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language_change - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2012-05-02 Wed

#1101. Zipf's law [information_theory][frequency][statistics][language_change][zipfs_law][shortening][pragmatics][zipfs_law]

##1089,1090,1091,1098 εǡ (information theory) ؤͿƤθˤĤơĤƤι׸ȤơǤ褯ΤƤΤ1Ĥˡꥫθؼ George Kingsley Zipf (1902--50) 1949ǯ Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology ˤ󾧤 Zipf's law åפˡ§ˤ롥٤ˤĤƤηиŪˡ§Ǥꡤ٤ f Ȥ٤ν̤ r Ȥȡ C ϤۤȤʤȤ

r f = C


ˡ§ϡ졤ƥȤμꡤԡ¾θŪѿˤ餺ΩĤȤ뤬ºݤˤ٤ǹ⤪Ӻθ췲ˤĤƤϸ礭Ȥ狼äƤꡤϹ⤯ʤȤȽ¿ޤr ٽ̡ˤʤ f ١ˤ˰¸Ƥꡤf r ΤϼǤ뤫顤ѤͤȤȤȤ϶ä٤ǤϤʤΥȡȥǤȤȽ롥иŪ¤˾Ȥ餷ˡ§ȤޤǤϤ鷺Ȥⷹ褯ɽ路ƤȤȤϤǤŪ˻Ŧյ礭
Zipf's law ȵڸ̤¿ˤ錄롥㤨Сˡ§ˤС٤ι⤤줫餽λ٤߷פƹԤŪθDZٸʬ뤳Ȥ顤ؽܸä˺ͿΤȤʤ롥ޤˡ§Ŭ礷ʤʬۤ򼨤äȤС¾üװͿƤǽȤʾθ٤ޤ˹⤹иäϼ岽ƤȿǤ뤷٤㤤Ϥθ줬٤ѤƤˤȯŪʿ¤äʬɤꤵˡ
Zipf's law ϡʹ֤ιưʤȤ礭ʸ§the Principle of Least Effort ʺǾϤθ§ˤΰǤꡤθؤαѤϡ嵭κǤ褯Τ줿٤ٽδطθΤߤʤ餺¾θƤˤڤǤ롥㤨С٤ȸĹȿδطˤ롤ȤΤ⤢롥ѸñǤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¡ʲʬĴˤĤƤ ##348,349,355 򻲾ȡˤ䡤٤⤯ʤƬʤɤΤ褦û̡ά뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤⡤θ롥ۤˤϡϰϤȤ°οδطɽ魯Ĵ񤷤Ǥ٤㤤Ȥ븶§ʤɡˡ§Ͽ¿ cooperative principle ʶĴθ§ˤˤ̤γΧ֡ʤξˤơɬפȤƤʤΡ˾ͿפȤͿ"effort" ʤɤ񤷤꤬ĤäƤꡤޤǾϤʹ֤ιưʤͣθ§ǤȤϹͤ뤳ȤǤʤΰ̤ĤΤȤƽפʳǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ʤʸǤϡ嵭Τθ§ Zipf's law ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥꡤޤ Zipf's laws ʣǤޤȤ줿ꡤthe Principle of Least Effort 礵줿ꤹ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤդɬפǤ롥Zipf νɾȤƤ Chao 򻲾ȡŪˡ§ˤĤƤϡCrystal (86--87) 򻲾ȡ

Chao, Y. R. "Review of Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology by George Kingsley Zipf." Language 26 (1950): 394--401.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.

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2012-04-22 Sun

#1091. ;١ [redundancy][information_theory][frequency][shortening][grammaticalisation][idiom][intensifier][language_change]

ܥ֥Ǥ١夲Ƥ André Martinet (1908--99) ϡθؤ˱Ѥȼʿ򳫤¤ؼԤǤ롥[2012-04-20-1], [2012-04-21-1]εǡ; (redundancy) ˿ƤMartinet ;ȴϢƳΨ (probability) (information) (frequency) (cost) ȤäǰƳδطΤʤ˸ѲθõȤʲϡѸƳΰǤĤǡˡ

Ce qu'il convient de retenir de tout ceci pour comprendre la dynamique linguistique se ramène aux constatations suivantes : il existe un rapport constant et inverse entre la fréquence d'une unité et l'information qu'elle apporte, c'est-à-dire, en un certain sens, son efficacité ; il tend à s'établir un rapport constant et inverse entre la fréquence d'une unité et son coût, c'est-à-dire que représente d'énergie consommée chaque utilisation de cette unité. Un corollaire de ces deux constatations est que toute modification de la fréquence d'une unité entraîne une variation de son efficacité et laisse prévoir une modification de sa forme. Cette dernière pourra ne se produire qu'à longe échéance, car les condition réelles du fonctionnement des langues tendent à freiner les évolutions. (189--90)

ϳؤ򤹤뤿ˡΤΤˤĤ򤹤٤ȤϡγǧǤ롥ñ̤٤Ȥ줬ľʤʤ̣ǤϤθ̡ˤΤˤϰˤȿδط롨ϡñ̤٤Ȥѡʤʤñ̤Ѥ뤳ȤǾ񤵤륨ͥ륮ˤΤΰˤȿδطȤʤ뷹롥2ĤγǧεȤơñ̤٤ѤФθ̤Ѳ뤷η֤Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θԤѲϤޤĹ֤򤫤ΤǤ롥ȤΤϡѤθ¤ξȯã뷹뤫


Martinet ϡѤβսǡ;⤤ȤȤͽ¬ǽ⤤ȤȤǤꡤϸǤνиΨ뤤٤Ȥ̩ܤ˴ϢȤȤƤ롥̤ˡǤ٤⤱;⤯ͤ㤤 "plus une unité (mot, monème, phonème) est fréquente, moins elle est informative" (188) ơѤȤǤळȤˤäơƶ줿üԤˤȤäơ٤⤱й⤤ۤɡ1ȯɬפȤ륨ͥ륮̤ϾʤۤԹ礬褤¿Υͥ륮פȯ٤֤ⷫΤԷкѤդˡ٤㤤ɽϡȤȯ礭ʥͥ륮ɬפȤƤ⤢ޤ꺤ʤˤ衤ȯ뵡񤬵
Τ褦ˡѡפȯˤ륨ͥ륮̤Ȳ᤹硤̩ˤϸġβȯɤΤ餤Ѥפ뤫Τɬפ뤬η¬񤷤ˤ٤ƤñȯƱ٤ѤפȲꤹСɽפѤϤβĹ˰¸ϤǤ롥Ѥñ˲ĹƱͤȤСδطǤ롧ָǤϡ٤⤱вûסѲƤϤСָǤϡ٤⤯ʤвûʤפȤʤ
٤ѤȿδطϡиŪˤ褯Ǥ롥褯ȤȯˤƤɽˤƤû̡ά뷹롥ˤäƤϡû̡άεˤηȤơ̵˵Ȥ餢롥ʸˡŪʴɽṳ̂Ǹ경褯졤ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥưˤۤʤʤޤ[2012-01-14-1]εǼ夲#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ספ⡤٤ѤδطȤȤ館ʤȤǤ
ΰѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ٤ѤδطѲ褦Ȥݤˤϡֺθɬפ롥٤ƤƤ餽θṳ̂ޤǤˤϡ٤λ֤ɬפޤ٤ѤشطϡޤǴˤ䤫ʤΤǤ뤳ȤˤդƤɬפ롥ΰԤɸ꤬ "Laxité du rapport entre fréquence et coût" ٤Ѥδطδˤ䤫ˤǤ뤳ȤդäƤ

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

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2012-03-18 Sun

#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ [language_change][linguistics][grimms_law][history_of_linguistics]

20ȾޤǤζؤˤϡݲˤȤäƤ褤Ȥ¿ڤߤˤоݤʳؤ뤿ˤϡ¿ξϤꡤˤƤɬפä줽켫ΤФˡʸϤꡤ̱²ȤξݤǸˤüԤΤ褦ˤƤޤĤ˺ܤ줿θˡʤƤäΤǤ롥ˤؤ礤ȯŸΤǤꡤؤοˤȤäɬפäȤϴְ㤤ʤƧޤơ20ȾϡؤؤȴؿᤷƤ褦ˤߤ롥ҲؤʤɤζδϡҲüԤؤᴤ餻褦Ȥߵη̤
λϽפǤ롥ѲɽȤˡ§ (Grimm's Law) ˼ ([2009-08-08-1]εˡ§Ȥϲפ򻲾ȡˡǤϰĸ *p ޥǤ *f ѲȤ뤬ˡ§פȸƤФ뤳Ȥΰ̣ϲǤ뤫ͤƤߤβѲϸ§Ȥ㳰ʤ٤ƤθˤȤ졤ΰ̣ˡ§ȸƤ֤ˤդ路ʤ뤳ȤϳΤϼʳŪʰ̣Ǥˡ§ǤϤʤʤʤСüԤȤʹ֤ߤʤФѲϵ褦ʤäŪ˰¤νǤ뤿˺ƸǽʤǤ롥λüԡʽġˤ˰¸ƤѲǤ뤫顤Ǯϳؤ2ˡ§Τ褦ʤΤȤܼŪ˰ۤʤ롥ѲμǤüԤϡưŪѲƤ櫓ǤϤʤǽưŪѲ򵯤ƤȹͤʤФʤʤˤüԤˤѤȤѶŪʹưäȲꤻʤ (153--54) ΤȤФǡμĥʹƤߤ褦

ʹ֤Ȥưʪϡ̵ռˡʤˤʹ֤Ķˡ§ˤäơʬǤⵤŤ p f ȯۤɤˡ§˽ǤʤФʤʤΤʤȤϤϤʤޤäƤϤʤʤʹ֤ˡ§Τ¸ߤΤǤϤʤǤ롥褽ʹ֤˴ؤǤȤΤʤˡ̵ռˡ§ŪѲϤʤp f ؤѲϡĤθäΤʤdzƸĿͤξ˰Ƥ˵ΤǤϤʤĿͤξѲȻҲŪ˺Ѥ줿ΤȤȤ򡤤Ĥˤ褯狼褦Τϥ˥ꥦäϡѲǤꡤѤϿʹ֤ΰջ֤ι԰٤Ǥ뤳ȡ礦ɥץ饤 p ʸ줿 f ǤȤ꤫ʤСȤϲ٤Ƥ f ФƤΤϾդǤʤΤƱ͡ϼˡ§Ȥ̵ʤΤƤߤơˡ§ϡĶʹˡ§ο顤äȿʹˤҤɤ줿ΤǤ롥ʰѼǼϡʸǤ˵


