Ross (179) ˤȡ춦ƱΤĺٹ礤Ū嫤ζˤʬहȡ(1) closed and tightknit, (2) open and tightknit, (3) open and tightloose 3Ĥʬʤʤclosed and tightloose Ȥ߹碌ˤΤǾʤˡ(1) Τ褦Ĥ줿춦ƱΤǤϡ¾θ춦ƱΤȤܿǾ¤Ǥ뤿ˡŪˤ̻Ūˤ꤬ðۤǤ뤳Ȥ¿
ĺζƱΤθɽȤơФ Icelandic 夲롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1]), #903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1]), #927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) ʤɤˤƤIcelandic ϥޥΤʤǤŤܤ褯ݤäƤȤ롥social_network ˤȡɤΤ褦ʡɤ嫤ǷФƤ롤ĺ줿ƱΤǤϡѲˤݼŪʸĤȤ롥Τ褦ʶƱΤǤⴰĺƤ櫓ǤϤʤѲ̵ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ǤϡŪĺ줿ƱΤ˵ѲȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤPapua New Guinea νθԤˤȡĺ줿ƱΤǤϡѲʣˡޤդνȤκΩ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ (Ross 181) Ūˤϰ۷ (allomorphy) 佼ˡ (suppletion) äʤɤˤԵ§ԤˤȤä뤳Ȥʤ롥ơΤ褦Ե§ϡäƶƱ嫤˺Ѥ롥ΤȤϡ#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ǰ礤˽Ф accommodation_theory ιͤȤפ佼ˡؤڤȤܤ
ĺ줿ƱΤθˤʣβϡThurston ȤؼԤˤ "esoterogeny" ̾դƤ롥β˴ؤơRoss (182) ΰѤ褦
In a sense, these processes, which Thurston labels 'esoterogeny', are hardly a form of contact-induced change, but rather its converse, a reaction against other lects. However, as they are conceived by Thurston their prerequisite is at least minimal contact with another community speaking a related lect from which speakers of the esoteric lect are seeking to distance themselves. Thurston's conceptions raises an interesting question: if a community is small, and closed simply because it is totally isolated from other communities, will its lect accumulate complexities anyway, or is the accumulation of complexity really spurred on by the presence of another community to react against? I am not sure of the answer to this question.
"esoterogeny" β⤬ްդΤϡդΥʤ줿ƱΤǤϡѲϤषñ㲽ȤȤϢơűѸȸťΥɸܿˤñ㲽ˤĤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1]) Ȥ줿
Ross, Malcolm. "Diagnosing Prehistoric Language Contact." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 174--98.
[2010-07-14-1][2013-08-26-1]˰³ѲȤƤ endogeny exogeny (contact-based) 夲롥ϡendogeny ٻݼɤ exogeny ν⤯ɤδ֤Ƿ깭Ƥ롥Ԥ Lass ([2013-08-26-1]) Martinet (#1015. ҲѲȸѲΰ̴طɵǤ뤫 [2012-02-06-1]) ʤɤɽŪҤǤꡤԤˤ Milroy ([2013-08-26-1]) Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤҤ롥
exogeny ٻɤ¿ϡѲŪװˤäƤޤȤƤ⡤椨˳ŪװϴͿƤʤȷŤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȼĥ롥ޤ¿ξ硤ŪװȳŪװϰˤʤäƺѤƤȹͤɬפꡤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ٤⤯ޤϡThomason 3Ѥ褦
Many linguistic changes have two or more causes, both external and internal ones; it often happens that one of the several causes of a linguistic change arises out of a particular contact situation. (62)
It clearly is not justified, for instance, to assume that you can only argue successfully for a contact origin if you fail to find any plausible internal motivation for a particular change. One reason is that the goal is always to find the best historical explanation for a change, and a good solid contact explanation is preferable to a weak internal one; another reason is that the possibility of multiple causation should always be considered and, as we saw above, it often happens that an internal motivation combines with an external motivation to produce a change. (91)
Yet another unjustified assumption is that contact-induced change should not be proposed as an explanation if a similar or identical change happened elsewhere too, without any contact or at least without the same contact situation. (92)
ˡȸαѸؤαƶ Filppula ꡤƱݤΰѤ褦
Disagreements as to what weight each of the proposed methodological principles should be assigned in a given case are bound to remain part of the scholarly discourse, but certain things seem to me uncontroversial. First, as Lass (1997: 200--1) argues, apparent similarity, i.e. a mere formal parallel, cannot serve as proof of contact influence --- neither can it prove something to be of endogenous origin . . . . Before jumping to conclusions it is always necessary to examine the earlier history and the full syntactic, semantic and functional range of the features at issue, and also search for every possible kind of extra-linguistic evidence such as the extent of bilingualism in the speech communities involved, the chronological priority of rival sources, the geographical or areal distribution of the feature(s) at issue, demographic phenomena, etc. Secondly --- again in line with Lass's thinking (see, e.g., Lass 1997: 208) --- it is true to say that, from the point of view of the actual research, there is always a greater amount of homework in store for those who want to find conclusive evidence for contact influence than for those arguing for endogeny. On the other hand, even if endogeny is hard to rule out, as was shown by the examples discussed above, it does not follow that there would be no room for contact-based explanations or for those based on an interaction of factors. (171)
Ǹˡ Weinreich, Labov and Herzog ̾ʸѤ롥
Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior. (188)
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.
