20μήɸؤǤϡѲʤΤꤵƸ椵ƤȤϤäƤ⡤줬鸽ߤˤѲƤ¤ǧ줿櫓ǤϤʤ19θ츦Ǿܺ٤˼줿̤ꡤϾѲƤΤǤꡤѲƤ롥ˡ塤ѲȤ¦̡̻֡ʤȤˤƤ뤤ϸˤƤȤȤǤ롥
ؼԤΤߤʤ餺̤ο͡ˤȤäƤ⡤줬ѲȤܼŪʻ¤Ϥޤ긫Ƥʤ褦˻פ롥줬ѲȤȤϳΤΤäƤ롥ήԸνиȾüиƤ뤷ˡѲä˸ո˴ؤסˤϥǥ䶵ˤˤƤ롥ŵ˿иߤθȤκҤҤȴ뤷ѸˤܸˤȤܤ뤳ȤΤäƤ롥¿οͤˤȤäơѲϤɤ餫Ȥ㳰ŪʽǤꡤ줬˵äƤȤФϤʤΤǤϤʤ
Τ褦ʴФظˤϡͤθո˴ؤ뵬ϰռζΨΤ褤ߥ˥ΤˤϡϰסѤäƤϤʤոεϼʤФʤʤȤռ롥ä˽դϵŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿ְͤǸ경פȤݤͿ䤹ҲˤƸҤѸΤ褦ʸФƤ⡤¿ο͡ϸŪʸäƤ褦ѸΤʸˡäΤäääȻפߡѤ餺˱ɤ³ȿƤ롥ϸ§ȤѲʤ뤤Ѳʤۤ褤ȤѤ줬ѲƤȤ¤ˤƤ롥
Ѳ˵Ťˤ̤ͳȤƤϡƤθѲޤ˺٤ǤꡤʤǤȤȤ롥θѤΤʤǵäƤѲϡߥ˥˳ʤ٤ζˤƷʰæǤ뤿ᡤۤȤγФʤȤγФ줿ȤƤ⡤פǤʤæǤ뤿ᡤ˰ռήꡤ˺Ƥޤ
¤ˤθѤθѤ٤˰ۤʤäƤΤǤꡤ˸ѲƤȤΤ
ؤǽŪ˸ܼ餫ˤ뤳Ȥ̿ȤʬǤʾ塤ѲΤǤȤ¤ФơĤޤǤܤĤƤ櫓ˤϤʤ餫ηǡѲܼˤؤǤФʤФʤʤѲȤ߹ؤɬˤĤƤϡ#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1])#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1]) ʤɤε⻲ͤˤ줿
[2010-07-03-1], [2016-04-13-1]˰³ɸˤĤơѲФ3ĤΩˤĤơε Aitchison Brinton and Arnovick ˤѤƤAitchison ȤΤȤФDzơָѡסָѡס̵ָѡʡˡפҲ𤷤褦
In theory, there are three possibilities to be considered. They could apply either to human language as a whole, or to any one language in particular. The first possibility is slow decay, as was frequently suggested in the nineteenth century. Many scholars were convinced that European languages were on the decline because they were gradually losing their old word-endings. For example, the popular German writer Max Müller asserted that, 'The history of all the Aryan languages is nothing but gradual process of decay.'
Alternatively, languages might be slowly evolving to more efficient state. We might be witnessing the survival of the fittest, with existing languages adapting to the needs of the times. The lack of complicated word-ending system in English might be sign of streamlining and sophistication, as argued by the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen in 1922: 'In the evolution of languages the discarding of old flexions goes hand in hand with the development of simpler and more regular expedients that are rather less liable than the old ones to produce misunderstanding.'
A third possibility is that language remains in substantially similar state from the point of view of progress or decay. It may be marking time, or treading water, as it were, with its advance or decline held in check by opposing forces. This is the view of the Belgian linguist Joseph Vendryès, who claimed that 'Progress in the absolute sense is impossible, just as it is in morality or politics. It is simply that different states exist, succeeding each other, each dominated by certain general laws imposed by the equilibrium of the forces with which they are confronted. So it is with language.'