ꥦΤ褦ˡʹˤҤɤȤܤγؼԤ롥󾧤ĹˤǤ[2012-03-07-1]ε#1045. Ĺˤפ򻲾ȡˡĤϡɽ魯θŪŤǰƬˤʤ顤γϡ͡οΡֺפ¾ʤʤƤ롥κȤϡʸݤɾȰۤʤȤΤʤߤȿǤ줿ѶŪʾǧǤǤƤ롥ĹѤüԽĤˤѶŪʾǧפȤḥ̂臘ˡ1򤹤٤Ƶ (39--40)

뤤Ϥοդξ֤äơñήԤȸäƤޤФ褤Ȼפͤ⤢뤫Τ̤ˤĤͳäơʬϽȤʤήԡפϼҲؾѸȤƺʤޤΤƤ̤ͭġĤˤϿκˤñˤ줬Ȥʾˡڤ˶ŪʤͳĤǤ뤫Ǥ롥Ȥи첻μ㤭͡ˡä˰ΤǤꡤ⤷ʤۤäơ̰դؤǤ뤳ȤʤɤĤξǤ뤬̿̾ư˰վꡤİԤ򤷤ưפ˴ѻδȴȡɽεǧΤ˻äƤϡθ̤Ϥ礦¾ʣʤʸݤΡ˹ԤʤȰۤʤȤʤˤϤޤ켡λѼԤ餬ФлߤƤˤʤä⡤λΡߡ硦桹ʤɤȤ褯ƤơǤ⤽κʤäơ줬ͤưͳ򻡤ΤǤ뤬⤿ĤۤϤκԤθĿͤǤʤǽ餫ĤηǤäȤǤ롥Ĥ̱ʸݤĹϩͤƤߤͤʤСϷ褷񤯤ʤǤȤȯΤߤȸ鷺ΤǤ⾧ǤϤǤ⡤ϤƸˤԤϰͤǤȤ⡤˴ˤʤФʤ̵ϡ˾ƤΤǡκǤҤʤԤդɽƽиФ᤿ޤǤǤäΤˤĤΤʤ뵯ǤꡤޤݤȤˤľ˰ѸȤʤΤǤä̾ϾˤΤȤƸ줿Ϥομ⡤餯ϤޤƱͤʤٻԤäƤȤǤηξǧѶŪΤΤǤ롥ñʤȤȤ褦ʡΤʹΤȤϰĤǤϤʤʬ̤ơ򿷸ĹϤʤɤ̾ŤȤƤΤǤ롥


ȸäȤǤϡѲ˺ݤռδͿٹ礤˺ϼκǤϤʤ٤κȤȤˤʤ

ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
ˡ͡١ȽŹ1980ǯ

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2012-03-02 Fri

#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ [diachrony][variation][language_change]

[2012-02-16-1]ε#1025. ֤̻֤δطפǿ줿diachronic change ̻ŪѲˤ synchronic variation ʶŪѰۡˤȤ1Ĥθݤ2Ĥ¦̤Ǥ롥change variation ȤˡѲפ뤳Ȥ뤬줾γǰϤष֤ΤǤ롥Ǥ줾ƻĤ褦ˡchange Ȥ̻ŪʳǰǤꡤּ˱äѲʤؤ󤫡ˤǤ롥variation Ȥ϶ŪʳǰǤꡤۤʤ⳰νװˤؤѲʤؤ󤲡ˤǤ롥
ǽҤ٤Ȥư change vary ˤƼOALD8 ˴ŤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥

to change: pass from one state or form into another
to vary: be different according to the situation


˿ޤǼм̤ꡥ

Diachronic Change and Synchronic Variation

̻ȶξ򺹤ġθܤȤȤˤʤꡤˤ change variation Υͥ륮ȤߤƤ롥
ѲͤǡξԤδط򤷤ƤȤϽפǤ롥Vogt (367) طսѤ褦

At any moment between the initiation and the conclusion of these changes we have a state characterized by the presence of more or less free variants, so that the speakers have the choice between alternative expressions. In each case the choice will be determined by an interplay of factors, some linguistic, some esthetic and social, an interplay so complex that most often the choice will appear as being due to pure chance. At any moment of this long period the French phonemic system would have to be described in such a way that the relations between these variants would be accounted for, because, in my opinion, these relations, however complex they may be, are themselves part of the system. What therefore in the history of a linguistic system appears as a change will in a synchronic description appear as a more or less free variation between different forms of expression, equally admissible within the system. Let it be added that this statement cannot be reversed: every free variation within the system will not, in the time dimension, correspond to a change. It is important to stress this aspect of systems, because without admitting a fair latitude of variation within a system, it is difficult to see how structures could change at all.


Vogt, Hans. "Contact of Languages." Word 10 (1954): 365--74.

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2012-02-16 Thu

#1025. ֤̻֤δط [diachrony][saussure][variation][language_change]

塼衤 (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) ΩȤȤˤʤäƤꡤߤ˻ޤǸؤȤжؤȤƤ롥ǯϼҲؤ䥳ѥؤȯŸʤɤˤ variation ܤ褦ˤʤꡤ˸Ʊ̻Ū change ؤδؿޤäƤsynchronic variation diachronic change 1Ĥθݤ2Ĥ¦̤ǤꡤƤ褦䤯֤̻֤ޤȤ˰褦ˤʤäȤ20δ֤ˤ˸³ƤؤؤʤɴϢʬοŸ⤢äޤǼήɤθؤΡ΢פǤΤȤä̻֤ܤ褦ˤʤäƤ֤̻֤δطɤͤƤ椯ȤΤ礭ʲǤ롥
ξԤޤ礤Ϸ褷ƿΤǤϤʤ塼ξԤΩ¤ԲʬǤΩʤȤϤʤƤ̻Ūʸ쵭ҤϡʣζṲ̄Ť͹碌Ƥ椯ȤˤäƤʤŪʸ쵭ҤϡۤȤƤϻ֤˻ߤ᤿֤̤Ȥ뤬¤ˤ¿ʤȤ̤ػ֤⤿򤨤ʤ֤̻֤ľ򤹤뼴Ǥ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤȤƤ⡤ϲ餫ˡͻ¤ƤȹͤɤΤ褦ˡͻ¤ƤΤɤΤ褦ˤͻ¤򤹤Ф褤Τϡ̻ŪʻȤѸˤ˸ؤȤäʬؤ˲󶡤ǤΤ뤤ϵդˡؤ̻ؤ˲󶡤ǤΤȤľ뤹롥
ϡܥ֥ǼˤʤäȤäǤϡֱѸˤ϶ؤˤɤΤ褦ΩĤפȤ褦äϤޤֹͤͤˤʤפȤŪʤȤҤ١󤲤ʤ

üԶƱΤηФƤ̻ŪʸѲβȡüԸĿͤηФ򡦻ФβȤƱ򼨤ȤƤԻ׵ĤǤϤޤԤϸԤƶͿ뤷ԤԤ˿ʻ󶡤ޤ㤨 GVS ηŪϡGVSηŪ첻ѲäȲꤷƤäǤˡŪʹ¤ؤβϤʤʤä櫓ǤդˡѸη䱤Χˤơäμˤäȯʤɤο񤤤礭ۤʤ붦ŪʸݤޤΤȤѤ츻Ȥ̻Ūطʤ򻲾Ȥʤ¤ꡤŪˤϤޤǤʤ褦Ǥ


⤦1Ķ󤲤ȤСѸԵ§Ѳưʬˡ꤬롥Ե§ѲưβΤʤˤϡ̤첻ؤˤ륯饹Τۤˡbought, thought ʤɤ dental suffix ĥ饹, cut, put, shut ʤɤ̵Ѳ饹, was/were, went ʤɤ佼ˡˤ륯饹̤롥űѸưʬűѸʹߤβѲΤäƤСΥ饹ʬϤλ餫Ǥ롥ºݤˤϡ٤ʬǤжŪʻǤΡ̩ʴѻפִפǤͭյڤоݤʣʾˤϡڤȯΤ̻ŪμϤΩġդޤʤǡŪʬϤ˥󥹥ԥ졼ơĤƵäϤ̻ŪѲ¬ȤȤ⤢ꤦ
ȴϢơ̻ŪʸѲΤäƤȡŪʸο񤤤򤷤䤹ȤݤΤȤ򡤿ȤѤƲ

Ǹˡ̻˰ݤŤȤ1쳤ƻΥʥå׼̿μ̿ʬϤпˤĤƤʤˤ餫ˤʤ뤬̤˸äƤΤ̤˸äƤΤȤɲŪСΤβȤͿ줿褦ʰݤ롥̻ŪʤʤμطʤˤСŪȤơ꼫ʡꤢꤽƤǽˤʤΤǤϤʤ


褦ȤȤơȾܤŻ߲ˤĤơʤΤĤʤΤ狼äƤСΤ򤬿ޤפȤΤ⤢롥äȤ⡤˿ޤΤñ˿ޤäʤΤȤΤϽפǤϤ롥
ơֹͤͤˤʤפΤۤˡϰʲ2˲ä

Ѹˤγƻ塤̿ޡʶ֡ˤ򽸤뤳Ȥϡ쥿ݥ˹׸롥ʱѸˤ˸¤ääǤϤʤǤ
Ūɤ (variation) ̻ŪѲ (change) μǤȤ顤ɤƤ褦ʶŪιۤ¥


εʹߤͤ餻Ƥ뤬ʤϤܤǤ롥
֤̻֤ͻˤĤƤϡMcMahon 褯ͤƤʤȤݤäƤΤǡطʬƤ

. . . it seems that past events may cast light on present situations, so that we may understand current systems better by considering how they came to be. For these reasons, historical linguists may be able to illuminate synchrony, the study of a single language state, through diachronic work: understanding language change means understanding language better. (10)