Filppula, Markku. "Endogeny vs. Contact Revisited." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 161--73.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
[2010-07-14-1]ε³ԡѲˤ2ΩȤơŪװ (language-internal factors, or endogeny) ȸ쳰Ūװ (language-external factors, or exogeny) 롥20μήɸؤǤϡԤǤꡤԤǤȤߤʤƤ줬ΩηϤǤȤΤǤСѲȤϤηϤȤؤȤȤǤꡤŪ줶ʤäơѲϸŪԤȹͤʤФʤʤѲװ⡤ηϤˤ˶ᤤȤǺѤװΤۤľŪȤȤˤʤꡤŪװ̤ͥĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥μήɸؤθϡΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥
It is true, I think, that in what might be called the dominant tradition in historical linguistics, it has been assumed that languages change within themselves as part of their nature as languages. The 'external' agency of speaker/listeners and the influence of 'society' in language change have tended to be seen as secondary and, sometimes, as not relevant at all. (Milroy 143)
ŪװȤߤ븫ˤ⡤ȤƤθ쳰ŪװɤΤ餤뤫˴ؤơٺ롥ΰѤˤ褦ˡ"secondary" ʤΤ "not relevant" ʤΤȤMilroy (144) 4ʳǧƤ롥
1. change originates within 'language' as a phenomenon;
2. change takes place within single languages unaffected by other languages;
3. change is more satisfactorily explained internally than externally;
4. change is not necessarily triggered by speakers or through language contact. (144)
3 ΩƤΤ Lass Ǥ롥쳰ŪװǧϤ뤬ѲȤƤŪòۤ褤Ȥ Lass ήΡḺˡ§ (the principle of parsimony) 2Ѥ褦
Therefore, in the absence of evidence, an endogenous change must occur in any case, whereas borrowing is never necessary. If the (informal) probability weightings of both source-types converge for a given character, then the choice goes to endogeny. (209)
I am not trying in any way to rule out syntactic borrowing; but merely suggesting how any suspect case ought to be investigated. Above all, one should never take apparent similarity, even in cases of known contact with evidence for other borrowing, as probative until the comparative work (if it's possible) has been done. The conclusion might be that anything can be borrowed, and often is; but in a given case it's always both simpler and safer to assume that it isn't, unless the evidence is clear and overwhelming. (201)
Milroy ϸ쳰Ūװ̤ͥԤɽǤ롥Milroy ˤСˤθѲ why ϡѲȤΤϤʤʤ actuation 䤦ΤǤʤФʤʤС#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1]) 3ܤ䤤פʤΤȤոǤ롥ѲŪñȯŪŪŪ¦̤Ż뤹뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫顤쳰ܤܤʤȤˤʤ롥Milroy (148) ϡ쳰ŪװΤˤ뤳ȤˤäƤŪװ褯ϤƤ롥
Linguistic change is multi-causal and the etiology of a change may include social, communicative and cognitive, as well as linguistic, factors. Thus --- seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. (148)
ϡMilroy ΩٻơɤװפȤɸˤϡɤפ
ȴϢơ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ε 쳰 װγƵȡ
Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ첻 ([2013-03-01-1]) ǡ첻 (gvs) Ŭ (OT) ˤäƤ˵ҤǤ뤫⤷ǤλΰݤϡOT 첻ܤɤΤ褦ˤƵäΤȤҤ뤳ȤդʤäȤͿƤʤȤΤä#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡOT Τ褦ʷŪʥץϡǤϤʤҤ褯ΤؤλʤΤǤϤʤ
OT ǤϸѲ "reranking of constraints" ȤȤ館뤬 reranking ѲθʤΤ̤ʤΤȤߤ OT why Ǥꡤ̤Ȥߤ how ҤǤ롥ƱոMcMahon (93) ϸԤȤߤƤ롥
It would seem . . . that reranking is descriptive at best, fortuitous at worst, and post hoc either way, so long as the constraint set is in principle unrestricted, and the reranking itself depends on external factors, whether phonetic, functional, or sociolinguistic.
OT ʤ˸¤餺ŪˤμԤϡ餬ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸǤϤʤҤǤȤǧɬפǤȤλŦ (McMahon 94--95) ˤƱդƶޤäͿƤʤȤȤĥĤϤʤŤ˰Сषդ
. . . explanation of change, in its truest sense, may be beyond OT, and indeed any other formal linguistic theory. The cause of the model is not served if its practitioners continue, nonetheless, to claim that they are providing explanations. Lass notes that we tend
to talk about 'explanations' when we mean 'models' or 'metaphors', and to claim that we have shown 'why X happened' when what we have really done is linked X up in a 'network' with Y, Z, etc., and thus created a more or less plausible and imaginatively pleasing picture of 'how' (ceteris paribus) X could happen'. This is all really relatively harmless . . .; at least it is if we can bring ourselves to see clearly what we actually do, and avoid terminological subterfuge and defensive pretence. (1980 [On Explaining Language Change]: 157--8)
ѲθˤϡȲҤȤξɬפǤ롥͡ˡȤ߹碌ʤ¤ѲϸǤʤʾ塤ѶŪˡƿŤѤƤ椯ȤοΤ褦˻פ
McMahon, April. "Optimality Theory and the Great Vowel Shift." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 82--96.
ε#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ǿ줿19˰Ӥͭιͤϡ21κǤ֤ǺٻƤ롥üŪˤСʪǤȤѤΤȤǤ롥ľŪǤϤ뤬ˤĤƤ¿θ߽ФǤ⤢ꡤŤ˼갷ʤФʤʤȻϹͤƤ뤬ۤɤޤǤ˿͡˿ߤǤȤʤȤ
ε (6) ǸȤꡤϡʪΤʤǤȤ櫓ʪȤ뤳Ȥ¿Aitchison (44--45) ϡػˤˤָῢʪפθڤƤ롥3Ѥ褦صΤᡤѸŵʬŪŸƤˡ
Languages are to be considered organic natural bodies, which are formed according to fixed laws, develop as possessing an inner principle of life, and gradually die out because they do not understand themselves any longer, and therefore cast off or mutilate their members or forms (Franz Bopp 1827, in Jespersen [Language, Its Nature, Development and Origin] 1922: 65)
Does not language flourish in a favorable place like a tree whose way nothing blocks? . . . Also does it not become underdeveloped, neglected and dying away like a plant that had to languish or dry out from lack of light or soil? (Grimm [On the Origin of Language. Trans. R. A. Wiley.] 1851)
De même que la plante est modifiée dans son organisme interne par des facteurs étrangers: terrain, climat, etc., de même l'organisme grammatical ne dépend-il pas constamment des facteurs externes du changement linguistique?... Est-il possible de distinguer le développment naturel, organique d'un idiome, de ses formes artificielles, telles que la language littéraire, qui sont dues à des facteurs externes, par conséquent inorganiques? (Saussure 1968 [1916] [Cours de linguistique générale]: 41--2)
ľܤ뤤ϴܤ˸ͭθƤȤäƤ褤Grimm Ȥϡ#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1]) ۵롥ۤˤϡĹ֤ˤ錄Ѳ drift ήˤ⡤ͭĴ¤䤹ȤŦƤä[2012-09-09-1]ε#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4פȡˡ
줬ƤȤȤѤȤƤ⡤줬ƤΤǤϤʤüԡʽġˤˤäƤȤȤ館ۤ褤ȹͤ롥üԡʽġˤʤи줽ΤΤ¸ߤʤȤϼǤ롥ѲȤüԤܤȡξԤδطɬ⼫ǤʤԻĤʵƯƤ褦ˤפ[2013-07-24-1]ε#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language?פȡˡ
θؼԤΤۤȤɤϡָϿʪǤפȤȤΥǥȤäƤ뤬̤ˤϤޤήۤƤ롥˺äǤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. "Metaphors, Models and Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 39--53.
