶȶäȤ⤢롥
Ѹ˾ͭ̾ʡĹ첻첻 Great Vowel Shift ([2009-11-18-1]) αǡû첻οܤΩʤΤĹ첻٤ȰꤷƤΤϳΤʤ褦ɸŪѼ狼ΥƤߤƤߤ NCS SHS 㤬ߤ롥ñ첻ܤȤ NCS SHS ͿѸ˾ΰյȤΤ⡤ɤѼѸˤɽȹͤ뤫ˤäƲͤѤäƤŪʰյǤ뤳ȤǧƤɬפ

Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 108--09.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-09-04-1] [2014-03-30-1]

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2010-06-01 Tue

#400. ȤŴϤǤ᤿ꤹ벹٤ϲ [language_change][synthesis_to_analysis][causation]

ѸˤμȤǡѸ줬űѸѸˤƤ200ǯ?300ǯۤɤû֤Ū ( synthetic ) ʸ줫ʬŪ ( analytic ) ʸؤȸ쥿פۤ180žȤ˿줿ѸѲϡ줬ѲȤˤϤû֤ǷŪѲ뤫򼨤Ǥ롥Ѳξܤطʤ丶 ( causation ) βˤĤƤϼȤǾܤʤäΤǡʤԻ׵ĤȻפͤ¿ä褦Ǥ롥ǡѸˤޤλ褬ʤȤ˲Ū˸뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ;פ˱ѸѲԻ׵ĤΩƤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
Υꥢ󡦥ڡѡˡѸѲȤϳĤäƤޤλˤĤơΤ褦ʴ˭ɽѤƤ

ä200ǯ­餺ǡ¿ο͡Ȥ줬ʤѲ򵯤ʤơ˶äơñ s Τ褦˻ĤäƤޤäΤؤǤĤ³뤳ȤԻ׵ĤȻפϤȤɤʷˤѤꡤǤޤưŤ餤٤ˤäƷѤŴΤ褦ȻפäˤȤäƤβ٤ϲʤΤ


ѲȤŴϤǤ᤿ꤹ벹٤Ǥ뤫ɵ椹Τޤ˸ ( historical linguistics ) εˤŪǤ롥ġθѲ causation ˤѲ̤ causation ˤŪװ򸫤ĤФȤȤϤʤʤ񤷤餯¿ʣװͻ礷ƤѲƤΤȿ¬롥Ū˵äѲ⡤"the absolute cause" ͤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤ⡤"some conditioning factors" θĤ뤳Ȥ餤ϤǤ
ѲˤƲ٤ξ夲椷Ƥ factors ϤäʤΤˤƤ⤤Ȥʤδߤ
Ѳ causation ˤĤƤϡ[2009-12-21-1]ε⻲ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2010-07-20-1] [2010-07-13-1]

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2010-05-31 Mon

#399. Ѹ˵äƤѲ [pde][language_change]

ѸˤѲϳμ¤˵äƤ롥[2010-05-18-1]εǤߤ褦ˡInner Circle äƤɸѸͤ뤫ǤϡѸʤɤ٤ȸѸ˵äƤѲεϤϳΤ˾ȤѸȤɤ ( components ) ( see [2010-05-09-1] ) Ǥⲿ餫ѲʹǤ롥ϡSvartvik and Leech, Chapter 11 դ濴˿ʤ顤ѸαɸѼ˵äƤѲȤμȤʤ variation ιܤ̤˥ꥹȥåפƤߤ롥ŪǤϤʤѸθѲγѤˤϤʤȻפ롥ܥ֥εǴϢꤢȤΤΤˤĤƤϡ󥯤ĥä

phonetics, phonology
Northern Cities Shift
vowel shift in Estuary English
stress shift as in Caribbean, controversy, and harass
stress shift in diatones
rhotic or non-rhotic /r/ in New York City ( in Labov's sociolinguistic study )
spelling pronunciation as in often
morphology
apostrophe-s genitives
regularisation of nominal plurals in favour of -s as in mouses, octopuses, and thesauruses
syntax
semi-modals such as (be) supposed to and have got to
present progressive constructions
negative contractions
relative clauses with that or zero
revival of subjunctive
catenation of words as in New York City Ballet School instructor
semantics
semantic bleaching by grammaticalisation (cf. semi-modals above)
singular they
pragmatics
honorific vocatives such as Mr and Sir on the decrease
first-name terms on the increase
gender-neutral pronouns
second person plural pronouns such as y'all and you guys
lexicology, word formation
political correctness
e-vocabulary as a result of e-revolution
alphabetisms and acronyms especially in Netspeak
blends
conversion
spelling
emoticons such as :-) and :-(

Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

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2010-05-28 Fri

#396. Northern Cities Shift [northern_cities_shift][vowel][ame][language_change][map]

Ѹˤ첻ܤȤСGreat Vowel Shift ( see [2009-11-18-1] ) Ūͭ̾첻ܤϡLate Middle Chinese Τʤˤ㤬롥ѸƤ첻ܤȤƤϡBrE ǹߤƤ Estuary English ΤΤ褯ΤƤ뤬AmE ˤߤԻԤƤ Northern Cities Shift ͭ̾Ǥ롥
Northern Cities Shift Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo ʤɤνԻԤˤ˼դνؤ礷ƤͻҤǤʲϿޤ򻲾ȡˡ

Northern Cities

GVS Ĺ첻˵äƤΤФơNCS û첻˵äƤΤħŪǤ롥⤷ȤˡѸˤǤĹ첻Ѳˤ˵äƤ뤬û첻ϸűѸ褫ʤꤷƤꡤηŪ˿ܤȤϤʤNCS ϡѸû첻ηϤǯʾ̲꤫Фơ֤Τ褦ˤäȲФΤ褦첻ܤǤ롥NCS ϡAmE ΤʤǤäΩŪɸŪ General American ȯĤȤƼ¾ɾƤ Michigan ʤɤƤΤǡ塤ɤΤ褦Ÿ򼨤ˤʤȤǤ롥
첻ܤϡοޤǤޤȤ롥

Northern Cities Shift

첻Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤޤǴ¸ηϤΤʤ chain shift äƤǤ롥Ȥ֤򸫤¤ꡤpush chain drag chain ξƯƤ褦
ϴʤȥߥ˥˳װˤʤʤAnn ʽҡ Ian ˻ҡˤˤʤäƤޤ

Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 239--41.

Referrer (Inside): [2010-06-03-1]

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2010-05-18 Tue

#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 [pde][language_change][variety][pde_language_change]

ŪʤȤˡѸ˵äƤѲ礭⤢꾮⤢롥ѸˤįȡѲä褦˸⤢ФǤʤ⤢롥űѸ줫ѸˤƤη֤ѲѸ줫ѸˤƤθù¤Ȥߴ첻ܤʤɤѲľ300ǯ餤򸫤ƤߤȤۤ絬ϤʸѲϵäƤʤ褦˸롥ΰ̣ǤϡѸθѲϾ
ѤȸѸϤޤǤˤʤѲƤȤͤ롥ľ300ǯ餤DZѸȤμҲŪʰ֤Ť礭ѲƤѲ³Ƥ롥18ޤǤ˳عʸˡۤΩɸѸ줬ꤷȻפС19ˤϺΩäѸѼ郎˽иƱθȾʹߤϤʤ󤺤ꥫѸ줬ƬƤѸϿѼ߽ФʤŪ˹äƤ椭ѸͥåȥȤǤ⤤٤ʣΤ夲Ƥ
Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭⤢꾮⤢Ȥ嵭̷ϡɸѸȳȤǹͤȲä롥ɸѸǵѲŪ˱ѸˤǼ夲Ƥ褦ʸѲˤĤƤϡǤΩäΤϤʤɸѸγǤϿѼ郎ޤ졤줾줬Ūˤȼħ򼨤ʤȯŸƤƤ롥ΰ̣ǤϸѸѲSvartvik and Leech θդڤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥

It is a paradox of late Modern English that the language seems to have been changing more, and yet it seems to have been changing less. The speed of change seems to have been accelerating, if we look at the massive growth of variation in English worldwide. With geographical spread have come divergences, especially in the form of new Englishes and creoles . . . . But if we look only at standard English, the language seems to have been changing more slowly. (191)