֤̻֤ޤ礤񤷤[2011-09-10-1]ε#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫פ⻲ȡ

McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2012-02-10 Fri

#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ [prediction_of_language_change][language_change]

Ѳͽ¬뤳Ȥΰ̣ˤĤƤϡ[2011-08-18-1]ε#843. Ѳͽκפ[2011-08-19-1]ε#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳ȤϴݤפǵϡˤĤƤ⤦³
Ѳͽ¬ͽۡͽˤĤƤϡ츦ԤΤǤͤʬƤ롥ؤʳؤΤ褦ʤΤȤƤߤζԤͽ¬ȤƤ褦ǤꡤǤʤԤϸؤܻؤȤǤϤʤȤäѤڤΤƤ롥ԤǤ⡤оݤȤƤθѲͽ¬ڤΤƤȤƤ⡤ؿʤȤȤǤϤʤष˴ؿΤǤϤʤǡ򵭽Ҥ븦ԤФиεϤˤ¡ʤ̴ؿƤΤȻƤ褦˻פ
ͽ¬ȤԤȤԤθդ1ĤİѤ褦䤬ɤǤľܽвäΤǤ롥ޤϡոȤơꥫ̾ʱѸؼ Algeo (4) ꡥ[2010-06-16-1]ε#415. All linguistic varieties are fictionsפǼ夲 variety ȤϤ٤ƥեȤݤʸΰѡ

Without such fictions there can be no linguistics, nor any science. To describe, to explain, and to predict requires that we suppose there are stable things behind our discourse.


Algeo ιͤϤ츦ϸݲȤΩĤΤǤꡤݲ¤ˤƤǤäȤƤ⡤Ѳͽ¬ǽȤʤʤСؤϤޤޤϤϤ­ʤʳˤΤȡʤAlgeo ΤȯˤĤƤϡLilles (3) ". . . the role of predicting language change hardly seems an essential component of linguistics." ֤Ƥ롥
ˡȿаոȤơܸؼԤξ (17--18)

衤ɤۤɸ椬⤷Ƥ⡤ǽʤΤϡθ¤줿ˤĤƤûͽ¬Ǥäơܸξξ֤ͽ¬뤳ȤϸŪԲǽǤ롥100ǯˡ50ǯʤλˤΥǡ˴ŤƸߤܸξ֤ͽ¬ȤƤ⡤η̤¤Ȱפ뤳ȤϤꤨʤϼҲѲϢưѲ뤬ҲưŪͽ¬뤳ȤϤǤʤҲưˤɤΤ褦˶ŪȿǤ뤫ϡɬǤϤʤޤͽ¬ǽȲꤷƤ⡤͸ư֤伫ҳʤɤȰäơѲˤʤкΩƤɬפϤʤ顤ΩʤȤѤϤʤ


ϡѲͽ¬ (1) ⤽⸶ŪԲǽǤȤȡ(2) ΩʤȤ(1) ˤĤơηΤͽ¬ϳΤ˸ŪԲǽ¤줿ϰϤǤζᤤ̤ͽ¬ǤСʤ٤뤫⤷ʤˡ(2) ˤĤơʤۤɸѲͽ¬ˤΩʤ⤷ʤͽ¬ؤδؿϡΩĤɤȤϡʹ񿴤˺ƤΤǤꡤ֤ΤǤϤʤ
Ѳͽ¬ˤϼΤƤ̥Ϥ롥ˤ٤ȤϡĤäƤ롥ͽ¬ǽɤε̤Ȥơޤȸߤθư֤򵭽Ҥ뤳Ȥ

Algeo, John. "A Meditation of the Varieties of English." English Today 27 (July 1991): 3--6.
Lilles, Jaan. "The Myth of Canadian English." English Today 62 (April 2000): 3--9, 17.
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2012-02-06 Mon

#1015. ҲѲȸѲΰ̴طɵǤ뤫 [causation][language_change][methodology][speed_of_change][diachrony]

ε#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã ([2012-02-05-1]) ȡ黲Ȥ#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1]) εǤϡҲѲȸʤȤ櫓ʸˡˤѲΰ̴طˤĤƿ줿꤬ԤδؿͶȤϤޤʤҤ٤褦˳Ū˰ˤޤǤ뤳ȤΤ
ҲѲ߽ФȤ褦ʸäκʤɤϡŪˤ̴طȤ館䤹ҲѳפˤäƤ⤿餵Ȳꤵʸˡ٥ѲϡƤ֤ΤǤꡤλ֤ĹĹۤɡŪΤİ̴طξڵȤƤβͤϼޤ롥ޤʸˡѲξ硤ޤ˸ȤϡȤꡤ٤˹ޤäƤ롤ȤؤȤ¿äξΤ褦ʡ̵ͭνиȤ䤹ѲǤϤʤȤ̤̤θѲ®٤ˤĤƤϡ[2011-01-08-1]ε#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١פ[2011-01-09-1]ε#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪפ򻲾ȡ
Martinet (180--81) ϡҲѲȸѲΰ̴ط˴ؤޤäӽ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡŪʹ¤ؤΩ줫ŪʤΤȤƤˤƤޤǤΰ̴طɵؤ٤ȼĥ롥

. . . il est trés difficile de marquer exactement la causalité des changements linguistiques à partir des réorganisations de la structure sociale et des modifications des besoins communicatifs qui en résultent. Les linguistes, une fois qu'ils ont reconnu l'influence décisive de la structure sociale sur celle de la langue, n'auront de chance d'atteindre à quelque rigueur que s'ils limitent leur examen à une période assez restreinte de l'évolution d'un idiome et se contentent de relever dans la langue même les traces d'influences extérieures et de noter les réactions en chaîne que celles-ci ont pu y déterminer, sans remonter aux chaînons prélinguistiques de la causalité. Certains traits de la langue étudiée deveront être nécessairement considérés comme des données de fait dont on ne saurait justifier l'existence qu'à l'aide d'hypothèses invérifiables. L'objet véritable de la recherche linguistique sera donc, ici, l'étude des conflits qui existent à l'intérieur de la langue dans le cadre des besoins permanents des êtres humains qui communiquent entre eux au moyen du langage.

Ҳ¤κ䡤륳ߥ˥ɬפƤüȯѲΰ̴طΤ˼ȤϡȤƤ񤷤ؼԤϡäҲ¤칽¤ͿŪʱƶǧ᤿ȤƤ⡤ȯŸνʬ˸¤줿Ĵꤷơθ˳Ūʱƶκפ򸫤줬ǽΤȿϢ˸ڤ뤳Ȥ­ۤΰ̴طϢˤΤܤ餺ˤϡ餫θ̩뤳ȤϤǤʤоݤθħϡǽβˤäƤ¸ߤǤʤͿλ¤ȤƤߤʤʤФʤʤäơ츦οŪϡˤäƸߤ˰ջã͡ѤɬǸ¸ΩθʤΤǤ롥


ƱκǸΰ (208) Ƥ

Les difficultés qu'on éprouve à identifier toutes les circonstances qui ont pu influer sur la genèse d'un changement linguistique ne sauraient détourner les chercheurs d'une analyse explicative. Il convient simplement de toujours donner la priorité à cet aspect de la causalité des phénomènes qui ne fait intervenir que la langue en cause et le cadre permanent, psychique et physiologique, de toute économie linguistique : loi du moindre effort, besoin de communiquer et de s'exprimer, conformation et fonctionnement des organes. En second lieu, interviendront les faits d'interférence d'un usage ou d'un idiome sur un autre. Sans faire jamais fi des données historiques de tous ordres, le diachroniste ne les fera intervenir qu'en dernier lieu, après avoir épuisé toutes les ressources explicatives que lui offrent l'examen de l'évolution propre de la structure et l'étude des effets de l'interférence.

Ѳε˱ƶͿǽΤ뤹٤ƤξƱꤹˤäƺ򴶤뤫ȤäơԤϡŪʬϤæƤϤʤʤݤΰ̴طΤ¦̡ʤθȸȿΤοŪŪѤȤߡʺǾϤθ§ջãɽɬﴱι¤ȵǽˤȤˤʤ褦ʰ̴ط¦̤ͥ褹Τñˤäơ褤2ܤˤϡˡˡ¾˴ĤȤ¤ͿƤƤ褤Ū˽Ϳλ¤򤱤ä̵뤹櫓ǤϤʤ̻ŪʸԤϡ˲ΤϺǸˤΤ褤¤ȯãΤΤĴ䴳ĸ̤θƤ⤿餷ƤŪʥ꥽򤹤٤ƻȤԤȤˤΤ褤


Martinet ƩŰΡ¤μĥƤ롥֤̻֤ޤ礤ˤĤƤϡ[2011-09-10-1]ε#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫פۤ diachrony ε򻲾ȡ

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

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2012-02-05 Sun

#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã [syntax][language_change][civilisation][causation][literacy]

ˤˤơ°ʸˤȤ롥°¤ϡʸ٤ȯã׹ͤɽƽƽиΤȤȤʸǤФлŦƤ롥ȤСǶᡤвäΤȤ2Ѥ褦

ʸʽ°ʸdependent clauseˤϽ°³ޤϴطˤäƳ롥ȯã˾塤ʸϿʹ֤ɽǽϤ٤ȯŸʳά͸ŪˤϤޤˡΤˤʣʽˡȯãʲܡp. 57


La comparaison des langues indo-européennes montre que la proposition relative est une acquisition tardive, et l'observation synchronique indique que le type d'expansion représenté par les propositions subordonnées ne s'impose, dans certaines communautés, que sous la pression de besoins nouveaux apportés par la culture occidentale. (Martinet 179)

Ӥˤꡤط٤Ƴ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤƤ뤷Ūʴѻˤꡤ°μγϡ붦ƱΤǤϡʸˤäƤ⤿餵뿷ɬפΰϤΤȤǤʤ