ָϡǤפȤȤϡؤޤ͡ˤʤƤ19˶ؤֺ餤ư衤ߤ˻ޤǿȤ³Ƥ롥
㤨СߡؤαѸˤʤɤμȤDZѸŪѲؤ¿ʪǤ뤳ȤƳǧȽҤ٤뤬ȤӸؤȯã August Schleicher (1821--68) θͭľܤεͭ롥ޤεǤϡ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1]) 夲⤷
Aitchison (42--46) ϡػˤˤפʡָϡǤפȤƤ롥
(1) conduit: John Locke (1632--1704) οƻɤȤ̤롥ʤ"For Language being the great Conduit, whereby Men convey their Discoveries, Reasonings and Knowledge, from one to another." ΥɥοۤΤߥ˥μʤãȤ⤳Ȥ˴ŤƤꡤḽθѤͿƶ礭Τ롥
(2) tree: ǤҤ٤褦ˡ19³ Family Tree Model (=Stammbaumtheorie) ϸθؤǤ⺬Ƥ롥֤δطޤΤۤʬϤˤڹ¤ʤɤˤ⡤ȤϴФ#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) ȡ
(3) waves and ripples: #999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡSchleicher ηФ륢ơȤơҤ Johannes Schmidt wave_theory (=Wellentheorie) ѲȾŤƤ椯ͤȤߤ˻ޤǷۤɤϤ褯ΤƤʤ
(4) game: ͭ̾ʤΤ Saussure ΥȤǤ롥ζˤȤäƽפʤΤϤκǤϤʤ¾ζȤδطˤäƷޤǤ롥Saussure ϤˤäƷʤ뤤Ϸ (form) ȼ¼ (substance) ν̤⤤"si je remplace des pièces de bois par des pièces d'ivoire, le changement est indifférent pour le système: mais si je diminue ou augmente le nombre des pièces, ce changement-là atteint profondément la “grammaire” du jeu."ޤWittgenstein ʸˡ§Υ롼Ȥۤˤ⡤äˤƥ˥ܡΤȤʤɤȤˡָᥲפȯۤ롥
(5) chain: ˡ§ (grimms_law) 첻 (gvs) ŵŪ˸ϢŪܤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ櫓 Martinet Τ餷ȤǤ롥
(6) plants: ˤҤ٤ͭ٤붯Ϥʥ˺ԤϤäƤ롥ۤˡSaussure ϿʪĤڤäݤ˸ݤ̻֤ˡڤä̿ޤ֤˸ΩƤ
(7) buildings: Wittgenstein ϡ羮γϩȡʤԻԤˤʤ館ԻԤϰۤʤ˰ۤʤؤä뤳ȤˤäѲƤ椯ʪȤϡ¤ؤ "building blocks" ιͤˤߤ롥
(8) dominator model: (2) tree ȤȤϢ뤬ؤμڹ¤ǤϾΥΡɤ۲ǤۤȤȤ롥"c-command" "government and binding" ʤɤѸ줫顤ֻۡפȤѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
(9) ¾: Wittgenstein ϸ labyrinth ˤʤ館Ƥ롥"Language is a labyrinth of paths. You approach from one side and know your way about; you approach the same place from another side and no longer know your way about."
ȤϿȯۤοϤˤʤꤦƱˡͳȯۤˤʤꤦ롥Ȥβǽȸ³ǧĤġʣȤΤԤ褹뤳ȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. "Metaphors, Models and Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 39--53.
ָϡǤפȤȤϡؤޤ͡ˤʤƤ19˶ؤֺ餤ư衤ߤ˻ޤǿȤ³Ƥ롥
㤨СߡؤαѸˤʤɤμȤDZѸŪѲؤ¿ʪǤ뤳ȤƳǧȽҤ٤뤬ȤӸؤȯã August Schleicher (1821--68) θͭľܤεͭ롥ޤεǤϡ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1]) 夲⤷
Aitchison (42--46) ϡػˤˤפʡָϡǤפȤƤ롥
(1) conduit: John Locke (1632--1704) οƻɤȤ̤롥ʤ"For Language being the great Conduit, whereby Men convey their Discoveries, Reasonings and Knowledge, from one to another." ΥɥοۤΤߥ˥μʤãȤ⤳Ȥ˴ŤƤꡤḽθѤͿƶ礭Τ롥
(2) tree: ǤҤ٤褦ˡ19³ Family Tree Model (=Stammbaumtheorie) ϸθؤǤ⺬Ƥ롥֤δطޤΤۤʬϤˤڹ¤ʤɤˤ⡤ȤϴФ#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) ȡ
(3) waves and ripples: #999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) Ǹ褦ˡSchleicher ηФ륢ơȤơҤ Johannes Schmidt wave_theory (=Wellentheorie) ѲȾŤƤ椯ͤȤߤ˻ޤǷۤɤϤ褯ΤƤʤ
(4) game: ͭ̾ʤΤ Saussure ΥȤǤ롥ζˤȤäƽפʤΤϤκǤϤʤ¾ζȤδطˤäƷޤǤ롥Saussure ϤˤäƷʤ뤤Ϸ (form) ȼ¼ (substance) ν̤⤤"si je remplace des pièces de bois par des pièces d'ivoire, le changement est indifférent pour le système: mais si je diminue ou augmente le nombre des pièces, ce changement-là atteint profondément la “grammaire” du jeu."ޤWittgenstein ʸˡ§Υ롼Ȥۤˤ⡤äˤƥ˥ܡΤȤʤɤȤˡָᥲפȯۤ롥
(5) chain: ˡ§ (grimms_law) 첻 (gvs) ŵŪ˸ϢŪܤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ櫓 Martinet Τ餷ȤǤ롥
(6) plants: ˤҤ٤ͭ٤붯Ϥʥ˺ԤϤäƤ롥ۤˡSaussure ϿʪĤڤäݤ˸ݤ̻֤ˡڤä̿ޤ֤˸ΩƤ
(7) buildings: Wittgenstein ϡ羮γϩȡʤԻԤˤʤ館ԻԤϰۤʤ˰ۤʤؤä뤳ȤˤäѲƤ椯ʪȤϡ¤ؤ "building blocks" ιͤˤߤ롥
(8) dominator model: (2) tree ȤȤϢ뤬ؤμڹ¤ǤϾΥΡɤ۲ǤۤȤȤ롥"c-command" "government and binding" ʤɤѸ줫顤ֻۡפȤѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
(9) ¾: Wittgenstein ϸ labyrinth ˤʤ館Ƥ롥"Language is a labyrinth of paths. You approach from one side and know your way about; you approach the same place from another side and no longer know your way about."
ȤϿȯۤοϤˤʤꤦƱˡͳȯۤˤʤꤦ롥Ȥβǽȸ³ǧĤġʣȤΤԤ褹뤳ȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. "Metaphors, Models and Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 39--53.
Ѳ븶ϿƤƤ뤬٤ƤθѲ줤ǤΤϤʤޤ1ĤθѲΤˡĤΰۤʤƱͭǤȤ⤢롥Ѳˤϡ礭ʬƷŪʤΤȵǽŪʤΤ롥Newmeyer (32--33) 줾ħΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥
Formal explanations are those which appeal to mentally represented formal grammars and constraints on those grammars; functional explanations are those that appeal to properties of language users. Many, if not most, accounts of language change appeal to both types of explanation. The principal objection to formal explanation is to claim that it does little more than rearrange the data in more compact form --- such criticism embodies the idea that in order to explain the properties of some system, it is necessary to go outside of that system. The principal criticism of functional explanation is to claim that it is vacuous. Since for any functional factor there exists another factor whose operation would lead to the opposite consequence, the claim that some particular functional factor 'explains' some particular instance of language change has the danger of being empty.
ŪϡѲΥޡȤʵҤդȤ뤬ʤѲΤȤˤƤʤǽŪϡʤȤ䤤ˤ褦Ȥ뤬ȿװˤޤΤǤꡤϤΤˤʤʤ
ŪȵǽŪȤ֤줬褷ͻ¤ǤʤȤСǤʤ⤷ʤ㤨СֺŬפȤ褦ξ˵ĤȤǤξĤʤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˲Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲȵǽŪʲؤȤϢȤ礫ʤξͻ¤ǤΡХΤȤ줿ܻؤȤʤʤ
Newmeyer, Frederick J. "Formal and Functional Motivation for Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 18--36.
