ε#4151. ɸಽȵϲδط ([2020-09-07-1]) ǰѤʸϤΤʤˡAnson ΰѤޤƤAnson ʸϡꥫѸˤ color, humor, valor, honor ʤɤ -or ֻȯŸˤ¾ŪĴǤ롥1740--1840ǯ˥ꥫȯԤ줿ʹΥॵץѤĴη̤ä˿ͤ롥ꥹѸֻ -our Ф륢ꥫѸֻ -or ϡ̤ Noah Webster (1758--1843) θӤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ϤۤɴñǤϤʤʲAnson (47) ˤĴΤޤȤʬǤ롥
Most obvious is the appearance of both -or and -our through the century, but gradual change can be detected from the -our extreme in 1740 to the -or extreme in 1840. Only small and sporadic change occurred around the time of Webster's strongest influence, which suggests that if he did contribute to the dropping of -u, his contribution was slow to take effect.
A key year appears to be 1830 --- after the appearance of Worcester's dictionary and the public attention, during the previous decade, to Webster's and Worcester's battle of dictionaries and spellers. . . .
On the whole, then, the American usage chart shows a slow but steady movement toward the -or spelling. No doubt the movement spilled at least into the first quarter of the twentieth century, when sporadic cases of -our were still to be seen. Aided by later dictionaries, which have looked to usage or other American authorities, the shift to -or is now virtually complete.
ĴɤȡWebster ʤȼԻä Worcesterˤֻؤαƶ1830ǯʹߤ˾Ϥ뤬ŪʱƶȤۤɤǤϤʤäȤ -our -or ؤΥեȤδϡ줫ͥ˿ǯԤʤФʤʤäΤǤ롥Webster ϡեȤοޤȤƤˤȤɤޤäƤȤ
λ㸦椫顤Anson (48) ϸѲɸಽȵϲδط˴ؤ뼡ΰƳФȤƤ롥
. . . usage and authority work mutually and each tends to influence the other and be influenced by it. A highly respected dictionary may influence the way an educated public spells debated words; on the other hand, no authority --- even Webster --- can hope to change a firmly entrenched spelling habit among the general public. The chances are good that, had the public not been moving steadily toward -or forms, we might still be spelling in favor of -our, despite Webster. While Webster may have served as a catalyst for some spelling changes, he was not, for spelling reform, the cause celebre many have assumed. Most of his reforms never caught on. Curiously, spelling reform on a large scale, like Esperanto and other synthetic languages, has never appealed to the public as have changes introduced organically and from within. Proponents of spelling reform argue quite convincingly that their proposals meet a real public need for simplicity, precision, and uniformity; yet often the public allows linguistic changes that work in just the opposite direction. Usage, then, is a highly resistant strain when it comes to 'curing the ills' of the language, and it ultimately determines its own future.
εμݤ˾Ȥ餻СΰƬ "usage" ɸಽȡ"authority" ϲɤؤƤ褤
Anson, Chris M. "Errours and Endeavors: A Case Study in American Orthography." International Journal of Lexicography 3 (1990): 35--63.
ɸˤĤƤϡ#3842. Ѳθʣ¿ ([2019-11-03-1]) ĥäεǤǤ͡ƤҤȤ Fischer et al. (31) ꡤݤȤƴϢսѤθѲˤ multiple_causation ȥɤǤ뤳Ȥʬ䤹Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The current trend in theory formation is for this multifactorial view of causality to be formulated more and more explicitly. This is true both of models that accommodate multiple language-internal causes, typically with roots in the grammaticalization literature ..., and of models that seek to combine language-internal and language-external explanations of change ....
䤬ޤǸѲ "multiple causation" ˤĤƼĥƤΤϡѤκǸˤ褦˸ŪŪι碌ǰƬˤƤΤȤäʤۤɡѤȾФˤ褦˸ŪäƤ⤽ϰǤϤʤ㪴ŪǤȤȤ "multiple" ͤ뤳ȤǤ뤷ǤаѤǿƤʤ쳰Ū "multiple" ʤϤɤΥ٥ˤƤʣŪװȤƸѲβĩȤΤΥȥɤȤäƤ褤ѲˤȤʣʸݤ뤿ˤϡ¸μưϤȤʤоݤĩȤޤޤɬפˤʤäƤƤȤ
Fischer et al. (54) ΥХμ줿1ѤƤ
Methodologically, it is most sound to give heed to and study quite a number of aspects of both an external and an internal kind, having to do with the type of contact, the socio-cultural make-up of the speech-community, and the state of the conventional internalized code that individuals in the community have developed during the period of language acquisition and beyond.
Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
θ礭2ĤʬȤС챿 (linguistic performance) Ż뤹ɤȸǽ (linguistic competence) Ż뤹ɤ2ĤȤʤ챿ѤȸǽϤΩϡѥ (parole) ȥ (langue) ΩȤäƤ褤E-Language I-Language ΩȤäƤ褤ɤ˱ѸȤۤʤ뤬褽褦ʤΤǤ롥
챿ѤŻ뤹ɤϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation theory) 乽ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ɽǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Ǥ롥ǽϤ˽Ť¦ɽʸˡ (generative_grammar) Ǥ롥ξɤθѤ͡¦̤180ٰۤʤꡤԤΩƤȤäƤ褤Fischer et al. (32) ɽѤΩ⤫Ӿ夬餻Ƥߤ褦
| EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE/LANGUAGE OUTPUT | EMPHASIS ON COMPETENCE/LANGUAGE SYSTEM | |
|---|---|---|
| (a) | product-oriented | process-oriented |
| (b) | emphasis on function (in CxG also form) | emphasis on form |
| (c) | locus of change: language use | locus of change: language acquisition |
| (d) | equality of levels | centrality (autonomy) of syntax |
| (e) | gradual change | radical change |
| (f) | heuristic tendencies | fixed principles |
| (g) | fuzzy categories/schemas | discrete categories/rules |
| (h) | contiguity with cognition | innateness of grammar |
Fischer et al. (4--6) ˱ѸμפŪѲΰɽ롥ѤʤΤǡ"Overview of syntactic categories and their changes" ꤵ줿ΰƸƤĤįǤ⡤ѸˤɤΤ褦꤬ΤĤ롥
| Changes in: | Old English | Middle English | Modern English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| case form and function: | genitive | various functions | genitive case for subjective/poss.; of-phrase elsewhere | same |
| dative | various functions/PP sporadic | increase in to-phrase; impersonal dative lost | same | |
| accusative | main function: direct object | accusative case lost, direct object mainly marked by position | same | |
| determiners: | system | articles present in embryo form, system developing | articles used for presentational and referential functions | also in use in predicative and generic contexts |
| double det. | present | rare | absent | |
| quantifiers: | position of | relatively free | more restricted | fairly fixed |
| adjectives: | position | both pre- and postnominal | mainly prenominal | prenominal with some lexical exceptions |
| form/function | strong/weak forms, functionally distinct | remnants of strong/weak forms; not functional | one form only | |
| as head | fully operative | reduced; introduction of one | restricted to generic reference/idiomatic | |
| 'stacking' of | not possible | possible | possible | |
| adjectival or relative clause | relative: se, se þe, þe, zero subject rel. | new: þæt, wh-relative (except who), zero obj. rel. | who relative introduced | |
| adj. + to-inf. | only active infinitives | active and passive inf. | mainly active inf. | |
| aspect-system: | use of perfect | embryonic | more frequent; in competition with 'past' | perfect and 'past' grammaticalized in different functions |
| form of perfect | BE/HAVE (past part. sometimes declined) | BE/HAVE; HAVE becomes more frequent | mainly HAVE | |
| use and form of progressive | BE + -ende; function not clear | BE + -ing, infrequent, more aspectual | frequent, grammaticalizing | |
| tense-system: | 'present' | used for present tense, progressive, future | used for present tense and progr.; (future tense develops) | becomes restricted to 'timeless' and 'reporting' uses |
| 'past' | used for past tense, (plu)perfect, past progr. | still used also for past progr. and perfect; new: modal past | restricted in function by grammaticalization of perfect and progr. | |
| mood-system: | expressed by | subjunctive, modal verbs (+ epistemic advbs) | mainly modal verbs (+ develop. quasi-modals); modal past tense verbs (with exception features) | same + development of new modal expressions |
| category of core modals | verbs (with exception features) | verbs (with exception features) | auxiliaries (with verbal features) | |
| voice-system: | passive form | beon/weorðan + (inflected) past part. | BE + uninfl. past part | same; new GET passive |
| indirect pass. | absent | developing | (fully) present | |
| prep. pass. | absent | developing | (fully) present | |
| pass. infin. | only after modal verbs | after full verbs, with some nouns and adject. | same | |
| negative system | ne + verb (+ other negator) | (ne) + verb + not; rare not + verb | Aux + not + verb; (verb + not) | |
| interrog. system | inversion: VS | inversion: VS | Aux SV | |
| DO as operator | absent | infrequent, not grammaticalized | becoming fully grammaticalized | |
| subject: | position filled | some pro-drop possible; dummy subjects not compulsory | pro-drop rare; dummy subjects become the norm | pro-drop highly marked stylistically; dummy subj. obligat. |
| clauses | absent | that-clauses and infinitival clauses | new: for NP to V clauses | |
| subjectless/impersonal constructions | common | subject position becomes obligatorily filled | extinct (some lexicalized express.) | |
| position with respect to V | both S (...) V and VS | S (...) V; VS becomes restricted to yes/no quest. | only S (adv) V; VS > Aux SV | |
| object: | clauses | mainly finite þæt-cl., also zero/to-infinitive | stark increase in infinitival cl. | introduction of a.c.i. and for NP to V cl. |
| position with respect to V | VO and OV | VO; OV becomes restricted | VO everywhere | |
| position IO-DO | both orders; pronominal IO-DO preferred | nominal IO-DO the norm, introduction of DO for/to IO | IO-DO with full NPs; pronominal DO-IO predominates | |
| clitic pronouns | syntactic clitics | clitics disappearing | clitics absent | |
| adverbs: | position | fairly free | more restricted | further restricted |
| clauses | use of correlatives + different word orders | distinct conjunctions; word order mainly SVO | all word order SVO (exc. some conditional clauses) | |
| phrasal verbs | position particle: both pre- and postverbal | great increase; position: postverbal | same | |
| preposition stranding | only with pronouns (incl. R-pronouns: þær, etc.) and relative þe | no longer with pronouns, but new with prep. passives, interrog., and other relative clauses | no longer after R-pronouns (there, etc.) except in fixed expressions | |
ɸϡѸǤʤȤܸǤⲿǤ褤ΤѤǤʤǤ롥ֻ֤ФƸűѸ줬ѸˤʤäסŪ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸؤѲƤפȤΤŪʸջȤȤƼŪ˲ѤäΤȡΩߤޤäƹͤʤѸ줬ѤäΤȤäƤ⡤ѸβѤäȤΤѸʸˡäȯѤäΤȸ뤫⤷ʤѤäƤʤܤ¿롥⤽ѤäƤʤʬʤСʳȸʳѸȤƱθȤ¸ߤ³Ƥȼĥ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸˤѤäƤʬѤʤäʬΤȤȡָűѸ줬ѸˤʤäѤäפȤϡѤäʬˤΤܤȤȤˤʤΤ
ѸʸˡäȯѤäΤǤϤʤѤäΤϱѸäüԽĤθѤǤ롤Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥θϡ줽ΤΤǤϤʤüԤΤ֤ѲѤȤäƤ伫ȤϡθԤθ˿ƶᴶФƤ롥
ɤΤȤɸϡѸȤϲѲȤϲȤŪ䤤ؤȴԸ졤ԤϼθѲ˴Ѥ˽äƲ餫ФȤˤʤΤ
Ritt (37--38) ϡʪĤͤʤ "selfish sounds" θѤ˴ŤơѲΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥ǫʲǤϤ롥
What is usually called 'Old English' represents a heterogeneous (yet most probably inherently ordered) pool of competences 'in' Old English. These competences will each have been different from one another, but will have shared a sufficient number of properties for making communication among 'Old English' speakers possible. 'Present Day English' represents another pool of competences, once again heterogeneous in an orderly way. Importantly, the mix of competence properties that characterises the pool constituting 'Present Day English' differs considerably from the mix of properties that characterises the 'Old English' competence pool. Some properties that can be found in one pool are absent in the other, and of those which are present in both some will be distributed differently. We assume that these differences are due to 'language change'. This implies that some causal link can be established between the 'Old English' competence pool on the one hand and the 'Present Day English' pool on the other. Most probably, such a link is established via behavioural and textual manifestations of language, as well as by competences of 'intermediate' stages of English. It is supposed that temporally later competences assume their characteristic properties by interpreting the textual output produced on the basis of earlier competences. Linguistic change happens because later competences do not always appear to assume quite the same properties as earlier competences. Thereby, the mix of properties that characterises the competence pool of a speech community is continually altered --- albeit only slightly --- as one new competence after the other assumes first its adult, and ultimately its final state. At the same time earlier competences are continually removed from the pool as the speakers who host them die. Over time, these processes may amount to such differences as those which distinguish 'Present Day English' from 'Old English'. This, then, is what we refer to when we say that 'Old English' has become, or changed into 'Present Day English'.