Aitchison ϡ餫3ΩΤäƤ롥#2531. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" ([2016-04-01-1]) #2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1]) Aitchison ˤѲˤ spaghetti_junction ιͤҲ𤷤褦ˡAitchison ϸѲˤϤ䷹뤳Ȥǧʤ⡤ϡפȤֿפΤ褦ƻŪʲʹѤȤ̵طǤꡤȼθˤ٤ǤȤΩΩäƤ롥ߡ¿˸ؼԤAitchison ¿쾯ʤ̤äѤƤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
͡ѲɤƤ3ΩˤĤơ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ǥ⻲Ȥ Brinton and Arnovick ꡤ"Attitudes Toward Linguistic Change" ꤹΰѤ (20--21) 3ĤΩ줬ɤߤ䤹ޤȤƤ롥
Attitudes Toward Linguistic Change
Jean Aitchison (2001) describes three typical views of language change: as slow deterioration from some perfect state: as slow evolution toward a more efficient state; or as neither progress nor decay. While all three views have at times been held, certainly the most prevalent perception among the general population is that change means deterioration.
Linguistic Corruption
To judge from many schoolteachers, authors of letters to editors, and lay writers on language (such as Edwin Newman or William Safire), language change is always bad. It is a matter of linguistic corruption: a language, as it changes, loses its beauty, its expressiveness, its fineness of distinction, even its grammar. According to this view, English has decayed from some state of purity, its golden age, such as the time when Shakespeare was writing, or Milton, or Pope. People may interpret change in the language as the result of ignorance, laziness, sloppiness, insensitivity, weakness, or perhaps willful rebellion on the part of speakers. Their criticism is couched in moralistic and often emotionally laden terms. For example, Jonathan Swift in 1712 asserted that 'our Language is extremely imperfect; that its daily Improvements are by no Means in Proportion to its daily Corruptions; that the Pretenders to polish and refine it, have chiefly multiplied Abuses and Absurdities; and that in many Instances, it offends against every Part of Grammar' (1957: 6). Such views have prompted critics to try to prevent the decline of the language, to defend it against change, and to admonish speakers to be more careful and vigilant.
Given the inevitability of linguistic change, attested to by the records of all known languages, why is this concept of deterioration so prevalent? One reason is our sense of nostalgia: we resist change of every kind, especially in a world that seems out of our control. As speakers of our language, we feel that we are the best judges of it, and furthermore that it is something that we, in a sense, possess and can control.
A second reason is a concern for linguistic purity. Language may be the most overt indicator of our ethnic and national identity; when we feel that these are threatened, often by external forces, we seek to defend them by protecting our language. Tenets of linguistic purity have not been influential in the history of the English language, which has quite freely accepted foreign elements into it and is now spoken by many different peoples throughout the world. But these feelings are never entirely absent. We see them, for example, in concerns about the Americanization of Canadian or of British English.
A third reason is social class prejudice. Standard English is the social dialect of the educated middle and upper-middle classes. To belong to these classes and to advance socially, one must speak this dialect. The standard is a means of excluding people from these classes and preserving social barriers. Deviations from the standard (which are non-standard or substandard) threaten the social structure. Fourth is a belief in the superiority of highly inflected languages such as Latin and Greek. The loss of inflections, which has characterized change in the English language, is therefore considered bad. A final reason for the belief that change equals deterioration stems from an admiration for the written form. Because written language is more fixed and unchanging than speech, we conclude that the spoken form in use today is fundamentally inferior.
Of the other typical views towards language change, the view that it represents a slow evolution toward some higher state finds expression in the work of nineteenth-century philologists, who saw language as an evolving organism. The Danish linguist Otto Jespersen, in his book Growth and Structure of the English Language (1982 [1905]), suggested that the increasingly analytic nature of English resulted in 'simplification' and hence 'improvement' to the language. Leith (1997: 260) also argues that the historical study of English was motivated by a desire to demonstrate a literary continuity from Old English to the present, resulting in the misleading impression that the language has steadily evolved and improved toward a standard variety worthy of literary expression. The third view, that language change represents the status quo, neither progress nor decay, where every simplification is balanced by some new complexity, underlies the work of historical linguistics in the twentieth century and forms the basis of our text.
1Ѥ2οѤˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1])#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#2527. evolution evolution (1) ([2016-03-28-1]) ȡ3βʳŪΩˤĤƤϡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1])#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2513. Samuels "linguistic evolution" ([2016-03-14-1]) Ȥ줿
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ǯθѲθǤϡѲβָ (invisible_hand) θˤ褦Ȥ Keller λߤΤ褦ˤʤäƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤#8. ̽ڤȸѲ ([2009-05-07-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǰäƤ
Keller (123) Ƥ "invisible-hand explanation" ˡ徯äΤ˷Ǻܤ褦
(micro level) (macro level)
intentional causal
actions consequence
invisible-
hand explanandum
process
ecological conditions
An invisible-hand explanation consists --- ideally --- of three levels:
(a) The depiction of the personal motives, intentions, goals, convictions, and so forth, which form the basis of the individual actions: the nature of the speaker's language and the world he lives in, as far as they are relevant for the speaker's choice of action and his choice of linguistic means.