ǹθɬפΤϡܻΤֿʹ֤ɽǽϤ٤ȯŸʳפ䡤Martinet ΤʸˤäƤ⤿餵뿷ɬפΰϤΤȤǤפȤɽ˴ްդƤ褦˻פʸȯãȡʣ칽¤1ȤƤν°ʸȯãȤϡʤطˤ뤫ȤȤǤ롥
ʤȤʸ̮ǤϡMartinet θ褦ˡ°ȯãȯãŪ٤ʳ˸ȤΤϵҴŪʻ¤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤʸȯãȽ°ʸȯãȤŪˤ褽礹뤳ȤϳΤŪϡ¨̴طްդ櫓ǤϤʤξԤδ֤˰̴طϤΤʤΤȤСɤ٤ΰ̴طʤΤʳʸ̮ǤϤɤʤΤ
ľŪˤϡʸȯã뤳ȤˤäơҲʣȼäƻؼоݤ׹ͤͼʣȼäбɽʣȤΤϡΤ褦˻פMartinet ϡȯȼ le bateau qui marche à la vapeur Ȥɽ˵󤲤Ƥˡ
̤ΥƥåפפȤǤ롥ʸȯãȡμνѤȾãɬפ礹롥ɬפ˱뤿μ礿Τ졤ä˽񤭤ȤФȤСʪδطΤ˵ŪɽˡɬפȤʤ롥ǡŪãΤɬפ졤֡ˡʤɤ˺Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬Ūʺ1ĤȤƽ°ʸȯãȤȤäΤǤϤʤ
ʸȯãȽ°ʸΰ̴ط¾ڤ뤳Ȥ϶ˤ񤷤ξȯãȤ⡤ˤƤǤϤʤĹλ֤򤫤ƵäΤǤꡤΤ¾¿װʶǽ뤫Ūʰ̴طꤽȤȤϤޤǤ󵯤ǤƤ⡤̴ط򼨤¤󤲤ʤϤäȤȤ񤷤
Ϣƶ̣㤬ΤǼƤ (59) Τ褦ˡʻɸդŪŪ繽¤ϿͤθħŤΤǤꡤʣ칽¤ȯãŪˤɤθǤǽǤ롥ʣ칽¤߲뤫ɤϸˤäưۤʤꡤˤʸŪװؤäƤ뤫⤷ʤޥήμĺν̱²ˤääԥϡˤϲŪ߹¤ʤȤ졤Ԥܤ򽸤Ƥ뤬 (59) ˤС֥ԥϡˤϡ¾θƱͤˡʲŪȤƤΡʻɸդϤꡤŪ繽¤߽Ф뤬ʸŪDzŪ߹¤ޤǤϤʤפǤ֤ޤʣʲ󵢤ʤפˤʤȤ
ʸȯãȸ̤ʸȤϰۤʤȤϤ쳰װˤä칽¤ȤηϤѲǽȤȤϡܤ٤Ǥ롥쳰װạ̈˱ƶڤܤ¿󤲤뤬Ū٥ˤƱͤ˱ƶڤܤΤȤϡʤʤɵ椹Τ񤷤
ˤĤƤϡ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פ˰Ѥ Leech et al. μĥˤ⼪򷹤ޤʸȯãȸȯãȤǡ[2011-08-25-1]ε#850. 񤭸դȯŪ׹ͤδطפ⡤ܵȴϢ뤫⤷ʤ

ͺӸ١ҡ1999ǯ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ

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2011-11-15 Tue

#932. neutralization ϰ۷֤ν̸ˤ׸ [oe][old_norse][inflection][conjugation][paradigm][contact][language_change][analogy]

[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפ[2011-11-14-1]ε#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κۡפǡťΥɸȤθܿ˵űѸζηϤδñˤĤƼ夲ƤO'Neil neutralization ȸƤ֡αѸκˤĤƤϡξüԤˤ޸ѶŪڤȤȤ¦̤Ĵ뤳Ȥ¿Ωʤ¦̡allomorphy ν̸Ȥ¦̤⸫ƨƤϤʤʤ
εǼѥоɽ򸫤С޸κۤڤȤۤƱθ촴ˤ̤ȤüԤάͭǤ뤳Ȥʬ뤬촴ΤΤƱɬݤǤʤ롥ѥΥåȤˤäƤϡ촴۷ (allomorph) ȤƸ뤳Ȥ롥Ǥϡdrīfan βˤƤϡñ13; (drāf) ā θ촴첻򼨤ñ2;Τʣ (drifedrifon) i θ촴첻򼨤
¾ˤ⡤ñ23;ΤζޤˤƸ촴첻 i-mutation 򼨤űѸưϾʤʤOE lūcan "to lock" θ߷γɽ򼨤ȡʲΤ褦˸촴첻Ѱۤ (O'Neil 262)

 Old English
Inflūcan 'lock'
Pres. Sing. 1.lūce
2.lȳc(e)st
3.lȳc(e)ð
Plur.lūcað


ȤѸŵŪʥѥǤϡñ23;Τθ촴¾ΥåȤƱ촴褦ˤʤäƤ롥Τ allomorphy ν̸Ǥꡤ̤ȤơѤθ촴߷Υѥ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäưŤΤʤ allormophy 򤳤Τ褦˽̸뤳Ȥϡߤ˰ջ̤ޤȤƤűѸťΥɸüԤˤȤäƤϹŪ˷ޤ줿ʾˤ餬̸ѶŪ˷ޤ줿Ȥͤ뤳ȤǤ롥

I think it clear that working from quite similar, often identical, underlying forms but with different sets and intersecting sets of endings associated with them and bewildering allomorphies as a result of the conditions established by the endings, the basic underlying sameness of Old English and Old Norse had become somewhat distorted and thus a superficial barrier to communication between speakers of the two languages had arisen. It is not surprising then that the inflections of the languages were rapidly and radically neutralized, for they were the source of nearly all difficulty. (O'Neil 262--63)


allormophy ν̸ϡܿˤ neutralization βȤƤǤʤŪ (analogy) ñ㲽 (simplification) βȤƤª뤳ȤǤ롥ºݤˤϡΤߤѤƤȹͤΤǤϤʤξԤ˺ѤƤȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
allomorphy ν̸ϡѥ levelling ʿʿˤɤؤ뤳ȤǽѸˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-03-1]ε#555. 2 analogyפ򻲾ȡ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-11-14 Mon

#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κ [oe][old_norse][inflection][conjugation][paradigm][contact][language_change]

[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפǤϡűѸθηϤťΥɸȤܿˤñƤäO'Neil ѸѤ neutralization ȸƤβϡűѸȸťΥɸȤδ֤ǡб촴ϤۤƱǤˤ⤫餺б޸Ϸ㤷ۤʤäƤˡԤѶŪڤȤ줿ȤȤä
ǤϡŪˤɤΤ褦ξζηϤ򾷤ΤäΤƤߤ褦ʲϡŵŪʶѲư졤Ѳư졤Ѳ̾졤Ѳ̾ (o-stem) ζޤоɽǤ (O'Neil 257--59)

Strong Verb

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Infdrīfan 'drive'drífã
Pres. Sing. 1.drīfedríf
2.drīfestdrífR
3.drīfeðdrífR
Plur. 1.drīfaðdrífom
2.drīfaðdrífeð
3.drīfaðdrífã
Past Sing. 1. and 3.drāfdreif
2.drifedreift
Plur. 1.drifondrifom
2.drifondrifoð
3.drifondrifð
Pres. pple.drīfendedrífande
Past pple.drifendrifenn

Weak Verb

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Inftellan 'count'teljã
Pres. Sing. 1.telletel
2.telesttelR
3.telðtelR
Plur. 1.tellaðteljom
2.tellaðteleð
3.tellaðteljã
Past Sing. 1taldetalda
2.taldesttalder
3.taldetalde
Plur. 1.taldontǫldom
2.taldontǫldoð
3.taldontǫldõ
Pres. pple.tellendeteljande
Past ppl.etaldtal(e)ð

Weak Noun

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Sing. Nom.guma 'man'gume
Obliquegumangumã
Plur. Nom.gumangumaR
Acc.gumangumã
Gen.gumenagum(n)a
Dat.gumumgumon

Strong Noun (Feminine ō-stems)

 Old EnglishOld Norse
Sing. Nom.bōt 'remedy'bót
Acc.bōtebót
Gen.bōtebótaR
Dat.bōtebót
Plur. Nom.bōtabótaR
Acc.bōtabótaR
Gen.bōtenabóta
Dat.bōtumbótom


촴ϤۤƱǤꡤ鷺˰ۤʤȤƤ¤פεϰϤǤ롥Ȥб޸٤ȡΤۤΩġб륹åȤ˰ۤʤѤƤȤȤϤ뤳Ȥʤ顤ŪƱθۤʤ륹åȤѤƤȤΤ⺮򾷤˽ʬä㤨СűѸ drīfeð ϸ3;ñƱθťΥɸ drífeð ϸ2;ʣǤ롥
Τ褦˶ɽ٤ȡξüԤκ𿶤꤬Ū˸ƤΤǤϤʤ

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-17-1] [2011-11-15-1]

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2011-11-11 Fri

#928. ޤ neutralization simplification [inflection][contact][language_change][germanic][old_norse]

ѸˤǤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƵäηϤδñ򡤶ޤοʿ (levelling) ñ㲽 (simplification) ȤѸɽΤ̤Ǥ롥Ʊͤθݤ¿쾯ʤ¾ΥޥǤƤȤϡε#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ˤƤǤʿñ㲽ȤѸ줬ŬѤ
O'Neil ϡޥ˸ޤοϡΤ˶̤٤2ĤѸ neutralization simplification ˤäƵҤ٤ȶĴƤ롥줾ϡO'Neil (283) ˤȼ̤ꡥ

(A) If there is significant and more-or-less permanent contact between two closely related languages differing for the most part only in superficial aspects of their grammars (inflections, accent, tone, etc.), these superficial differences will be rapidly neutralized or erased. (283)


(B) Without language contact, inflectional systems will simplify only so far as there is room available for easing learning without greatly decreasing perceptibility. (283)