Ritt ϡָǽǤΰίޤ꤬ɼǤüԤ˴ƤפȤѤäƤ롥顤ѲˤĤƤäʸĤ˻ä "meme" ˸ΩƤ Neo-Darwinian ŪʸѤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ͤˤ줿
#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])
#1403. drift Ū Ritt λߡ ([2013-02-28-1])
#3215. ɡȸѲ (1) ([2018-02-14-1])
#3216. ɡȸѲ (2) ([2018-02-15-1])
#3217. ɡȸѲ (3) ([2018-02-16-1])
Ritt, Nikolaus. Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution: A Darwinian Approach to Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2004.
ܥ֥ǤϸѲθ (causation) ˴ؤ͡ƤäˡƤѲˤʣιäװȤơmultiple_causation θ§ĥƤȤаʲεǤ롥
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ͡ ([2018-04-11-1])
#3355. ѲθŪװ쳰Ūװ"multiple causation" ([2018-07-04-1])
#3377. Ѳθ2ȷ3 ([2018-07-26-1])
Ѳˤ餺ˤƤ⸶ȷ̤δطõΤ̴طȤʣ¿ͤʤΤۤȤɤξ硤ץ1Ĥ櫓ǤϤʤˤĤơڤΥ롼֥å٤路ȥ (90--91) ˤϤΤʸϤɤǤߤ褦̴ְطʣפȤʸϤʸ˵ϰʲDzˤƤˡ
ʡ뺧Ƥʤͤ¿뺧Ƥ뤬ʡǤʤͤ¿Ȥäơ̤뺧Ϲʡ˱ƶʤȤȤǤϤʤʡԹʤơ뺧ȿȤˤˤϸΤĤشط٤ƤǤϤʤˤʤΤϡ줾θ٤ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
E1 E2 θǤȼĥȤE1 E2 ʤ礬뤳ȡ뤤̤θ E2 礬뤳ȤϡɬȿȤϤʤ E1 ФФ뤤ϰ̤ E2 ȼĥƤĤޤꡤ¾θϤۤɰŪǤϤʤ뤤 E1 E2 פʸΰǤꡤΤ餹ʣθꡤ¾ˤפʸ뤫⤷ʤȤ櫓ˤϥХܤۤʤΤ٤ˤʤͤ⤤СȢۤĤŤƤµȤ̵οͤ⤤롥ξԤȤŪˤ϶̣뤷פˤХ٤θʤΤѤ̻¤
ΰۤʤ븶ޤäƱƶڤܤƤ롥ȤСϵ岹ȲˤϤޤޤʸꡤΰˤۤγưѲʤɼŪʤΤ⤢뤬Ȥäƿʹ֤ǤϤʤȤϤʤ٤⤤̴طʣʤΤ¿¿ͤװƯƤʤĤΤȤۤγưޤȲ˰äƤΤʤСϿʹֳưڤܤƤƶ뤵ʤ뺬Ȥʤˡ
ȷ̤Ͻ۴ŤˤΤ⤷ʤDzҤΩ¤⤿餹⤷ʤդ¤ΤDzԤϤ⤽Ωᡤ줬ʤ¤⤿餹Ȥ롼ˤʤäƤ櫓꼫ͳʳư뤬椨¤Ωξ뤳Ȥ⤢ȤƤ⤹Ф餷ǥäƤҤꤿʤȤȤ⤢Ȥۤɤ褦ˡ̴طʣ
ѲθθݤζȤ
ȥˡˡ ҡˡڤΥ롼֥å5ǡ˼Ҥطʸˡӡ2019ǯ
ɸϡѸ˷ˤƤŪʹͤǤ롥ѸǡԵ§פȾΤŪʸݤ¿ϡĤƤϡֵ§פ1äȤȤǤ롥Феդޤʤǡֺε§ϺԵ§פȤȤ¿§ (regular) Ե§ (irregular) ȤϡŪˤϸߤʬۤˤ餫˶̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ΤŪȤϤ뤬ŪˤХݥؤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤŪʶ̤Ǥ롥
θ§Ҥ٤ƤΤ Fortson (69--70) ΰѤǤ롥Ӹ (comparative_linguistics) κƷ (reconstruction) μˡȤδϢǡŪʰ⤤ȤʤäƤ롥
A guiding principle in historical morphology is that one should reconstruct morphology based on the irregular and exceptional forms, for these are most likely to be archaic and to preserve older patterns. Regular or predictable forms (like the Eng. 3rd singular present takes or the past tense thawed) are generated using the productive morphological rules of the language, and have no claim to being old; but irregular forms (like Eng. is, sang) must be memorized, generation after generation, and have a much greater chance of harking back to an earlier stage of a language's history. (The forms is and sang, in fact, directly continue forms in PIE itself.