(b) The depiction of the process that explains the generation of structure by the multitude of individual actions. This process is called the invisible-hand process.
(c) The depiction of the generated structure.
Ρָפˤϡ#2531. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" ([2016-04-01-1]) ȡ#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1]) ˤ spaghetti_junction ȤطꤽǤ롥
Keller, Rudi. "Invisible-Hand Theory and Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 113--27.
ɸϡ#2464. Ѳθ ([2016-01-25-1]) Ǥ줿Ǥ롥ѲͳȤơŤƱ (assimilation)۲ (dissimilation)æû岽ʤɤƤĴΤ䤹ŪȤƤꡤ碌 "the principle of least effort" ʺǾϤθ§ˤ뤤 "ease-theory" ȸƤ֤Ȥ롥Ǥ٤ƤβѲǤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷⤬٤ƤȤС줬ƱͤĴ䤹褯ˤʤäƤϤ¤ˤΤ褦ʾϤʤ
ɸؤβϤǺѤȤкѤΤSamuels (18) 2ۤɰŪʲͿƤΤǡƤSamuels 褦Ȥ䤤ϡΤˤȡ"if such changes are so simple, they should appear in all languages and dialects to a full and equal extent, and not in varying proportions in each" (17) Ǥ롥
Firstly, there must be a limit to the rate and quantity of assimilations, contractions and other rearrangements that is tolerable in a single dialect if intelligibility is to be maintained, so that, even if a large proportion of them are continually occurring in certain colloquial styles, only a small proportion could be in process of acceptance into other styles at any given time. Secondly, the fact that their incidence differs according to language and dialect follows from the very nature of dialects, which owe their existence to development in part-isolation: in each dialect, there are differences in the basis of articulation, in the effects of suprasegmental features on the spoken chain, in the forms that are socially accepted or rejected as status-markers, or selected for functional utility, or merely redistributed at random.
Samuels ϡѲˤʣװͿ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥνװꥹȥåפ褦ȤƤΤǤ롥ǽ䥳ߥ˥θΨӻѰΩȤäĴŪŪǤʤ¦̤ιθɬפȤΤȤĥƤˤʤָϡ䤹ѲפȤñʸѲϡ̤˼뤳ȤǤʤ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ε ([2016-04-01-1]) ˰³"spaghetti junction" ˤĤơϡθݤ˴ؤ Aitchison 1989ǯʸɤΤǡݡȤ롥
Aitchison ϡѥץ˥塼˥ǹä Tok Pisin λꡦˡηϤ͡ʼʤκʤäƤȤȤ˰ӤΤˤʤäƤͻҤѻ "spaghetti junction" θ̤ˤΤTok Pisin ˸뤳Τ褦ηϤѲϡϢʤ¾Υԥ䥯쥪ǤѻƤꡤΤ2ĤΩͤƤȤ1Ĥ Bickerton ʤɤؼԤĥ褦ˡʸˡ˶ŪƯƤꡤѲɬŪˤηϤ˽뤹롤ȤΤΩϡŪҥȤΰҤȤ߹ޤƤꤹ뤿ᡤ"bioprogram" ȸƤФ롥⤦1Ĥιͤϡ졤ǧΡߥ˥˴ؤ͡ʰۤʤߤ˺Ѥ̡ǽŪ˻褦ʲФȤΤΩ줬 "spaghetti junction" Ǥ롥Aitchison (152) ϡ2ܤθʲΤ褦ٻƤ롥
This second approach regards a language at any particular point in time as if it were a spaghetti junction which allows a number of possible exit routes. Given certain recurring communicative requirements, and some fairly general assumptions about language, one can sometimes see why particular options are preferred, and others passed over. In this way, one can not only map out a number of preferred pathways for language, but might also find out that some apparent 'constraints' are simply low probability outcomes. 'No way out' signs on a spaghetti junction may be rare, but only a small proportion of possible exit routes might be selected.