óȻŵŪSˤĤƤϡǶǤϡ#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ǡˤ#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) #5. ڥե륨ȸóȻ"take-off" ([2009-05-04-1]) ޤ lexical_diffusion νǰäƤʹּҲˤȻŤλ¿ּ˱äSʤʹԤ뤳ȤиŪΤƤ롥ιꡤήԤšʤΥȥɤʤɡҲؤǤϤߤΥѥǤ롥
ѲˤƤΥѥΤϡʻ¤ȤСˤʤʤΤŪϲǽʤΤƥåΤ褦ʿŪʥǥȤ뤳ȤϡŪΤˤϻͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ⤽Ȥʤǥ뤬ƥåǤ뤫ɤϡ[2013-08-13-1] (2) Ǥ줿褦ˡǤϤʤ
Denison (58) ϡѰ۷ˤ밵Ϥslow-quick-quick-slow ΥѥSθưϤǤȤƤ롥
Now, speakers reproduce approximately what they hear, including variation, and even apparently including the rough proportions of variant usage they hear around them. However, if there is some slight advantage in the new form over the old, the proportions may adjust slightly in favour of the new. Thus the status quo is not reproduced with perfect fidelity. The speaker has (unconsciously) made a slightly different choice between variants --- albeit a statistical choice, reflected in frequencies of occurrence. And this effect of choice is greatest when the two variants are both there to choose from. In the very early stages of a change, so the argument runs, the new form is rare, so the pressures of choice are relatively weak and the rate of change is slow. In the late stages of a change, the old form is rare, so that the selective effect of having two forms to compare and choose between is again weak, and once again the rate of change is slow. Only in the middle period, when there are substantial numbers of each form in competition, does the rate of change speed up. Hence the S-curve.
ѲβκǽȺǸϡŷȿ2Ĥ variants Τ줫ŪͥǤ뤿ˡɤ뤫¤ʤʤϡˤ㤤Ѳβפ¿եեƥեեƥ˶ʤȡΰϤƯˡθ̤߲䤹ѲΥԡɤȤˤʤ롥
Denison (60) Ϥޤ¾Ԥε˵ʤ顤Τ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ롥
Suppose that the small impetus towards change has to do with some structural disadvantage in the old form . . ., then after the change had taken place in a majority of contexts, reduction in numbers of the old form would perhaps reduce the pressure for change, allowing the rate of transfer to the new form to slow down again. Or words that are particularly salient, or maybe especially frequent or infrequent, or of a particular form, might resist the change for reasons which had not applied --- or at least did not apply so strongly --- to those words which had succumbed early on. Even if the impetus towards change is not structural but to do with social convention . . . there would still be the same slow-down towards the end.
ƱΰϤεϹ¤ŪǤҲŪǤƱͤ˸ΤǤϤʤȼƤ롥ѲκǽȺǸ˴ؤΤŪ salience Ǥꡤեեƥեեƥն˴ؤΤ non-salience ǤȤԤŦȻפDenison εϡѲSΤ˾嵭Τ褦ФȤϤǤΤΡºݤˤϤޤϿʤޤʤȤʤΤǡñʵǤϤʤȤդɬפ롥
Danison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.
[2013-07-26-1]ε˰³lexical_diffusion ʸóȻˤθѲȤƤˤĤơεκǽΰѤǿ줿 Denison (2003) äɤDenison Ĺ餯ŵŪʸѲοʹԥѥȤ lexical diffusion ξħǤSƤˤĤƹͤľ褦ˤʤäȽҤ١Ūʲսꡤ٤餫ˤƤ롥lexical diffusion ˤĤƻƤռȽŤʤʬ¿äᶽʳʤɤʲ˲վޤȤ褦
(1) lexical diffusion ϸѲ slow-quick-quick-slow ȿʹԤȾƤ뤬ʤΤ褦ʥѥΤˤĤƤιŪϡ̵ǤϤʤΤ (ex. Bloomfield, Labov) Фе̤˸Ƥʤ
(2) SطʤˤŪʣꤦ뤬¿ξ硤̵Ƚ˥ƥå (logistic curve) ȤƤ롥
(3) óȻΥդYɽ魯ΤȤˤĤƿ˵Ƥʤä"lexical diffusion" Ȥ̾Ȥꡤ̾Ѳ˴ͿäΤ100%ȤY˿롥ʸפοŪʴĶοüԸĿͤοѤγ硤춦ƱüԿγʤɡͤY¿ˤ錄롥
(4) Yɽ魯ͤпʤΤʤΤˤꡤظˤؤ礭ۤʤ뤬ιͻϤʤƤʤ
(5) X֤ɽ魯Ȥ˵;ϤϤʤĿͤολ֤ȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤΤϡĿͤΰΤʤǤθѲȤ̤ζ̣ȴؤäƤ
(6) ѲSϡʬʾڵʤȤͳ뤤ѲߤޤäչԤꤹȤͳˤꡤȾʬʤȤ¿餯S⡤Τ褦ԴʶΤۤ¿
(7) ۤȤɤθóȻϡФƤ뿷礷Ƥ椯ѥܤƤ롥Ω variants ϡ٤ƤθѲˤĤơ1ġ1Ĥη2ĤͿƤʤΤºݤˤ¿ variants ϤǤϤʤ3İʾ variants ؤθѲǥϡ2ĤξΥǥȤ˰ۤʤΤǤϤʤǽŪˤ variants ȤߤʤϤɤΤ褦˷Τ
(8) 1ˤѲ«ǤȤơʤS«ǤȤ˴Ѥ㤨СűѸȶѸŪꤷƤ뤬ѸϷѤλǤ뤫顤Ѹˤ礭SȤ븫ˡ̵θġθѲɽ魯S«ͤȤȤϡäɤȤʤΤ̣ΤǤ롥
(3) ιͤYȤˤĤ褦#1550. ȾóȻްռ (3) ([2013-07-25-1]) "double diffusion" Ȥͤ˿줿double ɤ multiple γȻͤȤΤYʤΤǤϤʤYƱΤμȤȤ館СȻȤ wave_theory ˤŤȰۤʤʤȤˤʤ
٤ɷŪʸä
Denison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦
the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)
ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥
As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.
Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Fennell αѸ˳Ƭ˶ᤤ1.2 Language Change (pp. 3--7) ܸ뵡äѲθˤĤƤγǤ롥äʤΤǡܥ֥ˤǺܤƤ
ʤ줬ѲΤͳ͡Ǥ롥1ˡưŪŪ¤ͭƤꡤŪʸѲ롥2ˡϡܿȼظ̤ʤɤȤƸ롤üԤԴʽ椨Ѳ롥
ˡʤ͡ϤĤƱä櫓ǤϤʤΤȤ䤤롥ؼԤϡ٤ƤλҶ콬˴ؤʿǤꡤɤθǤ⽬ǤǽϤäƤ뤳ȡޤƱĴﴱˤƱθ첻ȯǽϤäƤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ȯˤϤ鷺ѰۤĤǤ¸ߤΤǤ롥`sh' `th' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤С`r' `w' `l' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤롥ޤĿͤθߤƤߤȡռˤ褷ʤˤ衤Ȥ櫓ꡤѤꡤ̤Ѥꤹ롥θĿŪѰۤѲμʤΤǤ롥⤷ȡȯˡҿäƤꡤ֤üԤ餯̵ռˤΰҿäѤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ䤿ϤߤʡäϢӤ褦Ȼפ˹碌ä뤷Υ֤ȻפäˤΥ֤ΤǤ롥ҲؤǤϤָŪפȸƤǤ뤬줬ĿŪǰŪʸݤǤϤʤŪˤŪˤȤСѲؤȯŸ
줬Ѳ⤦1ĤͳϡüԤ̱ʤɤ̤¾üԤܿ뤫Ǥ롥ˤäƤϡȤθ줬Ԥθ˶ִפ뤳Ȥ뤫⤷ʤ뤤ϡ¸ȤƤξԤδ֤ŪʽǤ뤫⤷ʤξĤ̩ܿƤΤǤС֤αƶ礭ǽ롥ȿФˡξĤʸŪʪŪʬΥƤСߤθŪƶϤۤȤɤʤ
ŪʸȤʳθȤδ֤ܿϤ뤬Ūʶ̹बʤˤϡ¤Τܿ줬ȯã뤫⤷ʤθϡϴά줿ηϤĤˤѰۤ䤹ɬ⤹٤ƤΥߥ˥εǽ̤ʤʳθԥȸƤ֡Υԥ줬夫Ʒ֤ȵǽư˸ȤѤ褦ˤʤȡ쥪ȸƤФʳȯŸȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʸϡҲꤷήɼҲθϤޤˤĤơФлŪʸΤۤܶᤷƤ椭̤Ȥƥݥȡ쥪Ϣ³ΤȸƤФѼϢ³Τ뤳Ȥ¿ǤϡŪñ㲽ޤޤΡֲءѼŪʸ˶ᤤءѼˡ־ءѼ郎¸Ƥ뤬ѼǤɸѼȤϰۤʤħƤ뤳Ȥդ
ܿϡĤѲɬ濫뤤ϽʬǤȤϤʤषʬΥ뤳ȤˤäƸѲ뤳Ȥ¿㤨СѸ줬17˥ꥫˤ⤿餵ȡĤͳǥꥹѸ줫ʬƤäޤ⤿餵줿Ѹϡʣΰ̱ȤˤäơʣȤƤ⤿餵줿Ǥ롥ˡ֤ο͏͡ʸȤܿˤꡤѲ뤲ˡä˥ꥫΩΤȤꥹѸδȤϰۤʤظŪʬФơꥫˤͣθ쵬Ϥʤäˡ줾ϰ˰ҿΤѼ郎ޤ줿ΤǤ롥
嵭Τ褦ʸѲˤñ㲽Τ餤뤳Ȥդ줿¿θѲˤϡ¿ͤͳΤǤ롥㤨СꥫѸ줬ꥹѸ줫ʬͳˤϡ¾Ȥܿ⤢ꡤͱѸ (AAVE) ǤϤʬ٤礭ɸѸˤƤϡ¾줫αƶŪϾǤꡤùܤ˸¤롥
ޤǽҤ٤ƤѲװϸ쳰ŪʤΤäŪװ⤢褦1ĤϡѸ줬ʸˡǽ̤Τ˷־θ˰¸Ūʸ줫顤˰¸ʬŪʸذܹԤǤ롥¤ŪˤϡϱѸˤˤѲѲͳϸŪǤ롥ǤϸΤɤˤǤ1褦ˤʤꡤۣ沽ȾüΤǤ롥ʸˡǽ϶礬ô褦ˤʤꡤ嵭ŪѲä⤽ѲΤʤΤ쳰ŪͳäΤïˤ狼ʤäѲäȤϡϰϢŪѲΤǤ롥
ŪѲ̤ȤơI饦ȤȸƤФűѸޤޥ췲Ѳ롥ޥĸǶ˸³̵ [i] [j] ä硤첻ꤢ뤤ϹˤʤȤѲǤ롥beran bireþmūus mys ȡѲθ⡤ŪװʳˤϹͤʤ
ŪѲΤ⤦1Ĥϡ1500ǯʹߤ do ΰư줫ưؤѲѲˤꡤdo ϸʸʸȤʸˡŪʵǽؤȯŸΤ褦ѲϡʸˡפȸƤФ롥
do ѲϡŪˤ빽¤ȷӤĤƤǽ̤ι¤ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäȤ̣ǡֺʬϡפȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤѸηǤϡʬϤβ̶ʬȤƤΡְʬϡפ㤬˭٤Ǥ롥㤨Сnaddre, napron, noumpere ϡ֤괧 an Ȥδ֤ǰʬϤ̡adder, apron, umpire θޤ줿ȿФˡan ewt a newt ȰʬϤ줿Ȥ褦⤢롥ŪѲȤ
ѲθޤȤȡ(1) ŪʬΥܿ(2) νݡʼҲĶˤܿ(3) Դʽ(4) ظ̡(5) ҲŪʰҿװ롥
ŪװȤƤϡ(1) Ĵưײ(2) ѡ(3) ʬϡ(4) 롥
Fennell ϸѲθȤơŪװȸ쳰Ūװ̤Ƥ뤬ΤʤѰ (variation) εǤ롥碌ȡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǸѲ3ȤƸڤ (1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact Ǥ·äȤˤʤ롥Fennell ϡҲŪʱѸˤäƤΤǡʤ variation contact Ȥ櫓Ż뤹뤬ŪˤϤ3åȤDZѸˤˤѲ褦ȤƤȤ
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Glasgow ؤ Jeremy Smith ĤҤ٤Ƥ롤Ѳ3ʳ3ˤĤơ
ޤ3ʳ顥ɤθѲɬФ3ʳ롥#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1]) Ǿ줿Τ (1) potential for change, (2) implementation, (3) diffusion Ǥ롥塼ؤΩ줫鸷̩ˤС(1) ϸѲʳǤꡤ(2) ʳǽơָѲפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥Smith ľܸäƤ餦 (7)
The distinction may be made between potential for change, implementation (itself including triggering or actuation) and diffusion. The potential for change exists when a particular speaker or group of speakers makes a particular linguistic choice at a particular time; implementation takes place when that choice becomes selected as part of a linguistic system; and diffusion takes place when the change is imitated beyond its site of origin, whether in terms of geographical or of social distribution. Strictly speaking, the first of these phenomena is not to be included as part of the typology of change. The continual flux of living languages means that new variant forms are constantly being created in a given linguistic state. However, these variants are not themselves linguistic changes; rather, they constitute the raw material which is a prerequisite for linguistic change. A linguistic change happens only when a particular variable is selected and a systemic development follows. In that sense, language change begins with implementation; when implementation of potential for change is for some reason triggered in a linguistic system, then we can speak of a linguistic change. The diffusion of the phenomenon within a particular speech-community is, it is held here, a further process which can be counted as part of the particular change involved; it may, of course, itself have further effects.