ѸѲͤǡĤδ뤳Ȥ̤ƤȤɬפϢˤĤƤϡֶɤեǥפ򼨤[2010-03-12-1][2010-04-01-1]Ǥ⿨줿Τ׻ȡ

Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

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2009-12-31 Thu

#248. ֥󥺡פȡ֥ǥ [assimilation][dissimilation][language_change]

[2009-12-29-1]εǡϡ֥ǥפ֥󥺡פȤ˿줿٤ȤƤϡ֥ǥפΤۤŪ֥󥺡פѤ뤳ȤθѤȤơ(1) ֥󥺡פȱƧΤ椬Ĵ뤳ȡ(2) ΤǹŪͤ뤳ȡͤ롥ä (1) ϡơ֥󥺡פ֤Ѥ뤳ȤݥȤǤꡤƱ ( assimilation ) ƯƤȤ롥֥פ̵ͭȤˤ夫夫ζ̤դ褦ˤʤꡤɽλ ( production ) Ȥϡôʤࡥ
ɽγ ( perception ) Ȥϡ֥פ̵ͭΤߤ˰¸뺹ۤȤΤϿʤ֥פȯ夫äꡤϤλˤä줿ꤹ硤˰¸Ƥ뤬椨ˡ֥󥺡פȤζ̤Τˤʤʤ뤤ϡ֥󥺡פȤƸ򤵤ĤޤȤФ¦ϡ֥פ̵ͭռŪ椹Ƕ̤ĤΤ礭γФ¦ˤȤäƤϤषʹְ㤨Ȥꥹ礭γФδϡ֥󥺡פȲŪŪ˰פȤΤʤ֥ǥפȤäƤäʹְ㤨뿴ۤʤΤǤ롥ξ硤ưۤʤ֤ѤƺۤΤˤ۲ ( dissimilation ) ƯƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ɽڤ˻Ф褦ȤСǾβžξʤߤ˻̤ä֤ޤ롥Ǥϡ assimilation κѤͥȤʤ롥ɽγФΩ줫餹ȡޤ̤ä֤Фȡ̣ζ̤Ĥʤߥ˥˳롤Ȥä뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ŪγФΤˤϡɽϸߤˤǤۤʤäƤۤ褤Ǥϡ dissimilation κѤͥȤʤ롥쥳ߥ˥ˤƻФγФϾ˥ڥǤꡤ¾ͥ褵櫓ˤϤʤ
assimilation dissimilation ϸߤ˶ĥطˤꡤ˰򤷤äƤ롥ĤκѤ˰򤷤ƤȤȤϡѲˤĤƤ롥礤ݤȤȤŷ餬Τ褦˾岼ơʤʤŻߤʤΤƱͤˡѲˤƤĤϤ˺ѤƤ뤿ˡʤʤŻߤʤ줬ѲˤʤΤϡĤˤ assimilation dissimilation ʱι˰򶥤äƤ뤫Ǥ롥

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2009-11-18 Wed

#205. [gvs][vowel][language_change]

ѸˤΤʤǺǤ̾ʥȥԥåȻפ ( Great Vowel Shift ) ˤĤơGVS ϤޤDzǯˤ錄äܤ졤椵³Ƥơޤޤˤβ丶ˤĤ¿Ѹ˺ȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ礭ʥȥԥåʤΤǡϤҤȤޤɸŪ
GVS ȤϡѸζΤĹ첻ФηŪȤ벻ѲǤ롥5W1H ޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

What
When褽1400ǯ?1700ǯ
WhereѸäƤ֥ƥǡۤʤ륿ߥ󥰡ԡɡ
Whoü
HowΤĹ첻ʤ뤤ʡ徺
Whypush chain drag chain ҲŪưդ