ѸˤԵ§ʸݤǧ֤ĤƤϤष§ŪäΤ⤷ʤפ䤦ƤߤȤ褤ƤŪˤϤ̤Ǥ롥դˡʤϲεͯʤ§Ūʸݤ˻פڤƤߤƤۤˤäƤϡϤĤƤԵ§ʸݤɤ櫓ˤβǰ̲褦ˤʤä⤷ʤȡ˸Ūȯۤζ˰դ롥θ§ϱѸˤ⡤ܸˤ⡤¾Τɤθˤ褯ƤϤޤ롥
ֺԵ§Ϻε§פϡˤȤޤʤǤ줿ˤĤơѸˤ鼡ȡ
Ե§פ̾ʣ (ex. feet, geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women) (cf. #3638.رѸ춵٤Ϣ2֤ʤԵ§ʣΤס ([2019-04-13-1]))
Ե§פưγ (ex. sing -- sang -- sung) (cf. #3670.رѸ춵٤Ϣ3֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤס ([2019-05-15-1]))
3ñ -s (cf. ѸϢ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ)
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
߿ʹθѲȤˡ褯ֿѲסֺǶѲפȸƤ֤Ȥ롥ܸǤС֤ȴաפŵθѲϷ褷ƿϤʤ#2132. ȴաar ȴաeru դա ([2015-02-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϾ½鵭Ͽꡤ餯鵯ϤƤѸ˴ؤƤ⡤Ȥ often /t/ ȯ褦ˤʤäƤȤ߿ʹѲȤܤ뤬/t/ ȯΤΤϢʤ³ƤΤǤꡤ̩ˤСֿѲפȤϸƤӤˤ⡤ߤʹѲǤϤˤϰ㤤ʤ˻ϤޤäѲǤϤʤǯʾ塤ˤäƤϿʾ³ƤѲȤ⤤ˤäƤΤǤcf. #860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])ˡ
ŪˤС¿ο͡ѲȤߤʤƤΤϡƤǤˤʤˤΤŤѲǤ롥Ѳ˾˥ƥʤĥäƤؼԤǤ顤ФФ櫤α¿ˤʤ롥Arnold Zwicky Ϥ櫤 "the Recency Illusion" ȸƤ¤˸̯Denison (158) Zwicky ˤ"Just Between Dr. Language and I" ꤹ뵭鼡ΰƤ롥
[...] the Recency Illusion, the belief that things YOU have noticed only recently are in fact recent. This is a selective attention effect. Your impressions are simply not to be trusted; you have to check the facts. Again and again---retro not, double is, speaker-oriented hopefully, split infinitives, etc.---the phenomena turn out to have been around, with some frequency, for very much longer than you think. It's not just Kids These Days. Professional linguists can be as subject to the Recency Illusion as anyone else.
ϢơZwicky "Frequency Illusion" ˤڤƤ롥
[...] Another selective attention effect, which tends to accompany the Recency Illusion, is the Frequency Illusion: once you've noticed a phenomenon, you think it happens a whole lot, even "all the time." Your estimates of frequency are likely to be skewed by your noticing nearly every occurrence that comes past you. People who are reflective about language---professional linguists, people who set themselves up as authorities on language, and ordinary people who are simply interested in language---are especially prone to the Frequency Illusion.
ˤƤϤФСֿѲϻפäŤѲפǤꡤˤʸݤϻפä굩ʸݡסʤˤĤƤϡդޤʤˤǤ뤳ȤõƤ
Denison, David. "Word Classes in the History of English" Chapter 13 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 157--71.
Zwicky, Arnold. "Just between Dr. Language and I." Language Log. 2005. Accessed May 4, 2006, http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002386.html .