ˡѲ3ϸѲ3Ƥ褤(1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact 3ĤǤ롥(1) variation ϡ֡졤̣ʤɤܤˤʣ variants ѰդƤꡤ¸ΤϤΤ줫ǤȤͤ˴ŤƤ롥variants ΤμϰϤ variational space ȸƤФ졤μ¸ϤϰϤΤʤǰۤʤꤦ롥̵¤˰ۤʤꤦ櫓ǤϤʤˤ (2) systemic regulation ηϤεƯƤꡤ¤ߤƤΤǤ롥(1) (2) Ǥ٤ƤĴۤɡñʤΤǤϤʤʶƱΡˤϿˤ¸ߤϤθʶƱΡˤȤδؤΤʤ¸ߤƤ롥ɬŪ (3) contact ξΤǤꡤŪηϤˤȤɤޤäƤϤʤ
ʾ3ߴطʣSmith ΤȤФǤޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ (49)
The three mechanisms of linguistic change distinguished above --- variation, systemic regulation, contact --- are not to be taken as totally separate causes of the phenomenon; rather, they interact in complex and, except in the most general terms, practically unpredictable ways to produce dynamic change in the history of a given language. To sum up the argument so far: new variants are produced, and are imitated through contact; but they are constrained by the changing intra- and extralinguistic systems of which the are a part.
ǶϸѲ͡Ω줫͡ȤߤƤ뤬Smith ϡñ㲽ƤΤΡñ㲽Ƥ뤫顩ˡ褯ޤȤޤäƤȻפ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
#339. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ ([2010-04-01-1]) #386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1]) ˰³ƤꡥˤĤơKnowles ˤϢڤĤ
The fixing of the language can give the superficial impression that the history of English came to an end some time towards the end of the eighteenth century. It is true that there has been little subsequent change in the forms of the standard language, at least in the written standard language. There have been substantial changes in non-standard spoken English. In any case what were actually fixed were the forms of Standard English. The way these forms have been used in different social situations has continued to change. (136)
ä˽դΡ˸ɸѸãȤƤȤ館ŪʼήɱѸˤδϡΤ˶Ѹư衤ŪˤߤƷŪѲϤʤȤ뤫⤷ʤϸɸѸȤ1ѼΤߤ˾ƤФäʤۤɡѼϸˤƤƽפǡǤ٤ι⤤ѼǤ뤳ȤϵʤѸ줬ˤ⡤ߤˤ⡤̤ˤ錄äƤ褷ưǤϤʤ¿Ѽδˤ䤫ϢΤǤ뤳ȤͤСŪʱѸˤޤѼˤǤϤǤ롥Ԥ variationist ʱѸˤδϡˤѸǻߤޤäȸȤϷ褷ƤǤʤϰˤ褽¾μҲˤ衤ɸѸ줬δ֤˷иƤʤ䵬ϤѲФƤѼϤ뤷"New Englishes" ΥԥѸΤ褦ˡѸ˿Ѽ⤢롥
ɸǡֻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳפȽҤ٤ƤΤϡStandard English нŤαѸѤΩƤФΤ褦˸ƤޤȤȤĴ뤿Ǥ롥ƻˤƤߤСɬֱѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸פʤ⤷ʤΤǤ롥
ºݤˤϡήɤδѸˤįȤϸԤˤʤʤʤȤǤϤ롥ɸѸˤɤꤹݤˤϡñʤ1ѼؤΥХλ¤ФƤɬפϤδαѸˤȤƤϡCrystal Ǥ롥
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) εǡdiachronic change ̻ŪѲˤ synchronic variation ʶŪѰۡˤɽΤδطˤĤϡξԤδطˤĤơCroft ΰո˼褦
Croft ϡʲΩ줫顤ѲȤϡߤѰۤΤΤǤƤ롥Croft ˤСѰ (variation) ˤ3ĤΥ٥뤬̤롥ޤ"First-order variation is the variation that occurs in individual occasions of language use" (71) Ǥ롥ϡƱüԤˤƤ顤̣ʸˡϻȾˤưȤ̣ǤѰۤǤ롥ˡ"Second-order variation is built on first-order variation: certain first-order variant productions take on sociolinguistic value in the speech community" (72) Ȥ̤ꡤѹ㤨 hunting vs huntin'ˤҲŪʰ̣礤ĤȤ̣ǤѰۤǤ롥Ǹϡ"Third-order variation is second-order variation that has become fixed conventions in different speech communities as these have diverged and/or entered into contact over the history of humankind" (72) Ǥ롥ϡۤʤ֡ۤʤѼ֤˸ѰۤǤꡤŪʪȤߤʤƤѰۤΤȤǤ롥
Croft ϡΤ褦3ʳζŪѰۤǰŪ˶̤ǡºݤˤϤ3٥Ϣ³ƤꡤϢ³Τä̻ѲȲ٤ȼĥ롥֤̻֤Ϣ³Τˤͻ礹Τȡ
Taking variation as a central fact of language leads to a dynamic model of synchronic language and allows for a simple integration of synchrony and diachrony in language. Language change is simply linguistic variation at a broader scope, and more specifically, linguistic variation that proceeds from first-order innovations to second-order variants to third-order divergence. (72)
Croft, William. "Evolutionary Models and Functional-Typological Theories of Language Change." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 68--91.
εǡ#1420. Johnson's Dictionary ħȳס ([2013-03-17-1]) Ҳ𤷤Samuel Johnson (1709--84) ϡѸ켭˾Τߤʤ餺Ѹ˾ǤפʿʪǤ롥λ (the Age of Reason) 18ϼο18Ҥʤ⡤ʴѼΩѸνաȤ櫓ֻˤɸಽ⤿餹Ȥ夬äΤǡJohnson ¿ʬŪʵϴѤΤȤϤäŪˤߤвơQХȤä碌ʸͤä
ʲǤϡThe Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language (1747) ڤ "The Preface to A Dictionary of the English Language" (1755) ΰѤˤꡤDr Johnson θѤΰüΤƤߤѤΥڡϡCrystal ˤ롥
Johnson ϡ2Ⱦˤ錄Ѹֻɸಽή˻¾νǤäʪȤߤƤ褤बѤˤϸ¼ŪʴѽŻϩä[2013-03-04-1]ε#1407. Ѹ3Ĥפ (2) ȡˡΰ٤ͺۤʪäƤ롥
When a question of orthography is dubious, that practice has, in my opinion, a claim to preference, which preserves the greatest number of radical letters, or seems most to comply with the general custom of our language. But the chief rule which I propose to follow, is to make no innovation, without a reason sufficient to balance the inconvenience of change; and such reasons I do not expect often to find. All change is of itself an evil, which ought not to be hazarded but for evidence advantage; and as inconstancy is in every case a mark of weakness, it will add nothing to the reputation of our tongue. ("Plan" 7)
ŪֻפԲǽäƤꡤǤãѤƤ뤫Τ褦Johnson ϡܼŪ˸ϼ˽ΤȤϡʹ֤δѤλʪǤȹͤƤ롥ΰѤǤϡQuintilian 礤˽Фơanomalist Ω餫ˤƤ[2012-12-03-1]ε#1316. analogist and anomalist controversy (2)פȡˡ
To our language may be with great justness applied the observation of Quintilian, that speech was not formed by an analogy sent from heaven. It did not descend to us in a state of uniformity and perfection, but was produced by necessity and enlarged by accident, and is therefore composed of dissimilar parts, thrown together by negligence, by affectation, by learning, or by ignorance. ("Plan" 11)
Johnson "Plan" (1747) "Preface" (1755) ޤǤδ֤ˡꤹ뤳ȤԲǽäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥κȤ̤ơ겺ʴѼطФƤäΤǤ롥ʸϤϡJohnson Ѳ褯սȤơФʸ˰ѤƤ롥
Those who have been persuaded to think well of my design, require that it should fix our language, and put a stop to those alterations which time and chance have hitherto been suffered to make in it without oppositions. With this consequence I will confess that I flattered myself for a while; but now begin to fear that I have indulged expectation which neither reason nor experience can justify. When we see men grow old and die at a certain time one after another, from century to century, we laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years; and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who being able to produce no example of a nation that has preserved their words and phrases from mutability, shall imagine that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption and decay, that it is in his power to change sublunary nature, and clear the world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation. ("Preface" 37--38)
ʴѼȤϡθ경ȤۤФԤǰ˶ᤤȤ롥
If the changes that we fear be thus irresistible, what remains but to acquiesce with silence, as in the other insurmountable distresses of humanity? it remains that we retard what we cannot repel, that we palliate what we cannot cure. Life may be lengthened by care, though death cannot be ultimately defeated: tongues, like governments, have a natural tendency to degeneration; we have long preserved our constitution, let us make some struggles for our language. ("Preface" 40)
ͥοʸԤθ˽ä뤳Ȥˤäơܤ䤹Ѹ경Ȥ˾ϡ18ŪǤ롥Johnson ˤ⸽Ƥ뤳θѤ뤤ϸѲѤϡ19ӸؤȤȤˡޤۤʤä֤Ƥ椯褦ˤʤ롥
Johnson ϡѸˤΤߤʤ餺ػ˾1ʪä
Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary of the English Language: An Anthology. Selected, Edited and with an Introduction by David Crystal. London: Penguin, 2005.