ĤޤȤܿȤʤäʸˡƥ꡼ζ̤褦ʸηϤδñ neutralization ȸƤӡܿȤϴطʤؽγФ˴ؤüԤθ쿴Ū׵˴ŤƼ˿ʹԤηϤδñ simplification ȸƤʬ٤ȡO'Neil ϼĥƤ롥Ū˸Сneutralization ǡȤƷ㤷Ѥǥϡsimplification Ͼ˾ĺѤƤ륢ʥϤª
ѸǥޥζηϤδñƵҤȡΤ褦ˤʤIcelandic High German ʤɤŪݼŪʸǤϡȤ simplification ˤηϤδñΤߤѻΤФơñѸ졤Φ󥸥ʥӥ졤եꥫ󥹸ʤɤǤϡsimplification ˲äơܿˤäư줿 neutralization Ѥ
űѸŪ˿ʹԤƤޤδñťΥɸȤܿˤ®ȤŪϡǤϹƤ뤬Τ˶̤2ĤѸˤʤȤˡO'Neil ΰյ롥˿ʹԤƤץ (simplification) ΤޤޱĹ줿ΤǤϤʤñȤ̣Ǥϰˤ뤳ȤǤΤΡťΥɸȤܿˤͶȯ줿̤Υץ (neutralization) ˤäƸ岡줿ȹͤƤפǤ롥

O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-09-26 Mon

#882. Belfast νŹ [sociolinguistics][language_change][contact][social_network][weakly_tied]

20θȾˤϡҲؤʬǤĤβŪʥեɥ»ܤ졤Ѳμ֡ïġɤǡɤΤ褦ˡƤʤѲ򳫻ϤΤˤ餫ˤƤ[2010-06-07-1]ε#406. Labov New York City /r/פǾҲ𤷤ϤΤ1Ĥ̤οʼŪʸҲ𤷤ε#881. ťΥɸǤ͡ ([2011-09-25-1]) ǰ礤˽Ф Milroy (and Milroy) θǤ롥Aitchison (73--77) ˤƱ򻲾ȤĤġʲǾҲ𤹤롥
Milroy (and Milroy) ϡ̥ɤ Belfast ԳϼҲƤ벻ѲĴĤ첻ѲƤ뤬Τʤ grass bad ˴ޤޤ첻 /ɑ/ 岽 /ɔː/ ؤѲƤȤΤ롥 <grawss> <bawd> ֤뤫Τ褦ȯȤʤѲ첻Ѳ19Ⱦ국ϿƤꡤ褷ƿʤοʹԲˤ椬äBelfast ԳϼҲǰΧƤ櫓ǤϤʤʬۤФ꤬ȤΤǤ롥
ʬۤФˤĤƸˡBelfast ԳϤμҲŪطʤ򤷤Ƥɬפ롥Belfast ԳϤϤѤƤꡤȡࡤµǯȺ᤬̢䤹륹೹äΤʤǥץƥȤȥȥåΩΩäƤξĤϻǽʬƤꡤߤ˸ŪܿϤʪŪܿ⤢ޤʤޤܿϰ쿨¨ȯδϤǤ
ơμĴϡԳΥץƥȷϤĮ Ballymacarrett ȻԳΥȥåϤĮ the Clonard ǹԤʤ줿η̡첻Ѳ Ballymacarrett ̱˸˴ѻ뤳ȤʬäBallymacarrett ̱ϽΨ the Clonard ⤯μҲŪϰ̤ͭƤΤħŪǤ롥ϼҲŪĤʤˤäƸߤ˶ӤĤƤꡤνϤˤä Belfast ԳϤˤ첻岽οϤȤʤäƤȹͤ롥Ballymacarrett νˤĤƤϡ첻ѲۤɿƩƤʤޤĤƳƤѲǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥̤ˡɸŪؤθѲ¿뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ뤬η褯Ƥ롥
Ȥ̣Ȥ˻ԳΥȥåϤĮ the Clonard ˤƤϡƱ첻Ѳǯؤˤ¿ѻȤΤǤ롥2Ĥ椬롥1ĤϡBallymacarrett Ǥϡ첻ѲɸŪؤѲǤ뤳Ȥͽ¬̤Ƴγ׿äthe Clonard Ǥϼ㤤ƳƤ褦˸뤳ȤǤ롥⤦1Ĥϡ⤽ξĤΤˤۤȤɼҲŪܿϤʤϤʤΤˡʤѲŤΤȤǤ Ballymacarrett the Clonard ؤŤƤ뤳ȤϳΤ餷ˡ
򤯸ϡBallymacarrett the Clonard μ㤤ȤΤ˲餫ܿ˰㤤ʤȤǤ롥ҲͤСۤɥޥåäꤽˤϻפʤޤޥåǤϤʤȤǤСܿεϤ롥ϡĮ濴ˤŹäthe Clonard μ㤤ϼ㤤⽢Ψ⤯ξĤ̤ѤĮ濴ŹŹȤƸۤƤ륱롥ϡBallymacarrett Ҥ˱ФݤˡȯʤǤ岽 /ɔː/ ΤǤϤʤŹؤ˹碌Ƹոؤ "shop-assistant phenomenon" ϡҲؤǤ accommodation ΰȤΤƤꡤ[2010-06-07-1] Labov θǤǧƤ̤Ǥ롥ξʡŪܿˤꡤBallymacarrett ȯ첻Ѳ㤤Źͳ the Clonard ؤŤƤΤǤϤʤ
첻Ѳʬۤ䤫˲ Milroy (and Milroy) μĴϡ˸ѲμҲŪͥåȥؤȯŸ롥ޤܤ˸ʤäѲŤθȤª뤳ȤǽˤŪʸǤ롥
ͤޤǤˡAitchison (75) 󤵤Ƥ첻ٻؿ򼨤4.0ǹͤǤ롥
 MenWomenMenWomen
Aged 40--5540--5518--2518--25
East Belfast3.62.63.42.1
West Belfast2.81.82.32.6


Milroy, J. and L. Milroy. "Belfast: Change and Variation in an Urban Vernacular." In Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English. London: Arnold, 1978.
Milroy, J. and L. Milroy. "Linguistic Change, Social Network and Speaker Innovation." Journal of Linguistics 21 (1985): 339--84.
Milroy, L. Language and Social Networks. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1987.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-09-11 Sun

#867. Barber ǡѸθѲˤߤ뷹 [pde][language_change][pde_language_change][elf][wsse]

ǶᡤѸθѲηˤĤĴ٤뵡äϢϡޤǤˤʲΤ褦ʵʤȤĥƤεˤǰäƤ

#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])
#795. 󥿡ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])
#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1])
#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ ([2011-01-09-1])
#339. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ ([2010-04-01-1])
#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1])
ʰʾ礷##860,795,625,622,339,386 ɤ

Ū˽äƸѸ20ʹߤȤȡȾȸȾȤǤϱѸ괬ĶϷѤƤ롥ޤ1990ǯȾаʹߤˤϡELF (English as a Lingua Franca) Ȥɽʹ褦ˤʤꡤǤαѸΰ֤Ťϡ21ꤹ뤳ȤϤʤޤޤѲƤ椯ΤȻפ롥ѸμҲŪΩ줬ѲˤĤơѸ줬ŪˤƤƤ椯ȤȤưפ褦
Barber ϡ20ȾФλǤαѸʼȤब "Received Standard" ȸƤ֥ꥹɸѸˤθѲˤĤƹͻƤ뤬ˤ2ĤĬήǧȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

On the one hand, there has been a trend towards greater uniformity, a levelling out of differences; on the other hand, there has been an increased reluctance to accept as a norm what has hitherto been considered the standard form of the spoken language. In sum the effect has been to make the language more mixed. (16)


ɸѼޤ᤿͡ʥꥹѸѼħŪäܤɸѼؤǦӹǤƤȤĬήȡɸѼϰ̤ΤΤ㲼ƤƤȤĬήǤ롥ϡɸɸब礷ʤ⡤­2dzä褦ƱŪѼ郎ޤĤĤȤƶɤƶ¬Ǥ뤳ȤϡɸѸƤѲʤΰˤϡɸѸ˸ꤵ줿餹пѲȤߤʤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ򹭤ƸСñɸѼˤǤ¸ߤƤܤɸѼذƤȤȤ⤢ꤽȤȤǤ롥ϡ (dialectal borrowing) Ȥ˶ᤤBarber ȤɽǸСΰѤֻǼ褦 "changes in acceptance" ʼƤѲˤȤȤˤʤ롥

Because of the change which is going on in the concept of standard English, and because of the social changes of the post-war period, some of the linguistic changes which we shall note will be changes in acceptance, rather than changes in actual usage. Usages which are not new, but which have previously been considered non-standard, are now coming to be accepted as standard by increasing numbers of educated speakers (though not always by the speaker of R. S. [Received Standard] proper). (28--29)


Barber ⤯奤ꥹɸѸθѲĬήϡǤ "dialectal mixing" ηǤ뤬ãϡ20ȾФȤŪᤤʳǡƱĬήꥹɸѸǤʤѸˤѻ뤳ȤŦ˸롥ʥꥫѸϤʴפȤʤαѸѼ郎礤ˤ䤫˶Ѱ첽ƤΤǤϤʤȤѻǤ롥

[W]ith the great increase in world-wide communications, it is probable that the various forms of English spoken in the world are now influencing one another more than formerly, and that the trend to greater dialectal mixing is therefore taking place in English on a world scale. (21)


ϡCrystal 󵯤 WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) ˶ᤤͤǤ롥[2010-10-09-1]ε֥ꥫѸ conversion / diversionפǿ줿褦ˡȿ뷹αѸ줬¤ˤʤäƹԤ diversion η̵뤹櫓ˤϤʤELF ܻۤؤƤɸѸγΩȤϡBarber 1964ǯδѻľɾͤȹͤ롥

Barber, Charles. Linguistic Change in Present-Day English. Alabama: U of Alabama P, 1964.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-04-17-1]

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2011-09-04 Sun

#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ [pde][language_change][pde_language_change][exclamation_mark]