GVS β첻շ[2009-05-17-1]򤹤ȡηŪפȤ褯狼롥

GVS in Vowel Diagram

ˡñΤʤ GVS ߤƤߤ褦

GVS ȯGVS ȯPDE ȯ
find/fi:nd//fəɪnd//faɪnd/
keep/ke:p//ki:p//ki:p/
eat/ɛ:t//e:t/ -> /i:t//i:t/
name/na:m//nɛ:m//neɪm/
goal/gɔ:l//go:l//goʊl/
food/fo:d//fu:d//fu:d/
house/hu:s//həʊs//haʊs/


GVS 塤ߤ˻ޤǤδ֤ˤ̤βѲƤ뤿ᡤѸȯμˤ GVS βܤ䤱ƤΤǡޤ GVS ľľȤӤ줿
ܤ٤ϡeat ΥǤ롥ǤϡʤǤϤʤʤξ徺Ƥ롥󡤰ʤĻ֤򤫤ƾ夬äƤäΤǤ롥

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2009-09-07 Mon

#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩ [suffix][language_change][productivity]

Ѹ -ish ˤķƻȤФȻפ⤫٤뤳ȤǤEnglish, foolish, boyish, selfish, feverish, yellowish, oldish δΤߤƤߤȡ̾줫ƻǤ롥̾ -ish ղäȡν°ɽƻ줬졤ƻղäȡ֤פȤ֤ݤפΰ̣ź롥ޤСsomewhat ΰ̣źơ¾夹٤ƤηƻղäȤäƤǤϤʤ
Τ褦 -ish ι⤤бűѸ -isc ϡ̱²ɽ̾ˤĤƤηƻĤȤǽ˸ꤵƤ㤨СEnglish Angle ֥󥰥͡פ -isc ղäȼ i-mutation Ȥ첻ѲФ Englisc ȤˤΤܤ롥British, Scottish, Welsh, Jewish ʤɤƱͤηǤ롥
̱²̾줫ƻȤñǽä -ish Ȥ餽εǽ礵̱²˸¤餺ͤɽ̾عղä褦ˤʤächildish, foolish, womanish ʤɤǤ롥ηƻϡΤ̾λؼоݤΤ˥եơղŪʰ̣Ƥ̣childish ñˡֻҶΡפǤϤʤֻҶäݤפǤ롥դΰ̣Ѳλϡ̱²ƻ줬Ƥ̱²̾ñʷƻǤФǤʤŪʰ̣礤ʤɴŪ connotation ĤȤˤϢƤ褦˻פ롥
-ish ղäˤäơפΰ̣Ȥѥ夹ȡͤɽ̾Ǥʤ̤̾ˤѤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥bookish feverish ʤɤǤ롥ޤ̾ˤĤơ?̣äפ̣ޤ줿 ( bluish, reddish, etc. ) ˤĤơ?餤פɽɽʤɤϡѸǤ¿Ѥ ( ex. "I get up about sevenish in the morning" )
ޤȡϳϻߤޤʤ̾ʤɤϤΤޤ޷ƻˤʤ뤳Ȥ׸ƤΤ⤷ʤ̾ǤϤʤƻˤղä졤֤ס?ݤס?äפʤɤΰդɽ褦ˤʤäbrightish, coldish, narrowish ˤϡֻղä줿 uppish ʤɤ⤢롥
ˤĤϡΩʸź졤ʸդԳΤ mood ȤƤˡǧ롥ex. "I've finished preparing the food. Ish. I just need to make the sauce."
ʾ塤-ish μϰϤγɤäƤߤϩϥǤϤʤȤ狼롥

̱²̾좪̾좪̾좪̾졦ƻηѸ좪ƻ좪ֻʤɷƻŪʰ̣¾ʻ좪ˡ


̣ȵǽˤơȯŸηϩ̮ʤʤ꤬뤳Ȥ褯ʬ̤˵ǽ礷Ƥ椯Ѳ򰷤ˤϡѲΤʳȼʳ̮ǤΤ򤳤Τ褦Ʊꤹ뤳ȤȤʤ롥

Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. 95. New York: Macmillan, 1904.