Ѳ뤤ʸˡѲ®٤ˤĤƤ speed_of_change γƵǼ夲ƤۤȤɤѲ®˴ؤҲŪװŦˤȤɤޤꡤŪˤäƤʤä#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١ ([2011-01-08-1]) ǡ̤Ѳ®٤ˤĤơ餤Ǥ롥
ʸˡǤϡҶθ콬˴ؤᥫ˥ Primary Linguistic Data (PLD) ȤФϤδ顤ŪʸˡѲƤεͼԤ Lightfoot Ǥ롥Lightfoot 2006ǯʸĹǯˤ錄Ƥ롥
Changes often take place in clusters: apparently unrelated superficial changes occur simultaneously or in rapid sequence. Such clusters manifest a single theoretical choice which has been taken differently. If so, the singularity of the change can be explained by the appropriately defined theoretical choice. So the principles of UG and the definition of the cues constitute the laws which guide change in grammars, defining the available terrain. Any change is explained if we show, first, that the linguistic environment has changed and, second, that the new phenomenon . . . must be the way that it is because of some principle of the theory and the new PLD. (42)
Ѥ1ʸˡѲˤƤϡϢѲ«ȤʤäƱˤ뤤ϵ®롤Ȥ롥̤ΰѤ⼨
[I]f grammars are abstract, then they change only occasionally and sometimes with dramatic consequences for a wide range of constructions and expressions; grammar change tends to be "bumpy," manifested by clusters of phenomena changing at the same time . . . . (27)
ʸΤʤǡLightfoot ϡcan, may, must ʤɤˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) Ϳ¿θˤû֤16ޤǤ˴λȡdo-periphrasis ([2010-08-26-1]) 18ȡ2Ĥΰ츫ȴϢʤѸˤˤʸˡѲV-to-I operation ȤξüˤäƴϢŤ뤳Ȥ롥ޤѸˤˤפǤʤοȸȯãδطˤĤơsplit genitive, group genitive, of ˤ뱪Ū°ʡ-'s ˤȤꡤѤ뤳ȤǰϢʸˡѲϢŤǤȼĥ롥
«Ȥʤäơסֵ®ˡפȤΤLightfoot θѲˤƺǤפʼĥ1ĤǤ롥Ǥ餯Ū˷ӤĤƤΤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȹͤƤ롥óȻˤƤϡϢܤ«ȤʤäơʤȤȻʳˤƤϡֵ®ˡʹԤȤƤ롥Lightfoot θѲȸóȻϡѤޤǰۤʤ뤷оݤ㤦ΤϳΤ"clusters" "bumpy" Ȥ̤ΥɤϸѲħɽ路Ƥ褦˻פƤʤʤ
Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
ؤʬˤơ1990ǯ Optimality Theory ʺŬˤоȯŸλȸƤ٤뤫⤷ʤ1993ǯ Prince and Smolensky ˤƤȯɽư衤ܤӤƤä˲䱤ΧʬǤαѤʤǤꡤ̻ؤΩ줫Ѳ븶ȤƴԤƤ롥OT ϡʸˡդ줿ʣˤäƵҤǤȹͤ롥طФƳƼŬѤ졤̤ȤɽطϤ뤳ȤꤷƤ롥
OT δϡѲ뤤ʸˡѲȤΥդؤ (reranking of constraints) Ǥȸ뤳ȤǤĤθǤϱѸˤˤפʲѲǤ첻 (Great Vowel Shift; see [2009-11-18-1]) ؤѤƤ롥McMahon GVS ؤαѸƤΤǡƤߤ褦ʲǤϡMcMahon ȤƤŵνϾά롥
ǯŪΩ줫顤GVS ϽΤ褦ŪѲǤϤʤ̤ѲޤȤ߹蘆äΤˤʤȤФƤƤ[2010-09-04-1]ε#495. Ǥʤ첻ܡפȡˡ䤬Ƥ֤ȤΥХХǤ롥ΥХХ˯ Stockwell and Minkova Ǥꡤ GVS Ȥ٥뼫Τݱʤ˴Ƥޤ٥ǤɾƤ롥Minkova ʤɤϡΥ٥ϱѸˤѸȤƤǤϤʤػˤѸȤƤդ路ȡ긷 GVS ɽ魯ġβѲλ¤ΤΤΤȤʤ餬ǧƤꡤǽѲϹ첻2첻ǤȹͤƤǤϡJespersen ʤɤθȰפ롥
Lass GVS Ȥ٥ΰյΤȤǧƤ롥GVS γˤĤƤϡ첻ι첻ϤޤäȤ Luick Dobson θƤƤꡤ첻շξȾʬ˴ؤϢѲˤĤƤϹ¤ŪߤδͿꤷƤ롥СȾʬˤĤƤΤߥХХѤƤȤȤˤʤ롥
McMahon ϡΤ褦طʤˡMiglio (1998) Miglio and Moré ˤ OT Ѥ GVS ʬϤ⤹롥ŪŦ塤McMahon Ǥ褯 OT ζߤƤɾ Minkova and Stockwell ʬϤҲ𤹤롥Minkova and Stockwell ϡѸĹ첻οŤ4Ĥװ줾 OT ˤ˳Ƥ
(a) HEAR CLEAR: Diphthong optimization in perceptual terms
(b) *EFFORT: Diphthong optimization in articulatory terms
(c) MINIMAL DISTANCE: Optimal spacing of adjacent entities --- merger avoidance
(d) IDENT IO (CONTRAST): Vowel mergers and input-output faithfulness
(a) (b) ϲ˴ؤǡԤ2첻ٻԤĹ첻ٻȤȿġ(c) (d) ϲηϤ˴ؤǡԤϲǤͻءԤϲΩݻغѤ롥ʤMinkova and Stockwell ϲˤȤŤ (a) (b) ΤߤѲΰ⡤ѲȤѤǤȹͤƤ롥ϡOT δܤ˲ΤΤȤܼ˴ؤȴϢ롥
Minkova and Stockwell ϡ4ΰۤʤ֤ǤȤ߹碌ˤꡤ4Ĥΰۤʤ벻Ȥ롥
(1) Nucleus-glide dissimilation: IDENT IO (CONTRAST) >> HEAR CLEAR >> MINIMAL DISTANCE >> *EFFORT
(2) Nucleus-glide assimilation: IDENT IO (CONTRAST) >> *EFFORT >> MINIMAL DISTANCE >> HEAR CLEAR
(3) Chain Shift: IDENT IO (CONTRAST), MINIMAL DISTANCE >> HEAR CLEAR, *EFFORT
(4) Merger: *EFFORT >> IDENT IO (CONTRAST), MINIMAL DISTANCE >> HEAR CLEAR
GVS (3) 1Ǥ롥Ѹˤˤ͡ʲѲäƤ뤬OT ˤСƻΰۤʤȤ߹碌ȽˤȤȤˤʤ롥OT ˤ GVS β餫ˤ줿Τ褯狼ʤȤΤľʤȤǤ롥GVS ˤĤƿ1ĤεˡääȤʾˡΤ
Prince, Alan and Paul Smolensky. Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar. Ms, Rutgers U and U of Colorado at Boulder, 1993.