Aitchison (169) ϡ2ĤΩΰ㤤͡ʸɽƤ롥"innate programming" Ф "probable rediscovery" ǤȤѲ "prophylaxis" ͽɡˤФ "therapy" ʼšˤǤʡͽɡפȡּšפˤĤƤϡ#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ȡˡAitchison ϡξΩȿΤȤϡŪ⤷ʤȹͤƤ褦
"spaghetti junction" ΩĤΤǤСθѲβϡФ䤹ƻڡפͽ¬뤫ȤȤˤʤAitchison (170) ϡʸΤ褦äƤ롥
A number of principles combined to account for the pathways taken, principles based jointly on general linguistic capabilities, cognitive abilities, and communicative needs. The route taken is therefore the result of the rediscovery of viable options, rather than the effect of an inevitable bioprogram. At the spaghetti junctions of language, few exits are truly closed. However, a number of converging factors lead speakers to take certain recurrent routes. An overall aim in future research, then, must be to predict and explain the preferred pathways of language evolution.
Τ褦ʸ̤ϸȯȽȯãˤ⿷ʸƤƤ뤫⤷ʤ͡褬ä˽װˤФ䤹ƻڡפѤ졤ˤĤʤηǤΤǤϤʤȡ
Aitchison, Jean. "Spaghetti Junctions and Recurrent Routes: Some Preferred Pathways in Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 151--71.
ŪˤΥ줿2ĤΥ쥪줬˻ȯŸɤꡤ˻ħ˻뤳ȤФФ롥Aitchison (233--34) ˤȡΤ "bioprogram" "spaghetti junction" ȤȤԤ Bickerton ξǤꡤʹ֤ˤʪŪ˥ץव줿ļ̿ꡤ쥪ˤߤŪħϤɬŪ߽ФȤ (see #445. ԥȥ쥪ε˴ؤ ([2010-07-16-1])) Ԥϡ¿ƻϩ spaghetti junction Τ褦ˡԥ줫饯쥪줬ȯãˤϡ͡ʲǽ߽ФΤΡǽ褬ˤФޤꡤǽŪˤ1Ĥνиؼ̤Ȥʥꥪ
ŪˤξȤꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤬ĴƤߤȡ٤ƤΥ쥪줬Ʊϩɤ櫓Ǥʤħȯ櫓ǤʤʤΤǡspaghetti junction ⤬ǤȡAitchison (234) Ƥ롥
spaghetti junction ⤬Ѳδ鶽̣Τϡ쥪ȯã˴ؤƤФǤϤʤ̾θѲ˴ؤƤƱ褦ˡꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ̾θѲˤ͡ʷϩΥץȻפ뤬ΨŪˤϡˤ٤ηʤͽ¬ǽʬʤ꤬ѻΤ¤Ǥ롥ΰ̣Ǥϡۤɺ߹äƤʤ spaghetti junction ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ쥪ȯãȰۤʤΤϡȯã®٤ޤ®ⶹʣ¿ spaghetti junction 椷Ƥ褦ˤߤ
̾θѲȥ쥪ȯãΰ㤤⤷Τ褦®٤¸ˤʤΤǤСԤѻ뤳ȤϡԤǤѻ뤳ȤˤۤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥쥪츦ȸѲϡߤˤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ⤷줺ΤξԤϢưդƤɬפ롥Aitchison (234) ۩
. . . the stages by which pidgins develop into creoles seem to be normal processes of change. More of them happen simultaneously, and they happen faster, than in a full language. This makes pidgins and creoles valuable 'laboratories' for the observation of change.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
3֤ε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1], [2016-03-30-1]) ǡѲʬˤ "evolution" ȤѸ줬ˤȤ館ƤͤȤ櫓ǯθؤˤ "evolution" ϡ٤Ѹ˼깤ĤȾϲäȤ˺Ƥ夷ƤǰǤ뤳Ȥǧ1ʾ³ƤȤäƤ褯1Ĥε䤬롥ؼԤγ̿ŪʻۤαƶΤ19ȾʤΤȤ˸ؤʪؤѳפ˸礦ϤѳפФʤäΤʤ100ǯʾ20ȾˤʤäƤ褦䤯 "linguistic evolution" 졤ɾ褦ˤʤäΤδ֤˸ءʼԡˤˤϲäƤΤ
ˤĤơNerlich ʸߤĤɤǤߤNerlich Ϥζλ֤ͳ(1) 19Ⱦ Schleicher ʲȡ(2) 20Ⱦ Saussure ʬŪиŪˤΩäŪؤؤμήȤʤäȡ(3) 20ȾФˤ Bloomfield Chomsky ϤȤ륢ꥫؤ̣¿üԤڻ뤷Ƥȡ3˵Ƥ롥
(1) ˤĤ Nerlich (104) ϡ Schleicher ϥοʲǤָοפŪݡȤȤѤȤˡοʲμ׳ǰǤ "variation, selection and adaptation" ŬѤ˽ƤޤäȤäȤƤ롥ɸ֤ʤ顤μ¡ιͤΥƤʤäΤǤ롥㤨СˤȤäʪμʬϤޤ2ŪʤΤǤꡤ礿ؿѷβäSchleicher ϸʬˤäƤΤθȯιͤȥμοʲȤƱƤȤäƤ褤Schleicher ϡƤʤäȤ롥
(2) ʳ Saussure ɽ붦ŪؼԤ뤬λ˻ޤǤˤ⡤Schleicher θͭǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤꡤȽƤȽϡѲθؤδؿΤ˷ŪѤ뤳ȤϤʤʤȤˡѲ̻֤ȤΤƤ֤Ƥ֤˴ؿ椵̤Ȥʤäޤlangue ؤδؿƤϤ䤵褦ˤʤȡparole °ѤüԤϼ夲뤳ȤʤʤäϰͤǤȤβΤȤǡѲȤȤʤ¿Ѱۤ뤵줿
Τ褦ʶֽŻϡ(3) ˻äĺޤʬۼθؤʸˡϰ̣ȤθƤ֤ΰȤ뤳Ȥ̤夲Ƥä
(3) λȴФơ褦䤯ؼԤϻѡüԡ̣¿ѰۡѲȤȤγ¦˹äƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤΡֵŤפˤĤơNerlich (106--07) ϼΰǤǮҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