ظλŵ٤ѥѥäƤơָѲפξϤκǸˡ̻ŪݥפȤäѸǤС"diachronic typology" ȤȤޤʹʤȤʹʤѸǤ롥ɤ߿ʤƤȡθѲˤȤäƤβ꤬̻Ūݥפ̾βˤĤƤݤФȡʲ4ˤʤ
(1) 19˸ءäӸءˤϡʬŪѲܤ뤢ޤꡤ«ŪѲڻ뤷Ƥ餤
(2) ưѤʤС֤ˤ륿ݥɵ椹뤳Ȥˤä̻֤ˤ륿ݥؤȿʤϤǤ
(3) Ѳ®٤Ȥ
(4) Ѳˤħܤƥݥ
ŪŪ˹ä˸ؤˡƤǤ롥줾ή˲᤹С(1) ˸ؤˤܿΰյäɾ衤ȤȤ
(2) ư (uniformitarian_principle) ˴Ťĥϡ̻ݥפŪפȤʤ붯ĥѲͼܻؤƱˡǤϤʤ˰ռŪܤСϡ̻оȸءפ᤹ܶǽƤ롥
(3) (4) ϴϢ뤬Ѳ䤹ʤ뤤ϡöѲϤʹԤΡˤݤȤ顤ʬषƤߤȤǤ롥ϳΤ˿Ǥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ѳ®٤ˤĤƤ speed_of_change schedule_of_language_change ͡Ƥ˲ǽΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
ݥˤоȸؤȤ2ʬϡ֤ΰ㤤Ǽ¼Ūʴؿ϶ᤤȸƤ뤬ȡ̻Ūݥפȡ̻Ūоȸءפߤ˶ᤤȤˤʤ롥ϡ˳Ť HiSoPra* θǤޤƤоȸˡפιͤˤᤤ
ԡָѲסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ560--82ǡ
(ƽˡء֤⤷ʲΤդͤʤλŵ١ʹⶶŹ2016ǯˤʤɤΡäȴȴʪäܤƤ褦ǶᡤФƤƵˤʤäΤǸ ɧʴƽˡڲ ˡؤͤäʪ --- ̵ǰˤǤӤƤޤä ---١ʳҽǼҡ2018ǯˤǤ롥
ʤ餻ۤɤδ̯ʷ֤Υѥӥ˥䤬äƤϤäꤷʤǥȥɥͤʤΥޥʤɡɤƤ˿ʲΤȶ̣Ĥʤ120θʪ餷饹ȤȾФ륳ȤäƾҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
饤Ԥ֤ˡ (pp. 156--67) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤΤܤ
⤽ֿʲפȤϡɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ñ˸СϤΤǤ
ѲĶƼѤƤȡ
äȴñ˸СֿʲȤѲפǤˤϥݥƥ֤ʰ̣⡤ͥƥ֤ʰ̣⤢ޤñʡѲפʤΤǤ
ޤޤѲѤ뤳Ȥǡ̿¿ͲƤ֤áʤǡʪˤʤäΡפȤפ밦٤ʪ߽ФƤΤǤ
ʸϤϡʪפָפѤƤ⡤ۤܤΤޤ뤳ȤǤ롥
⤽֡ʸΡ˿ʲפȤϡɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ñ˸СϤΤǤ
ѲĶƼѤƤȡ
äȴñ˸СֿʲȤѲפǤˤϥݥƥ֤ʰ̣⡤ͥƥ֤ʰ̣⤢ޤñʡѲפʤΤǤ
ޤޤѲѤ뤳Ȥǡ¿ͲƤ֤áʤǡʸդˤʤäΡפȤפ밦٤߽ФƤΤǤ
ѲĶƼѤƤפȤʬˤĤƤϡʸˡλҶײΩ줫ȿ佤ոФ뤫⤷ʤˤ᤹СΤޤǤ롥ѲϲʹѤȼʤѲǤꡤη̤Ȥ¿¿ͤʡȤ˶ðŪħİ٤줬ޤƤΤǤ롥
֤ͤʸפ̾ؤ顤üԤܤ줽Ρ֤ͤʡפʪξƱ褦мȤƤΰȷɰդΤäǤꡤषȿƤ롥ܸѸ⡤ȡ֤ͤʡʬϤΤޤΤΡ֤ͤܤ⤤ФƤȤ⤷ʤ̴ۤ롥
ѲβΩˤĤƤϡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1])#3354. ָѲϥեǤס ([2018-07-03-1])#3529. Ͽ⤷ƤΤƤΤ ([2018-12-25-1]) ȡ
Ǹ ɧʴƽˡڲ ˡؤͤäʪ --- ̵ǰˤǤӤƤޤä ---١ʳҽǼҡ2018ǯ
ε#3529. Ͽ⤷ƤΤƤΤ ([2018-12-25-1]) ³ƤꡥAitchison ϡִʸפǤʤʾ塤줬⤷ƤΤƤΤȽǤ뤳ȤϤǤʤεθ塤ǤϡʹѤȼäֿפפȤѸϲ֤Ƥ줬Ѳ³ƤȤڵϤΤꤷľä˰ѲƤڵϤʤȤ˻롥ȤȤϡѲˤĤƤϡֿפȡפΩϤɤפȡְפΩʤС־פȡֲפ⡤ֺפֱפⲿʤȤȤˤʤ롥ѲΤǤ롤ȡ
ȤκǸ Aitchison (246) ϡ֤ĤξˤϡѲϼҲŪ˾ޤʤȤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Continual language change is natural and inevitable, and is due to a combination of psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors.
Once we have stripped away religious and philosophical preconceptions, there is no evidence that language is either progressing or decaying. Disruption and therapy seem to balance one another in a perpetual stalemate. These two opposing pulls are an essential characteristic of language.
Furthermore, there is no evidence that languages are moving in any particular direction from the point of view of language structure---several are moving in contrary directions.
Language change is in no sense wrong, but it may, in certain circumstances, be socially undesirable. Minor variations in pronunciation from region to region are unimportant, but change which disrupts the mutual intelligibility of a community can be socially and politically inconvenient. If this happens, it may be useful to encourage standardization --- the adoption of a standard variety of one particular language which everybody will be able to use, alongside the existing regional dialects or languages. Such a situation must be brought about gradually, with tact and care, since a population will only adopt a language or dialect it wants to speak.
Aitchison ϡִʸפǤʤˡֿ⡦פȤΩ̵̣ǤּҲŪ˾ޤ˾ޤʤפȤΩϤǧƤȤȤϡּҲŪ˾ޤפǤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ꤹ뤳ȤϡִʸפεƱ餤褦˻פΤɤ
ϰˤäơޤġθ춦ƱΤˤäơּҲŪ˾ޤλѤϰۤʤɸ⡤ޤŪΤ褦˻פ롥
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
ѲȤɾΤ Language Change: Progress or Decay 路 Aitchison ϡäѲϿʤΤ뤤ʤΤȤˤĤ͡ʳ٤Ƥ롥κǽϤǡԤϿǤǤʤȷŤ롥ͳϡʤʤȤǰˤϡܻؤ٤ʥפ¸ߤȤ뤬ˤƤ줬ʤΤˤĤưפʤĤޤꡤִʸפȤΤǤС¤θѲ˸äƤʤСֿפǤꡤդǤСפǤȽҤ٤뤳ȤǤִʸפʤΤˤĤƤζ̤λʤ¤ꡤȤȤȽǤǤʤϤ
ǤⲾˡִʸפ¤ñǸΨŪ˥ߥ˥ʤȹͤ뤳Ȥϲǽ⤷ʤξˤ礭꤬ΩϤ롥ޤäƸñ㤵ʤ뤤ʣˤ¬ΤȤ꤬cf. #293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1]) #1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#2820. ˤĤơ ([2017-01-15-1])ˡƱΨŪʥߥ˥ȤäƤ¬
ľ Aitchison (237--38) ε˼褦դλ𤬾ɽƤ롥
The term 'progress' implies a movement towards some desired endpoint. What could this be, in terms of linguistic excellence? A number of linguists are in no doubt. They endorse the view of Jespersen, who maintained that 'that language ranks highest which goes farthest in the art of accomplishing much with little means, or, in other words, which is able to express the greatest amount of meaning with the simplest mechanism'.