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2009-08-28 Fri

#123. Ʊ --- ƤˤѲ [assimilation][phonetics][consonant][language_change]

ؤƱ ( assimilation ) ȸƤФ븽ݤ롥ƱϤɤθˤ⤢ꤦ븽ݤǤꡤѲˤƤ줬̤礭
ȤơƬ in- λҲƱѤ夲褦ƻδΤȤ in- ղäΥڥ¿뤬mature / immature regular / irregular ΥڥꤢƤߤ롥ФΥڥǤϡΤƬλҲˤäơin- λҲѲƤ뤳Ȥ˵Ť㤨 in + mature immature ȤʤäƤ뤬Ǥ [n] -> [m] ѲäƤ롥줳ŵŪĴƱȸƤФ븽ݤǤ롥
[2009-05-29-1]λҲɽˤС[n] ȤҲϡͭԡɡפȵҤ롥ԤˤĤӤդ碌ʤƵɡȴȡ [n] Ф롥mature [m] ǻϤޤ뤬λҲϡͭξɡפȵҤ롥ξ򤷤äĤӤ̤碌ʤƵɡȴǤ롥
[n] [m] ϲŪˤ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥ狼ͣΰ㤤ϡԤˤĤ뤫ξĤ뤫ȤĴΰ㤤Ǥ롥ۤɶᤤȡ[nm] ȤϢ̡ĴΤϤäǤ롥ǡ¾ƱȤѤ롥¿ξ硤ˤ벻ͽĴȤȤפ롥[nm] ΥǤϡ[m] ξĤ­᤯ [n] ʳǼ¹ԤƤޤ [mm] ȤʤäƤޤΤǤ롥ΤȡνŻҲñҲ [m] Ȥʤä
immature ξˤĴƱäĴͼƱ뤳Ȥ⤢롥㤨Сirregular Ǥ regular θƬҲ [r] ˱ƶƬ in- ir- ѲƤ롥[r] ϡͭԡܶ᲻פȵҤ뤬[n] ȰۤʤäƤΤϡĴͼǤ롥ԤդܶᤵƷڤ໤뤫ԤƤʤɡȴ뤫ΰ㤤Ǥ롥[nr] ³ȡˤ [r] Ĵͼ [n] ĴʳŬѤ졤[rr] Ȥʤ롥줬ΤñҲ[r] Ȥʤä
Ϣ³󲻤ƤΤʤСäΤƱˤƤޤȤƱȯۤϡҥȤĴߵ˴ŤƤȤäƤ褤ơƤѸˡʤƸ˰̡ˤäϿǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2009-10-12-1]

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2009-05-09 Sat

#10. Ͽ͹ [esperanto][language_change][invisible_hand][artificial_language][causation]

ڥ ( Esperanto )Ȥ줬롥1887ǯ˥ݡɤΰեۥ(Zamenhof)ˤäƹȤʤ٤ͰƤ줿Ǥ롥λˤϡEsperantoޤʣι줬³ȹͰƤ줿ǺǤ͹Ǥꡤ10ͰʾüԤȤ롥ʸˡäϥ衼åѤθ졤ä˥ޥ󥹸ϤƤ뤬ñ㲽Ƥꡤ⤫ĤƤäȤΤưפǤʢޤƤʤȤȤ򼨤ˡܤǤܥڥȳزȤɽؤΤǡؿΤϻȤ줿
Esperantoֿ͹(artificial language)ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ˰ϤʤǤܸѸʤɤ̾θϡּ(natural language)ȸƤǤ褤Τ˿ؤιֵȤΤ褦˸äƤΤפФֿʹ֤ФΤǤʾ塤ʤɤȤΤϤꤨʤϤ٤ƿ͹Ǥ롥
EsperantoȱѸֿ͹פȤư勞ˤˤϡϤ񹳤롥ʤΤ
ǡ[2009-05-07-1]ˡָ̽ڤȸѲפȤƼ夲KellerƤӰ礤˽ФΤˤϼʪȿ͹ʪ뤬ԤˤϿ͹Ū͹ʪȼŪ͹ʪबȤ򡤶ȤȤ˿޼Ƥߤ롥

	                    things
	                      
	  
	                                
	natural                      artificial(?)
	                                  