[2010-05-31-1]εָѸ˵äƤѲפ[2011-01-11-1]εָѸʸˡѲΰפǡѸƤѲΰ󤲤ϤγǤäŪʰϺʤΤǡBarber, Bauer, Fennell, Potter, Leech et al. ¾νʸǼ夲Ƥ褦ʸѲѰۤιܤ򡤻ѤˤޤȤ᤿ΤȤ򤵤줿ޤ᤿ܤιȺ٤Ū濴˿Τ "PDE linguistic changes and variations in spoken and written varieties of present-day Standard British and/or American English" Ǥ롥ܤȤƤϡ򻲾Ȥ줿
̻ŪѲȶŪѰۤζ̤ۣǤꡤΤ˸ѲȤߤʤ뤫ɤ路⤢뤫⤷ʤޤäľΥ٥ǸѲȸΩƤƤeޤޤƤ롥ˡ٤ƸѸǿʹѲǤϤ뤬¿ϸѸǻϤޤäѲǤϤʤ¿϶Ѹ顤뤤Ѹ³ƤѲǤꡤˤäƤˤդιܤ⡤ѸƤѲȤƤߤʤ뤫ɤڤͤܤǤϤ롥

phonology

  • centering of short vowels (Barber 42): yes, good
  • change of /ɔː/ to /ɔ/ before /f/, /s/, and /θ/ (Barber 43): off, lost, cloth
  • closer /ɔː/: lord used to be pronounced like lard today
  • Continental pronunciation (Barber 72--74, Potter 31--32): Seine, Cherbourgh, Majorca, Sofia, Buenos Aires; quasi-, nuclei
  • de-syllabification of pp adj. with -ed (#776): aged, beloved
  • de-syllabification of /iə, uə/ to /i-ə, u-ə/ (Potter 18--19)
  • diphthongisation of /iː/ and /uː/ (Barber 44--45): tea, two
  • dramatic fronting of /uː/ and /ʌ/ in RP (Bauer 114--21)
  • final /iː/ for /i/ (Barber 46--47): pretty, Derby
  • fluctuation in pronunciation (#488, #766): applicable, dilemma, status
  • h-dropping (#462): herb, homage
  • initial /h/ for /wh/: where, what
  • instable pronunciation of triphthongs (Potter 19--20): [faə], [fɑə], [fɑː]] for [faiə]
  • intrusive (linking) -r (#500): the idea(r) of, law(r) and order
  • intrusive stops (Barber 58--59): fan(t)cy, warm(p)th, leng(k)th
  • loss of final alveolars (Barber 53--54): no(t) bad, ol(d) man, half pas(t) five
  • loss of plosives (Barber 54): knocked, East Coast
  • loss of /p/ from initial /ps/ and /pt/ (Barber 55): pseudo, psyche
  • new weak forms of pronunciation (Barber 64): /srait/ (that's right), /fjuˈlaik/ (if you like), /ˈtsɔːl ˈrait/ (it's all right)
  • Northern Cities Shift (#396)
  • noun-verb stress alternation (#803, #804, #406)
  • simplification of double consonants (Barber 54--55): a good deal, upside-down, lamp-post, prime-minister
  • Southern Hemisphere Shift (#402)
  • spelling pronunciation (#211, #212, #379): often, forehead
  • spread of /ə/ in unstressed syllables (Barber 48--49): ability, women, useless, engine
  • spread of glottal stops (Barber 60--61): butter, batman, button, not yet
  • vocalic influence of "dark l (Barber 47--48): revolve, solve; salt, falter; milk
  • voicing of intervocalic consonants (Barber 57): letter, better, British
  • vowel shift in Estuary English (#465)
  • word stress shift (#488, #769; #321, #342, #366): controversy, harass, Caribbean
  • /ɛ/ for /eɪ/ (#541, #543): says, against
  • yod-dropping (#841): dew, enthuse, lewd, new, suit, tune

morphology

  • acronyms, initialisms, and alphabetisms (#625, #817): EU, UNESCO, asap
  • active conversion (#394): to pluto
  • active blending (#631, #625): electrocute, Singlish
  • active shortening (Barber 89--91): telly, mike, sub, polio, bra
  • affixation (#732, #133, #593, #420): -dom, -ish, -wise, super-, mini-
  • back-formation (#108): baby-sit, escalator, ism, enthuse, liaise
  • change in formation of new words (Bauer 38--40): blends and compounds grow while suffixation and neo-classical compounds decline
  • conversion of phrasal verbs to nouns (Potter 171--73): breakout, getaway, layout, leftover, setup, walkout
  • generalisation of the s-plural (#121, #161, #482): thesauruses, mouses, oxes
  • headless compound (#420): pickpocket, sell-out
  • -ic for -ical (Barber 115): comic, botanic, politic
  • monosyllabism (Potter 76--78): ad, jet, op, quake
  • regularisation of irregular verb conjugations (#178, #528): dreamed for dreamt, wedded for wed
  • spread of the s-genitive to non-human nouns (#425): today's newspaper, the book's cover
  • suffixation for semantic differentiation (Potter 74--76): emergency / emergence, continuance / continuation / continuity
  • variants of the preterite of verb (#312): dove / dived, sung / sang, swum / swam

syntax

  • analytical comparison of disyllabic adjectives (#403, #456, #425; Bauer 51--61): more polite, most polite for politer, politest
  • change in case inflections of personal pronouns (Bauer 88): between you and I for between you and me; than myself to avoid the choice of either I or me
  • change in non-finite clausal complementation (part of "Great Complement Shift") (Leech et al. 205)
  • decline of wh-relatives in AmE (#424, #425; Bauer 66--83)
  • decline of whom (#622)
  • decline of auxiliary verbs like shall, ought (to), need(n't) (#677)
  • decline of passive constructions (Leech et al. 164)
  • development of new, auxiliary-like uses of certain lexical verbs: wanna for want to,
  • do-support for have in BrE: Have you any money? and No, I haven't any money Do you have / have you got any money? and No, I don't have any money / I haven't got any money
  • do-support for be (Potter 132): Why don't you be a good boy?, Why on earth doesn't the fellow be reasonable?
  • due to as a compound preposition (Barber138): Due to heart-failure, he suffered an early death.
  • elimination of shall as a future marker in the first person (#301)
  • expansion of phrasal verbs and compound verbs (Barber 140): run down; build up, start up
  • extension of the progressive to new constructions (especially modal, present perfect and past perfect passive progressives: the road would not be being built / has not been being built / had not been being built / They are remembering the days of their childhood, You are surely imagining things
  • fixed order of attributive adjectives (Potter 152--56): his five short brilliant creative years
  • fluctuation of prepositions in phrases (#301): different to for different from
  • further auxiliation of semi-auxiliaries and modal idioms (#64): gonna, have got to, be supposed to
  • gerunds as attributives (Fennell 174): the come-backing Australian tennis player, Claire X is a rapidly becoming confused mother of four
  • hyphenated attributives (Potter 106--107): an off-the-cuff opinion, round-the-clock discussions, hard-to-get-at volumes
  • increase in negative and verbal contractions: is'nt, it's
  • increase in the number and types of multi-word verbs (expanded predicates): phrasal verbs, have / take / give a + noun
  • increase in title + name: Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for Mrs Thatcher, the Prime Minister, young Lambeth housewife Amy Green for Mrs Green, a young Lambeth housewife
  • less use of no-negation in contrast to not-negation (Leech et al. 241)
  • like, same as, and immediately as conjunctions (#312)
  • longer VPs (catenatives) (Fennell 174): He appears to wish to be able to carry on being examined by the same doctor.
  • more use of adjectives as adverbs (#312): They pay them pretty good.
  • more zero-relatives and that-relatives (Bauer 66--83)
  • more use of less instead of fewer with countable nouns: less people
  • more use of the preterite for the perfect (Fennell 175): I bought a new car for I've bought a new car
  • more use of the get-passive (Leech et al. 164): get frightened, get mixed
  • more use of the mediopassive (Leech et al. 165): Oilcloth wears well, Thr routes are designed to bicycle in a few hours.
  • (multiple) noun adjuncts (#625, #425; Potter 107--13, Fennell 175): World Court, recreation facilities, for health reasons, on efficiency grounds, weapons technology; World Heath Organization, Trades union congress centenary, New York City Ballet School instructor, railway station waiting room murder inquiry verdict
  • "noun disease" (Potter 100--05): London's growth is rapid for London is growing rapidly
  • number concord of collective nouns (#312; Bauer 61--66): The Government has/have been considering further tax cuts.
  • omission of the definite article (Potter 144--46): (the) university, (the) Government, (the) radio, all (the) winter
  • omission of have and do (Barber 136--37): we done it, they been, you seen; What you want that for?, Where you think you're going?
  • omission of Do you in questions (Barber 137): Like a cigarette?, Have a drink?
  • omission of that in now that and so that (Barber 138)
  • placement of frequency adverbs before auxiliary verbs even if no emphasis is intended: I never have said so
  • plural attributives (Bauer 48): drugs courier for drug courier
  • positive tags as afterthoughts (Potter 160): We all agree on this, or do we?, We know in our hearts that we shall be rewarded, or do we?
  • revival of the 'mandative' subjunctive, probably inspired by formal US usage (#312, #325, #326): we demand that she take part in the meeting
  • sentences becoming shorter (Barber 143)
  • sort of and kind of as adverbs (Barber 138): meaning so to speak, if that is the right word for it
  • spread of 'singular' they to formal and standard usage (#275; Bauer 148): Everybody came in their car
  • suppressed prepositions (Potter 140--41): agree (with), approve (of), compensate (for), protest (against), cope (with)
  • syntactic contamination (#737; Barber 139): both A but also B; between A to B, comprise of
  • this and that as intensive adverbs (Potter 147): It is not all that simple.