If this criterion were taken seriously, we would be obliged to rank pidgins as the most advanced languages. As we have already noted, true simplicity seems to be counterbalanced by ambiguity and cumbersomeness. Darwin's confident belief in the 'inherent virtue' of shorter and easier forms must be set beside the realization that such forms often result in confusing homonyms, as in the Tok Pisin hat for 'hot', 'hard', 'hat' and 'heart'.
A straightforward simplicity measure then will not necessarily pinpoint the 'best' language. A considerable number of other factors must be taken into account, and it is not yet clear which they are, and how they should be assessed. In brief, linguists have been unable to decide on any clear measure of excellence, even though the majority are of the opinion that a language with numerous irregularities should be less highly ranked than one which is economical and transparent. However, preliminary attempts to rank languages in this way have run into a further problem.
A language which is simple and regular in one respect is likely to be complex and confusing in others. There seems to be a trading relationship between the different parts of the grammar which we do not fully understand. This has come out clearly in the work of one researcher who compared the progress of Turkish and Serbo-Croatian children as they acquired their respective languages. Turkish children find it exceptionally easy to learn the inflections of their language, which are remarkably straightforward, and they master the entire system by the age of two. But the youngsters struggle with relative clauses (the equivalent of English clauses beginning with who, which, that) until around the age of five. Serbo-Croatian children, on the other hand, have great problems with the inflectional system of their language, which is 'a classic Indo-European synthetic muddle', and they are not competent at manipulating it until around the age of five. Yet they have no problems with Serbo-Croatian relative clauses, which they can normally cope with by the age of two.
Overall, we cannot yet specify satisfactorily just what we mean by a 'perfect' language, except in a very broad sense. The most we can do is to note that a certain part of one language may be simpler and therefore perhaps 'better' than that of another.
Ͽ⤷ƤʤС⤷ƤʤѲƤΤϢơ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1])#3354. ָѲϥեǤס ([2018-07-03-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) 䤽¾εǾҲ𤷤Ƥ褦ˡǯθѲǤŬ (exaptation) ȤѸ졦ǰФʹ롥Lass ʲʪؤؤ˼ͭäơξޤޤʰո蘆ƤLass ϶ˤѲ뤿˳ŬФΤιͤޤˤĤơѲؤŬѲǽŦ褦ˤʤäƤŬθؤؤαѤ˲ŪԤ¿Velde and Norde (1) ˤСɤ3Ĥ롥
ޤʲʪؤγǰؤ˱ѤΤϡŪˤäƸǤϤʤȤΩ줬롥ʪʲȸѲδ֤ˤ˿¤ꡤ䤹䤹Ӥ٤ǤϤʤȤͤϡؼԤΤʤˤϡSchleicher θͭΤɽ19ΡָʪפȤѤؤȲƤޤΤǤϤʤ¤ФԤ뤳ȤƤ뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ⤽ʲʪؤΰˤƤ顤ŬͭʳǰǤϤʤȤո롥Lass Ͽʲʪؤ褯ʤޤޤˡ®˳ǰؤ˱ѤƤޤäΤǤϤʤȤȽǤ롥
3ĤˡŬλȤѲϡǤ¾Ѹ䳵ǰǽʬ˥СǤΤǤꡤƳɬϤʤȤȽ롥㤨СŤƤƤΤŪǶΤΤޤƴطοѸСregrammaticalization, degrammaticalization, functional renewal, hypoanalysis, renovation, morphologization/grammaticalization-from-below, lateral shift, refunctionalization and adfunctionalization, demorphologization, morphosyntactic emancipation, regrammation, secretion ʤɥ꤬ʤ (Velde and Norde 10--11) ˿˥äƺ𤵤ΤϡʤΤȤո
ѲˤȤäƳŬϤɤΤ褦˰֤Ť٤ؿΤϡNorde and Velde ˤäԤޤ줿ŬܳŪʸΤǡȤ줿
Velde, Freek Van de and Muriel Norde. "Exaptation: Taking Stock of a Controversial Notion in Linguistics." Exaptation and Language Change. Ed. Muriel Norde and Freek Van de Velde. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2016. 1--35.