	                      
	                                        
	                 artificial             natural
	
	
	the Alps         Esperanto              English
	flowers          paper flowers          traffic jam
	waterfalls       euro                   'grown' towns
	bee language     satellite cities       the Latin alphabet
	                 the Morse alphabet     Buddhism

ȡΤʬˡǤϤʤʬˡǹͤɬפ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ǥϡartificial(?) β̶ʬȤƤ artificial natural ƤʬѸ줬ʤѸܸʤɤϡֱΡ artificial(?) natural פ°͹Ǥ⤢꼫Ǥ⤢ȤԻ׵ĤӤӤƤΤǤ롥°븽ݤϡŬѸ줬ʤΤǡ phenomena of the third kind 軰θ ˤȸƤФƤ롥
̽ڤѸѲ⡤ġλüԤΩտޤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡġιưޤ ( invisible hand ) ƳΤȤΩ˸Esperantoʤɤξ㳰ơ˸ؤϸ§Ȥ軰θݤ갷äƤȹͤƤ褤ȯѲϡïˤäƤ⤿餵ΤǤϤʤġοʹ֤ΰտޤʤŪʱĤߤη̤ȤợǡּˡΤʤΤ
ʹּҲˤ軰θݡפ¾ˤõƤߤƤ

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2009-05-07 Thu

#8. ̽ڤȸѲ [traffic_jam][language_change][invisible_hand]

緿Ϣ٤Ǥϡ߹®׸̤ǡƻϩ60kmĶ۾ʽڤȤʤä褦ϲȤǤΤӤȤäΤﳲȤ줿ҤɤܤˤäɼԤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
ơ̽ڤȤݤˤĤƹͤȤ⤽⡤ʤ̽ڤϵΤΡ߹®פȤüʥ̤ˤƤ⡤̤ͳʤʾ˽ڤ뤳Ȥ褯롥ȳǤϤ "traffic jam out of nowhere" Ȥ餷¤Ϥ "traffic jam out of nowhere" θѲϤᡤҲ٤Ҳ񴷽̤ˤƱͤ˸뤳ȤŦƤ롥ʲˤKeller򻲾Ȥ(Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language . Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.)
"traffic jam out of nowhere" θ̽ڤϼΤ褦˵롥®100kmäƤƬA餫ͳǥ֥졼ڤƧߡ㤨СʿƸꡤ̥塼򳫤ꡤĴˡ®95kmȤʤ롥Ϥ®100kmäƤ³BϡA®٤ȤΤ򸫤ơ®90kmޤȤBϼºݤˤϻ®95kmޤȤǰʤΤAɤ줯餤®ΤʬʤΤǡѿ;פ˥֥졼ƧǤΤǤ롥Ʊͤ˸³CDEѿ;ʬ˥֥졼ƧࡥơS˻äƴ˥ȥåפ롥ơSʹߤϽڤˤϤޤäƤޤȤˤʤ롥
θݤϡAޤᡤïڤФȤտޤäƤʤȤBʹߤθġμ֤αžΰտޤȹư϶̤Ƥ롥Լ֤ʤ褦ѿɬװʾ˥֥졼ƧȤȤġͤȤƤϽڤФȤտޤϤʤΤΡΤȤƤϽڤ˹׸ƤޤäƤ롥Ĥޤꡤߥΰտޤȥޥη̤δ֤ˡġλĶ֥ۤåܥåŪϤƯƤΤǤ롥Υ֥åܥåŪϤ ( invisible hand )ȸƤФƤꡤкѳؤʤɤǤ褯ΤƤ롥
KellerˤȡѲθ⤳ invisible hand ˽ȤġüԤϸѲȤտޤƬʤ礦ɱž꤬Τ;ʬ˥֥졼ƧǤȹͤΤƱ褦ˡ˶̤ؿ˴ŤưĤȤƵȤ ˤꡤѲ̤Ȥ߽ФȤ櫓ǤϡѲξ硤ֳ˶̤ؿ˴ŤưפȤϲѲΥˤäưۤʤ㤨ĹñάȯȤ夨ƥեåʥ֥ʳΤۤ򹥤ѤȤäüԴ֤ǹͭ줦ߵ᤬ͤ롥
invisible hand theory ϸѲͤǤ˽פʤΤǡˤϤޤ줿

Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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