semantics

  • change in usage and meaning of words (#823, #755, #301): uninterested / disinterested, literally, hopefully

pragmatics

  • decline of she for ships and countries (#852)
  • decline of honorific vocatives such as Mr and Sir
  • democratised mode of address as by first-names (Bauer 141--45)
  • increase in questions (Leech et al. 242)
  • popularisation of political correctness (#115): Ms, chairperson; refuse collector
  • second person plural pronouns (#312, #529): y'all, you guys

lexicon

  • change in sources of new words (Bauer 35--36): English grows while French, Latin, and Greek decline
  • Cockney rhyming-slang since the World Wars (Barber 103): trouble and strife (wife), half-inch (to pinch), titfer (hat)
  • general growth in vocabulary (#629, #623)
  • Greco-Latin scientific vocabulary and its popularisation (Potter 90--98): ISV (International Scientific Vocabulary) such as pediatrics, arthritis, euphoria, claustrophobia, inferiority complex
  • growth in e-vocabulary as a result of e-revolution
  • new intensifiers (Barber 123--24): smashing, shattering, wizard, bang-on, super, super-duper, massive, fabulous
  • new lexical euphemisms (Barber 125): slump / depression / recession / downturn
  • proper names and trade names (Barber 95--97): diesel, kodak, Hoover, Biro
  • revival of old (esp. war-related) words: frigate, corvette, armour

spelling

  • -ise / -ize in BrE (#314; Bauer 134--35): emphasise, criticise, characterise, summarise, specialise
  • "pronunciation spelling" (#799, #825): lite, thru, warez

punctuation

  • fewer exclamation marks and semi-colons (Leech et al. 245)
  • growth in parenthetic sentences (Barber 143): Boxer Bill Smith (he will be twenty-four to-morrow) has signed a contract to fight. . .
  • increase of quoted speech (Leech et al. 248)
  • less use of apostrophes (Bauer 132--33): the 1969s
  • less use of hyphens (Potter 58--59): yearbook for year-book or year book; today for to-day
  • more use of quotes (Potter 56--57): to impress the uninitiated?
  • preference for lowercase (Potter 59--60): neo-platonic for Neo-Platonic or neo-Platonic
  • smileys and emoticons (#808): :-) and :-(
  • unindented address lines (Bauer 132)


Barber, Charles. Linguistic Change in Present-Day English. Alabama: U of Alabama P, 1964.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Potter, Simon. Changing English. London: Deutsch, 1969.
ԡѲѸ١ҤĤ˼2003ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-08-19 Fri

#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ [prediction_of_language_change][language_change]

εָѲͽκ ([2011-08-18-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡѲͽۤȤĤߤˤĤƤϡ˸ؼԤΤǤ͡ʰո롥Bauer ϡѲͽۤ "hazardous" "risky" ǤȤơپĤ餷Ƥ롥ϢսѤ褦

Dealing with on-going changes is a very hazardous undertaking. It is tempting to conclude that, because we can see the beginning of a change, it follows that the change will continue. This is not true. It may even reverse itself. Consequently, predictions based on current trends mean very little. 'If current trends continue, then we may expect to find people saying xyz in the year 2050' is about as risky as predicting the value of the pound or the rate of inflation. (21)

Not only can we not predict the speed of a change, but we cannot predict whether it will be followed through to the end, or even whether it might be reversed. Diachronic linguistics is not a predictive science. (25)


εǰѤ (2) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѲϼʳؤˡ§Ȱۤʤꡤ򼨤ˤʤϳΤǤ롥ȤСͽۤ򤹤뤳Ȥ˲βͤΤͽ۲餸ƤǤϤʤȤոФΤǤ롥ͽۤ뤫ʤȤäǽΤǤСỤ̄Ϥʤ
ͽۤγỤ̄򵿤ˡͽۤȤ԰٤ä¸ߤϤΡ̤ؤδؿѲ򿼤᤿Ȥ񿴤ºŤƤ褤褦˻פޤѲ򸦵椷Ƥ̤λѤͽۤʤ뵤Ǥ롥μʴؿ򲡤ȤΤϡˤƤ⸦ˤƤ幥ޤʤޤ鸽ߤؤȸѲƻڤɤѲɵ椷ƤԤˤȤäơλ̤˱ĹʤȤΤϤޤ˶ŪǤ롥
⤽⡤Ѳϡߤޤ³ƤѲή뤫⤷ʤȤ褦ʸŪʲǽռŪ˼ξݤ뤳ȤȤΩƤƤκȤϰۤλäΤǤϤʤ (2) θ褦ˡͽۤϸѲװϤΤΤǤϤʤϤ̤ĤߤǤȡѶŪɾ
ºݤΤȤBauer ƱΤʤͽۤ˶ᤤȤ򤷤Ƥ롥Bauer ηپϡͽۤޤ "tempting" 餳Ūˤϸ̩ͽۤԲǽʤΤȤĴƤäΤȤ򤷤Ƥ̤ǧBauer Ʊݤε Lass (Phonology, 328--29) Lass (Shape, 131) ǤʤƤȤΤǡǧ

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
ԡѲѸ١ҤĤ˼2003ǯ
Lass, Roger. Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1984.
Lass, Roger. The Shape of English. London and Melbourne: J. M. Dent, 1987.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-08-18 Thu

#843. Ѳͽκ [prediction_of_language_change][language_change][drift][acquisition]

(2) ǤϡѲͽȤκˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

̤ˤȤФѲˤĤƤͽϡ
(i) ߿ʹѲ
(ii) ˤƼºݤ˵äŪѲ
(iii) ƱϸˤߤѲ
(iv) Ļθ콬
ʤɤ˴ŤƹԤ롥


(i) (iv) ˤơΤݤءü줫̤ؤȴ⤯ʤäƤܤͤ롥(i) θߤˤѲλ¡(ii) βѲλ¡(iii) ƱϸθߤȲѲλ¡ drift εʤɤͿˡ(iv) ϸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤҥȤθ콬 (language acquisition) μʲ⸽ߤ̤ѤȤβǡˤˤ줾롥
(iii) θˡƱϡƱϸΡĤޤΤˤƸߤӲѲλ¤ȤäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤüŪˤС̸ŪʸѲ෿ (typology of language change) ȤǤ롥ָѲͽκפβǤ޼ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ

Ρü
á
á(1) θѲʸߡ
á
á(2) θѲʲ
á
á(3) ƱϸθѲʸߡ
á
á(4) θѲʸߡ
á
á(5) 콬ȸѲʸߡ

ݡ


μ꤬򻲹ͤˡ줬ɤΤ褦ѲƹԤΤ̤λѤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤˤʤˤĤͽʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѲͽȤ԰٤ˤĤƤϡؼԤδ֤ˤ͡ʹͤ롥㤨СSapir (Chapters 7--8) ѶŪ˸Ѳͽ򤷤Ƥ뤬 Bauer (21, 25) ͽ˴Ǥ뤫⤤Ƥ롥
ǰѤ (2) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ȤФѲϡޤäƱ郎äȤäɬȤϸ¤ʤΰ̣ǡȤФѲϼʳؤˡ§ (law) ȤϤ (trend, tendency) 򼨤ˤʤ
ɡѲˤĤƤͽҤʤɤϡ֤ȤФѲװϲפȤŪϤ̤ΤǤ롥


ʸϤ顤ԤϸѲͽȤ԰٤βͤϡ줬뤫ɤȤͽȤƤ٤ˤΤǤϤʤѲθ餫ˤ褦ȤĤߤǤˤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥Bauer ȽŪ٤褯ʬΤŪˤΩƱդ

ԡѲѸ١ҤĤ˼2003ǯ
Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

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2011-08-12 Fri

#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny [functionalism][language_change][systemic_regulation][phoneme][phonemicisation][minimal_pair][functional_load][teleology]

2֤εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ȡǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ǡSchendl 礤˽Фʤ顤ǽ (functionalism) Ĵǽ (systemic regulation) (therapeutic power) ǽô (functional load) ʤɤѸѤƤ˴ϢƼΤ褦ʼ䤬󤻤줿

Schendl (69)ΰѤˤĤƤҤȤļ򤵤Ƥ
'therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part'
ȤޤɤΤ褦㤬Τפ⤫Ӥޤ󡥼ϤΤƤޤԶѹդȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤȤƤⵤˤʤޤΤǸꤤޤ


Schendl ƱǶŪ󤲤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɼԤȤƤϳͤƤߤ뤷ʤ㤨вˤѲ¾㤨зˤ̤θѲϢŪ˰Ȥ褦ϱѸˤǤ¿뤬Ūˡ뼣Ū (therapeutic) Ѳ̤ΤȤǤ°Ȥʤ褦 (pathogenic) ѲϢȤΤϤäȡΤ˹ͤ줿
ʤ㤬פ⤫ФʤΤȹͤƤߤȡ"therapeutic" ȤѸ줬Ū˲ؤҴŪ˷᤬Ȥطʤ뤫ǤϤʤȻפä̤ѸǤϡּפܻؤǽɸϡ׾֤ηϤˤơפȤϤʤ֤ؤΤǽΩΩäŪȤƤϡȤ "a symmetrical, balanced, simple, economical system" ظƤȤߤʤȤǤʤηƻ Schendl ˸ˡηϤʣβηϤʣȤ߹碌ˤäͭΤǤꡤΰѲ벼ηϤδ鸫 therapeutic ȤƤ⡤̤βηϤδ鸫 pathogenic Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǤϡηΤδ餹ȡθѲϤɤ therapeutic ʤΤ뤤 pathogenic ʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤
ȤƻפĤΤϡεǤ夲 /θ/ /ð/ Ωȯ̤θ򤹤 /ð/ Dz (phonemicisation) ȤѲǤ롥űѸǤ,
[θ] [ð] 1Ĥβ (phoneme) 2Ĥΰ۲ (allomorphs) Ȥ֤Ťˤʤä˼ȤƵǽˤͭ [ð] Ԥʤ褦ˤʤ (ex. that, the, then, there, they, thou, though, with; cf. verners_law) thy vs. thigh Τ褦Ǿ (minimal pair) /θ/ /ð/ ̡βǤؤʬƤä
/ð/ βDzưŤǽŪʴȡҤ٤褦˼Τ褦ˤʤ롥Ѹ˳ (obstruent) Ǥ̵ͭΩ礭ʵǽô̤ôäƤꡤ໤ǤΩηǡ˳о»ʤ°פȹͤ롥/θ/ /ð/ βDzϤо򸺤ǺѤ°ּפƤȲᤵ롥ºݤˤ thy vs. thigh κǾФϾʤΤǡ̵ͭΩϤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩƤΤϡѸ첻ΤȤ̵ͭȤΩˤƵǽŪǤ롥ʾȤСεϤޤ therapeutic ʹͤɽƤȸ
ƱѲ (graphemics) Ω줫鸫ȡषηŪоƤȤͤ롥ˤơ1Ǥ1ʸбƤΤǤоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪǤ뤳ȤϵƤʤѸϤ˰̾⤤ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ơоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪʲǤȽǤδطɵ᤹褦ʸѲȤСϽδ therapeutic ѲȤȤǤȤҤ /ð/ βDz˹碌ƽηϤƱͤѲ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡ̤Ȥ <th> ȤŻ (digraph) ɽ蘆1ĤνǤ2Ĥΰۤʤ벻Ǥб뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäϡΩ줫餹ȡtherapeutic ǤϤʤष pathogenic Ѳȸ롥
ޤȤȡ/ð/ βDzȤѲϡδ therapeutic Ѳäδ pathogenic ѲäȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡ䤽¾򤹤٤ƹͤ碌ơѸȤηΤؤαƶȤǸȡѲϤϤƥץ饹äΤޥʥäΤƶμ̤ҴŪ˷¬뤳Ȥ񤷤ΤǡȽǤϤܤĤʤȤˤʤʤΰ̣Ǥϡǽô̤ȤϱƶҴŪ˷¬褦ȤĤߤθǤꡤˡ1ĤʤΤ⤷ʤˡ
ˤơäơּפȤäơ¡פȤ뤫Ϥ褯狼ʤưʪξǤ顤Ʒڤ¤ͽɡ̤ͽܼιͤ롥ʤߤˡѤƤ pathogenic ȯ¤ˤȤƻ therapeutic еȤƺصŪѤޤǤǡѸȤ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-08-11 Thu