1549ǯThomas Crammer Ի The Book of Common Prayer ʵˤ˽Ф1552ǯˤϡβǤФƤ롥εΰѸȤʤäƤΤ1539ǯ the Great Bible Ǥ롥褽1塤Ŵ1662ǯˡǤεǤ줿ߤ̤ѤƤ뤳οǤϡ1611ǯ the King James Bible ˴ŤƤꡤŪˤϤषݼŪǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ1552ǯǤ1662ǯǤε٤ƤߤȡԤΤۤǯȤƤ100ǯ;٤ˤ⤫餺ŪˤԤŤħȤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤԤͽ̤ꡤ꿷ħƤ⤢ʣ
Gramley (144) ϡNevalainen (1998) θȤʤ顤5ʸˡܤӤƤ롥
| feature | 1552 | 1662 |
|---|---|---|
| 3rd person singular ending | mixed {-th} and {-s} | reversion to {-th} |
| 2nd person singular personal | thou/thee but some ye/you | largely a return to thou/thee |
| nominative ye/you | both ye and you | largely a return to ye |
| nominative which/who | 56 who vs. 129 which | 172 who vs. 13 which |
| present tense plural be/are | 52 are vs. 105 be | 125 are vs. 32 be |
йҲؤǡּҲؤڤפȤ (1) ࡤ(2) (3) Ѳ3Ƥ롥¤ʬ䤹й (45) ΤޤȤʸϤѤȡ
(1) ġĸդϡäʹꡤãˡ˹ä¿ͤʼब롥
(2) ġĸդϡä꤬¿ͤʼΤʤ֤ΤǤ롥
(3) Ѳġĸդϡ¿ͤʼΤʤ¿ä꤬Ť̡ͤҲŪѲ롥
ѸǤС(1) variation, (2) selection, (3) change ȤäȤϳΤ variationist ɸ֤ҲؤǤϤ뤬Ʊ˸ѲˤǤ⤢롥
Ѳ (language_change) äơޤ (1) variation variants ¸ߤƤʤФʤʤcf. #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])#2574. ־ѰۤꡤѲäƤס ([2016-05-14-1])ˡ
ˡüԡʽġˤ variants Τʤ餤줫Ӽ (2) selection β롥
ơѡʤɸƤ͡βФƿΰ̣Ǥ (3) change 뤳ȤˤʤΤcf. #1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) ȡ#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1])ˡ
3Ĥϡ#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich et al. ηǤ§Ȥ⤪˽Ťʤ롥
й ܸϡֶפ롡Ҳ١ʸҡҸʸҿӡ2013ǯ.
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
Aitchison (238--39) ϡѲ "Progress or Decay" Τ줫ȤǤΤʤǡɸȤФƤ롥
[E]ven if all agreed that a perfectly regular language was the 'best', there is no evidence that languages are progressing towards this ultimate goal. Instead, there is a continuous pull between the disruption and the restoration of patterns. In this perpetual ebb and flow, it would be a mistake to regard pattern neatening and regularization as a step forwards. Such an occurrence may be no more progressive than the tidying up of a cluttered office. Reorganization simply restores the room to a workable state. Similarly, it would be misleading to assume that pattern disruption was necessarily a backward step. Structural dislocation may be the result of extending the language in some useful way.
We must conclude therefore that language is ebbing and flowing like the tide, but neither progressing nor decaying, as far as we can tell. Disruptive and therapeutic tendencies vie with one another, with neither one totally winning or losing, resulting in a perpetual stalemate. As the famous Russian linguist Roman Jakobson said over fifty years ago: 'The spirit of equilibrium and the simultaneous tendency towards its rupture constitute the indispensable properties of that whole that is language.'
ȤƤϡѲϿǤǤʤ֤餫äեפκȤˤʤȤեϥեλȤɤݤĤΤ˹뤬κȼΤǤȤǤȤȤϰ̣ʤʤŻƤСե餫äƤΤɬǤ롥Ū˵ǽŪʾ֤ز뤳ȤϽפǤ롥⡤֤ȤȤ˺ƤƤơޤ롥η֤ˤʤǤǤʤʱΥ
Ѳ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1]) ǽҤ٤ѤˤᤤѲϤΥեȤʤΤǤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Aitchison (175--76) ߤ뼫ǽ (systemic_regulation) 夲ĤġˡüԤդȤƤ롥ξǡȤβλˤ3ब̤ȽҤ١⤷Ƥ롥
[L]anguage has a remarkable instinct for self-preservation. It contains inbuilt self-regulating devices which restore broken patterns and prevent disintegration. More accurately, of course, it is the speakers of the language who perform these adjustments in response to some innate need to structure the information they have to remember.
In a sense, language can be regarded as a garden, and its speakers as gardeners who keep the garden in a good state. How do they do this? There are at least three possible versions of this garden metaphor---a strong version, a medium version, and a weak version.
In the strong version, the gardeners tackle problems before they arise. They are so knowledgeable about potential problems that they are able to forestall them. They might, for example, put weedkiller on the grass before any weeds spring up and spoil the beauty of the lawn. In other words, they practice prophylaxis.
In the medium version, the gardeners nip problems in the bud, as it were. They wait until they occur, but then deal with them before they get out of hand like the Little Prince in Saint-Exupéry's fairy story, who goes round his small planet every morning rooting out baobab trees when they are still seedlings, before they can do any real damage.
In the weak version of the garden metaphor, the gardener acts only when disaster has struck, when the garden is in danger of becoming a jungle, like the lazy man, mentioned by the Little Prince, who failed to root out three baobabs when they were still a manageable size, and faced a disaster on his planet.