McMahon, April. "Change for the Better? Optimality Theory versus History." Chapter 1 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 4--23.
ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǽ夲ʸǡRitt ˸ؾνפǤ drift ήˤˤޤȤĤᤤȤƤ롥drift ϡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) Ǥ夲Τ褦뤳ȤǤ롥üԸĿͤϼοδ֤ĶƸѲ³褦ȤưŤʤɤäƤʤϤʤΤˡʤĶƤȤפʤѲΤ줽ΤΤüԤĶۤȤ̿äƤ뤫Τ褦ʿΤϤʤ Ritt (215) ΤȤФǼȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
[S]ince individual speakers are normally not aware of the long-term histories of their languages and have no reason to be interested in them at all, it is difficult to see why they should be motivated to adjust their behaviour in communication or language acquisition to make the development of their language conform to any long-term trend.
ФRitt (215) ϸüԤˤĤƤ3Ĥ뤳ȤDzǤȽҤ٤롥
First, . . . the case can be made that even though whole language systems do not represent historical objects, their constituents do, because they are transmitted faithfully enough among speakers and thereby establish populations and lineages of constituent types which persist in time. Secondly, when speakers make choices among different variants of a linguistic constituent, they are not completely free. Instead their choice is always limited (a) by universal constraints on human physiology and (b) by socio-historical contingencies such as the relative prestige of different constituent variants. Since it would be against the self-interests of individual speakers to resist them, their choices can be expected to reflect physiological and social constraints more or less automatically. Thirdly, a speaker never chooses among isolated pairs of constituent variants. Instead constituent choice always occurs in the context of actual discourse, where any constituent of a linguistic system is always used and expressed in combination with others.
ƶä٤ȤˡüԤϾ嵭˴ŤưˤơŪҲŪʵȤƵǽƤˤʤȤ (215--16)
In such interactions between constituents the role of speakers will be restricted to responding --- unconsciously and more or less automatically --- to physiological and social constraints on their communicative behaviour. In other words, speakers will not figure as autonomous, active and whimsical agents of change, but merely provide the mechanics through which linguistic constituents interact with each other.
ΥǥˤСüԤϡġθܤߤȤΩƤƤͥåȥΤʤư롤ŪӼҲŪʵǽͿ줿ȤȤˤʤ롥üԤѲμΤǤϤʤǤȤϡ controversial
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4 ([2012-09-09-1]) εǡRitt ʸ˿줿ʸǤɸ˷Ǥ꤬ͻ뤬ɮԤ٤ϤƹŪǵǽŪǤ롥
Ritt ϡѸ Homorganic Lengthening, Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL), Great Vowel Shift ϤȤĹ첻2첻ޤϢưƤ첻̤Ωβʤɡ첻ˤޤĤѲ첻ζ (strengthening of vowels) Ȱ礷ФơҲ̤ΩβáҲ첻ҲξüʤɤμλҲˤޤĤѲֻҲμ岽 (weakening of consonants) Ȱ礷ľǯˤ錄Ѹ첻ˤ첻ζȻҲμ岽ħŤȤʤ顤طʤˤ븶Ū褦ȻߤΤ褦ŪĬήϤФ drift ήˤȤƸڤ졤˸ؤˤƤθưϤϺ1ĤȤʤäƤ뤬Ritt ϰճʤȤ˲Ȥ롥ϡѸĹդƤ "rhythmic isochrony" "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" (224) Ǥ롥
ΤƤ褦ˡѸˤ "rhythmic isochrony" 롥褽ȼ夤Ȥߤ˸뱤 (foot stress) γơ褽ƱĹäȯȤˤꡤ¿βޤޤ뱤ӤǤϳƲûȯ졤դ˲ʤӤǤϳƲϤäĹȯ롥ˡѸˤ "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" Ȥ֤֤˴ؤ붯¤ꡤϼۤΤ˼ĥɬפ롥ơ2Ĥθ§ˤꡤ֤ƱǤǤŪʰ֤ˤäĹѤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤĹûΩ˵ǽȤϸ¤ʤ֤Ȥʤ롥ä˱ѸλҲǤǤĹûΩεǽô (functional load) ϤȤ礭ʤäΤǡΩϽѸ˾üʻҲμ岽ˡ첻ǤǤĹûΩϵǽô̤礭ä˾ü뤳ȤϤʤषΩݻ礹ؤȿʲû첻Ĺ첻κΤˤ뤿ˡԤд˲Ԥĥ˸Ԥ2첻ȯãơԤȤν̤ޤä2Ĥθ§ȡüȯ첻ζפϡߤ˻٤礤ǤʥѥȤʤäƤä줬ɸФ Ritt εǽŪʲǤ롥
ѤˤĤޤޤ줿褦ʴ롥¿ε䤬⤫Ǥ롥⤽ѸǤϤʤ rhythmic isochrony ۤɤޤǤ˶ǤʤΤ¾θˤ롤뤤ۤ drift ӤȤˡƱ褦ѤΤǤεǽô̤ŪǤϤʤ¾Ū˷פˡϤΤ٥ŽƤ褦첻Ѳ̤λǤϤʤˤˡˤΤϤʤ
Ritt εϤष¿䤤Ƥ֤褦˻פ뤬οΰյϡ˿줿褦ˡdrift Ū褦ȤȤˤΤȻפϤ礤ŪˤʤΤεǡ
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
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