#836. ǽôȸѲ [functionalism][language_change][systemic_regulation][terminology][phonology][drift][minimal_pair][functional_load]

εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ([2011-08-10-1]) ǿ줿ǽô (functional load or functional yield) ˤĤơǽô̤ȤϤ벻ħ̵ǽι⤵ΤȤǡ¿̤ΩäƤۤɵǽô̤⤤Ȥߤʤ롥
㤨СѸǤϲ /p/ /b/ Ωϡ¿θ̤Ѥ롥̤θ򤹤С¿Ǿ (minimal pair) 򻺤 (ex. pay--bay, rip--rib ) äơ/p/ /b/ Ωεǽô̤礭/ʃ/ /ʒ/ Ωϡmesher--measure ʤɤκǾФ߽ФƤϤ뤬ۤ¿θ̤ˤΩäƤʤƱͤˡ/θ/ /ð/ Ω⡤thigh--thy ʤɤκǾФ뤬ǽô̤Ͼȹͤ롥
ǽô̤Ȥǰϡ嵭Τ褦ʸ̲ǤΩФǤϤʤŪħ̵ͭΩˤĤƤͤ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨СѸˤ̵ͭ (voicing) ȤΩϡ٤Ƥ /h/ ʳ໤ˤĤƸΩǤꡤˤ˻Ȥ󤵤ƤΤǡεǽô̤礭
Ǥϡǽô̤ȸѲɤΤ褦˷夯ȤΤǽŪʹͤˤȡ¿θ̤˹׸Ƥ̵ͭΤ褦ʵǽô̤礭Ω⤷äƤޤȤȡηϤ˵ڤܤƶ礭äơǽô̤礭ΩѲˤȤΩġȿФˡǽô̤ξΩϡ¾װˤäѲСۤɤ񹳤򼨤ʤǤ椯ȡ/θ/ /ð/ Ωϡǽô̤ᡤ⤹мʤȤ¤ʤ԰ΩǤϤ뤬ǤŪʼ̵ͭȤФʡǽô̤礭Ωˤäƻ٤Ƥ뤿ˡۤưפˤϲäʤȤȤˤʤǽԤμĥ롤ηϤߤȤо (symmetry) λظפȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤳Ȥʬ
ηŪΩ뤿ˡ뤤Ωβä򤱤뤿ѲȤͽɡפιͤϡƵǽŪʻǤ롥üԡʽġˤηϤ򤱤ͽɡפˤĤƤɤΤ褦˰ռΤüԡʽġˤθư̵ռˡͽɡ׹԰٤ԤʤäƤȹͤ٤ʤΤϡ[2011-03-13-1]ε֤ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1)פǸΤƱεǤ롥

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-08-10 Wed

#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ [homonymic_clash][functionalism][systemic_regulation][language_change][functional_load]

Ѳˤ뵡ǽ (functionalism) ιͤϡǤϹƤ뤬¾ǤϸȽ롥ѲεǽŪκǤΤȤơΥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ⰷäƤƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) 롥homonymic_clash ˴ؤϢεΤʤǤڤƤεǽŪʸѲѤФ϶
ǤСǽŪʸѲѤȤϡˤ systemic regulation ȤĴǽäƤꡤ줿ηϤоŪǶѹդμ줿ηϤؤȼ (therapeutic) ϤȤͤǤ롥ȤƤϡ˿줿 homonymic clash Τۤоؤλظꤹ԰ʻҲ /h/([2009-11-27-1]) ;̾ηϤо ([2009-11-09-1], [2009-10-24-1]) ꡤޤǽô (functional load) ꤬롥
줬üԡʤμҲˤΩƼĴǽϤäƤȤͤϡָʪפȤͤ[2011-07-13-1]εָޤʪޤפ򻲾ȡˤˤĤʤꡤꤽȤȤͽۤ롥ºݤˡǽٻԤ¿СȽԤ¿롥Schendl (69) ȽޤȤƤΤǡѤ褦

A basic problem with such functional explanations is how the individual speakers or the speech community as a whole could know about the actual or threatening asymmetry of systems and act accordingly. Another problem with the notion of 'therapeutic change' is that therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part; finally, if this was the main driving force behind change then we would expect all linguistic systems to have become balanced by now, which they clearly are not. (69)

. . . though linguistic factors such as functional load undoubtedly can contribute to linguistic change, there is no empirical proof of their coming into play in specific cases. (69)


ȽŪոɤ߼ΤϡָѲ⤿餹ϤޤüԤʹ֤ǤηϼȤǤϤʤסָηϤ˼ĴǽȤƤ⡤϶ĴǽǤϤʤסβȤƤϵǽǧ뤬иŪ˼¾ڤǤʤפȤĥ

Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.

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2011-07-29 Fri

#823. uninterested disinterested [semantic_change][negative][language_change][prescriptive_grammar]

̣ѲȵŪʸˡˤȿϤѤƤꡤоݤˤʤ䤹ǯ̾1Ĥˡɸ2λȤʬ˴ؤ롥
interested ˤϰۤʤ2Ĥθ롥ĤαѱѼŵĴ٤ʤǤϡMerriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary (MWALED; see [2010-08-24-1], [2010-08-23-1]) ˤζ̤Ǥʬ䤹ɽ路ƤʬŪ˰Ѥ롥

1a. wanting to learn more about something or to become involved in something
???The listeners were all greatly/very interested in the lecture.???
2. having a direct or personal involvement in something
???The plan will have to be approved by all interested parties.???


ܸˤСԤϡֶ̣äƤסԤϡطΤפζ̤Ȥʤ롥ԤŤɽ魯٤ȤƤԤΤۤŪ˹⤤1Ĥθ줬ۤʤʣθäƤ뤳ȼΤϡѸǤ¾θǤޤäȤǤϤʤܤ٤ϡѸǤξб̡꤬θɽ蘆뤳ȤǤ롥Ūʸˡ˽С1a θֶ̣äƤפ uninterested ǡ2 θطΤפ disinterested ɽ蘆Ȥ롥줾ʸ򼨤

- He is completely uninterested in politics.ʶ̣äƤʤ
- Her advice appeared to be disinterested.طΤʤʿ̵Ρ


Ȥ2 θŪޤ餫ǯǤ disinterested uninterested Ʊͤ 1a θֶ̣äƤʤפȤѤ뤳ȤƤƤȤݼŪɾԤϡĤƤΤ¸ߤ uninterested disinterested θζ̤줫Ƥ롤뤤 disinterested ξŪˤʤäƤޤäȤƷپĤ餷Ƥ뤬ȽϤɤΤ餤Ƥ
disinterested ξˤĤơȤ interested 2ĤΰۤʤäƤξŪäξ̤ʤԹȤȽʹȤʤǤˤξˤϴƤǤʤ顤ȤȤä̤ξƤ椯ȤˤϸʤȤΤϡޤڤ̤äƤȤϤʤ
2ˡֶ̣äƤʤפθ򿷤 disinterested uninterested ȴƱǤϤʤФжդ᤿֤ޤǶ̣äƤʤפΰ̣ interested ȤϻȤʬȤ롥ξ硤ξλȤʬˤäơĤƤԲǽạ̈Τʤٹ礤ɸǽˤʤäȤȤǤꡤ餿ʶ̤줿Ȥˤʤ롥
3ˡϡֶ̣äƤʤȡ̵ؿפ̣б1̾¸ߤʤä*uninterest Ȥ̾Ѥ줺lack of interest ʤɤȤŪɽDz뤷ʤäȤdisinterest ȤϡطΤʤȡʿ̵פ̣̾Ȥ¸ߤƤΤǡƻΰ̣ѲϢươƱ줬̵ؿפθô褦ˤʤä̵ؿפФ1ɽǤ褦ˤʤäΤϡηƻΰ̣Ѳ椨ȹͤ롥
ޤȤСΤ褦ˤʤ롥uninterested disinterested ˤޤḤ̂Ѳη̤ȤơݼŪɾԤΤ褦ˤ̤줿ȤϳΤǤ롥ȿ̡¸ߤʤä̤ζ̤줿Τ¤Ǥ롥
ŪʼǤϡdisinterested ο򤤤ޤѤȤǧƤʤ褦줬̵Ǥ뤳ȤͤСָѡפѲΤϻ֤꤫⤷ʤ뤤ϡüԤεϽηСʤȤʼĥäʸ̮ǤϡѤȤΥåƥ޳Τ⤷ʤĿͤȤƤϤɤ餬˾ޤȽǤǤʤȽǤʤ̵ŪѲƤ椯ΤǤϤʤüԤˤäͭŪѲƤ椯ΤȤϿƤ롥
ʾε Trudgill (2--5) ˵ä

Trudgill, Peter. "The Meaning of Words Should Not be Allowed to Vary or Change." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 1--8.

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