³ʸ̮ Aitchison ϡȤڵϸĤäƤʤȤ⤭ºݤ˼ϡ֤Υȼ夤2ĤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤդϡװͽɤˤޤǤϴؤʤβ꤬ŦǤȤȤϤ뤷뤤ޤɤޤ줿缣ŤܤȤȤ⤹롥üԡʤƸˤϡͽɰؤǤϤʤоˡȤդǤ롤ȤƤ褤⤷ʤ
ѲΡͽɡפȡּšפȤˤĤƤϡ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1])#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Ѳʸˤˤ "How" "Why" εˤĤơ#784. ˸ؤ abductive discipline ([2011-06-20-1])#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2642. ѲμȻȤߤν̡ ([2016-07-21-1])#3133. Ѳ "how" "why" ([2017-11-24-1])#3175. group thinking tree thinking ([2018-01-05-1]) ޤ how_and_why γƵǹͤƤ
67īʹīΡʡưŪʿաפȤˡõ椹ݤ how why ˤĤƼΤ褦ʸϤäϡʡDzĤ͵»ȤβäΤʤǼ夲Ȥ
why ʸ礭䤤Ǥꡤ䤤Ǥ⤢롥ʤ䤿¸ߤΤʤϵϤʤ˭̿ˤʤäΤʤ²ΤʳؤݽѤޤʹ֤ɽưϡŪˤ why ʸФĤߤȤ꤬롥礭䤤褦ȤСɬŪ礭ʸդˤʤäƤޤ礭ʸդˤϲ٤ʤȤϡϥॷ쥤ȡʰʤ벿ԤˤäפΤ褦ˡϷɡʤȤ˸¤ʤᤤ
ɽԤ뤤ϲʳؼԤޤʤФʤ̤Ȥϡwhy ʸ˰°פͶǤФƶߤ뤳ȡƲ٤ι⤤դǡʤ뤤ɽǡðǰ˾ how ٤Ű뤳ȡʤʤ顤 how ʤȤˤϡ褷 why ã뤳ȤϤǤʤǤ롥
ޤä̤Ȼפwhy ʸФư°פ뤳ȤŪ˿Ȥɬפ㤤٤Ȥơ֥ॷ쥤ȡפˤޤǤޤΤϡޤ˶üǤ롥٤ȤϤȤƤ⤪⤷ȻפΤѤ³ʤСιŪǤ櫓顤why ʸ how ʸκ٤ȤȤˤʤϢ³ΤξüʤΤŪˤϰüʤ why ʸؤܻؤĤĤ⡤Ūˤ¾üʤ how ʸϤ٤ȤʡμݤˤĤƤϰ¸ʤ
Ѳ "how" "why" ⡤Τ褦٤ɵ椷ƤɬפȻפ
ϢεǡJoseph ʸ "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture" ȡѤƤ (cf. #3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1])#3326. ̻ŪȶŪ ([2018-06-05-1])#3327. ѲˤüԤ϶ŪǤ ([2018-06-06-1])) ѲˤˤĤƤκŪƹͤľƤ롤ͥ줿ͤǤ롥
ϡJoseph ŪỊ̇Ĺʲս˺Τ˲ȴƤ
[T]he contact is not really between the languages but is rather actually between speakers of the languages in question . . . . (129)
ϸƤߤФȯۤ˻פ뤬̡뤤ϸܿˤƤ顤Ф˺ƤǤ롥ʲε⻲ȡ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1])
ˡХ륫 (Balkan linguistic_area) ˤܿ夲ʤ顤ͿƤսꡥ
. . . an overemphasis on comparisons of standard languages rather than regional dialects, even though the contact between individuals, in certain parts of the Balkans at least, more typically involved nonstandard dialects . . . (130)
2ĤθѼܿͤݤˡξԤɸŪѼǰƬ֤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤθܿˤƤϤषɸѼɤܿʤΤˤɸѼüԤɤܿˤΤ̤ۤǤϤʤäȤʸǤ롥
Ѥäơָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ؾ塤פǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ
Folk etymology often represents a reasonable attempt on a speaker's part to make sense of, i.e. to render transparent, a sequence that is opaque for one reason or another, e.g. because it is a borrowing and thus has no synchronic parsing in the receiving language. As such, it shows speakers actively working to give an analysis to data that confronts them, even if such a confrontation leads to a change in the input data. Moreover, folk etymology demonstrates that speakers take what the surface forms are --- an observation which becomes important later on as well --- and work with that, so that while they are creative, they are not really looking beyond the immediate phonic shape --- and, in some instances also, the meaning --- that is presented to them. (132)
Ǥ Joseph ϸѲˤüԤָ̱츻ŪȯۤΰյɾˤȤɤޤ餺ǤüԤζפָ̱츻ȤӤĤƤ롥#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2932. salacious ([2017-05-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ˡüԤζȴϢơʬ (reanalysis) ñ㲽ʣˤɤؤ뤫˼1ʸ褦
[W]hen reanalyses occur, they are not always in the direction of simpler grammars overall but rather are often complicating, in a global sense, even if they are simplificatory in a local sense.
ѲΡñ㲽פ˴ؤŪȤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1])#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#1693. §ŪʲѲԵ§ŪʷѲ ([2013-12-15-1]) Ȥ줿
ǸˡѲζŪˤĤƤΰѤƤؼԤ϶Ū˷кȤƵ뤬ɬǤϤʤȤƤ
[T]he grammars linguists construct . . . ought to be allowed to reflect uneconomical "solutions", at least in diachrony, but also, given the relation between synchrony and diachrony argued for here, in synchronic accounts as well.
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
#3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1]) ǡѲˤüԤŪǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ѲʤƤüͤθŪ϶ޤθ̤ƤʤϤʱƶηŪʾʤɤˤϵڤӤĤʤĤޤꡤѲȤüԤιưϡܴۤŪŪǤȤȤ
Joseph (128) ϤüԤζ֤ĥĤġդ˱ŪʸѲȽƤ롥㤨СĹ֤ʣˤ錄Ѳ٤ƤƤǯ (cf. #1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1])) Τ褦ˡϡʤȤ롥ȤΤϡǯؤǤϡºݤüԤ褷Ƽ뤳ȤΤʤƻŪʴȤƤ뤫Ǥ롥㤨С2018ǯλƤ뤢ѸüԤǯδ֤ˡɤαñ̤ñ֤ʤиǯؤεꤹִΨãʤʤɤȤȤϡͤƤߤʤϤǤ롥ǯؤִΨϷиŪƳФ줿ͤǤϤ뤬˿ǡŪŪʸѲؤȲƤޤ
Ѹޤ˿ǯˤ錄äƤȤޤοʿȤή (drift) ˤĤƤƱͤǤ롥ˤ錄ꡤ˸줬ѲƤ褦ˤߤ뤫ȤäơġüԤŪʴѲƤȹͤΤϴְ㤤Ǥ롥ǤϤʤġüԤ϶ŪʴưʤƤˤ줬ޤǽŪ˺Ѥ̤ȤơѲؤȲʤ٤
ϡKeller ξ롤Ѳ˺Ѥָ (invisible_hand) ˤۤʤʤ#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ȡ
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
Keller, Rudi. "Invisible-Hand Theory and Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 113--27.
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