Thus meaning, language change and language use became problems and were mainly discarded from the science of language for reasons of theoretical tidiness: meaning and change are rather messy phenomena. Hence autonomy, synchrony and homogeneity finally enclosed language in a kind of magic triangle that defended it against any sort of indeterminacy, fluctuation or change. But outside the static triangle, that ideal domain of structural and generative linguistics, lies the terra incognita of linguistic dynamics, where one can discover the main sources of linguistic change, contextuality, history and heterogeneity, fields of study that are slowly being rediscovered by post-Chomskyan and post-Saussurean linguists. This terra incognita is populated by a curious species, also recently discovered: the language user! S/he acts linguistically and non-linguistically in a heterogenous and ever-changing world, constantly trying to adapt the available linguistic means to her/his ever changing ends and communicative needs. In acting and interacting the speakers are the real vectors of linguistic evolution, and their choices must be studied if we are to understand the nature of language. It is not enough to stop at a static analysis of language as a product, organism or system. The study of evolutionary processes and procedures should help to overcome the sterility of the old dichotomies, such as those between langue/parole, competence/performance and even synchrony/diachrony.
Τ褦ˤ20Ⱦ̻֤ؤδؿꡤѲȤХοʲȤ櫓ǡʲθؤαѤƳΤǤ롥䡤ǽ Schleicher λߤԤäȤСƱѤϤޤäȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
Nerlich, Brigitte. "The Evolution of the Concept of 'Linguistic Evolution' in the 19th and 20th Century." Lingua 77 (1989): 101--12.
2֤ˤ錄ɸε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1]) ˤĤƤ3ơϡevolution 3θߤʪؤǼƤ˸Ѳ˱Ѥ줦뤫ˤĤƹͤ롥McMahon (334) ꡤ3θǧƤ
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ˤʤäƤƤˤ evolution εκüϡޤˤθǤ evolution ȤƤ롥ޤǤ2εǸƤ褦ˡ1920θȾˤơؤˤ evolution ȤѸˤϼ깤ĤƤޤäؤˤơѸϥβʳŪʤ⡤üʲʹѤӤӤƤ뤳ȤŪʥåƥŽƤʪʳءˤȸʳءˤ°פӤƤ椨ǤꡤǫξԤʿʿСͭѤȤǤ³ǽϻĤ롥Ӥκݤ˵äΩĤ٤ evolution Ȥϡ嵭θ evolution Ǥ롥ˤϴޤޤƤʤʪʲʬǹƤ mutation, variation, natural selection, adaptation ʤɤѸ졦ǰ˸Ѳ˱ѤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
McMahon (334--40) ϡʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤιͻΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ߤΰƱ褯ǤСˡ˸ؤˡʪؤؤ֤٤Ȥ¿षԤΤƤΰǤȼĥƤ롥McMahon (340) ϼ̤
[T]he Darwinian theory of biological evolution, with its interplay of mutation, variation and natural selection, has clear parallels in historical linguistics, and may be used to provide enlightening accounts of linguistic change. Having borrowed the core elements of evolutionary theory, we may then also explore novel concepts from biology, such as exaptation, and assess their relevance for linguistic change. Indeed, the establishment of parallels with historical biology may provide one of the most profitable future directions for historical linguistics.
ʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ε ([2016-03-28-1]) ˰³Ѳˤ evolution βˤĤơ evolution Ū (teleology) Ūʴްդ2θ"A series of related changes in a certain direction" ܤä (1) Ⱥθ (2) ϸѲȤˤƶ̤Ƥ뤬(1) ˥٥ˤĹŪʲʹѤȼä˴طΤФơ(2) ϲʹѤѤΤΡѲˤŪˤϱ̿Ť줿Ťȼĥ롥
üŪˤСŪȤ "effects precede (in time) their final causes" ȤȯۤǤ (qtd. in McMahon 325 from p. 312 of Lass, Roger. "Linguistic Orthogenesis? Scots Vowel Length and the English Length Conspiracy." Historical Linguistics. Volume 1: Syntax, Morphology, Internal and Comparative Reconstruction. Ed. John M. Anderson and Charles Jones. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1974. 311--43.) ̾ŪΩ X ³ Y Ȥ̴طʪ뤬ŪˤƤϡ Y 뤳ȤǤ褦 X 롤롥2ϸȿФ1ĤθѲФȤƻȤƤޤȤפǤ롥㤨СΤʳ [mb], [md], [mg], [nb], [nd], [ng], [ŋb], [ŋd], [ŋg] λҲϢ³ƤƤΤʳǤ [mb], [nd], [ŋg] 3路ƤʤʤäȤ롥̾βŪˤСƱﴱƱ (homorganic assimilation) פȤʤ뤬ŪŪѤȡĴ䤹뤿ƱﴱλҲϢ³ȤʤäפȤʤ롥
ػˤˤƤϡ͡ԤŪȤäƤȿԤƱ餤Ƥ㤨 Jakobson ŪԤäθѤŪοǻBloomfield Lass ϡŪΩ˸ȿФƤ롥McMahon (330--31) ⡤ŪŪŪ (teleology of purpose) ȡֵǽŪ (teleology of function) ʬˤ뤳ȤŪŪܤƤơΥˤĤŪŪƱ˲ǽǤȿMcMahon ηѤơ2ΰ̣ evolution ƹͤȤ
There is a useful verdict of Not Proven in the Scottish courts, and this seems the best judgement on teleology. We cannot prove teleological explanations wrong (although this in itself may be an indictment, in a discipline where many regard potentially falsifiable hypotheses as the only valid ones), but nor can we prove them right; they rest on faith in predestination and the omniscient guiding hand. More pragmatically, alleged cases of teleology tend to have equally plausible alternative explanations, and there are valid arguments against the teleological position. Even the weaker teleology of function is flawed because of the numerous cases where it simply does not seem to be applicable. However, this rejection does not make the concept of conspiracy, synchronic or diachronic, any less intriguing, or the perception of directionality . . . any less real.
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ʪؤˤѸ evolution ƱˡؤǻȤƤ evolution ȤѸΰ̣ˤơֿʲפƤİ뤳ȤοǤ롥McMahon 12 "Linguistic evolution?" Τ褯Ҳ𤷤ƤʤξϤˤĤƤϡ#2260. ʲβ ([2015-07-05-1]) ǤƤΤǻȡˡ
McMahon evolution ˤ3ĤθǧȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲϤ Web3 äƤ1ܤ19Ūʥ (pre-Darwinian) 2ܤŪŪ (teleological) ްդä3ܤϸߤʪؾθɽ
(1) Evolution 1 (McMahon 315)
a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler, or worse condition to a higher, more complex, or better state: progressive development.
(2) Evolution 2 (McMahon 325)
A series of related changes in a certain direction.
(3) Evolution 3 (McMahon 334)
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ϡǤŤ (1) ˤĤƹͤƤߤΰ̣Ǥ "evolution" ϡȯۤޤʳŪʳǰɽʪΤ줾μϡˤ¤ (creation) ǤϤʤž (transformation) ФȯƤȤŪʹͤѤƤ뤬ηžθˤĤƤϡֿפפȤäʹּҲβʹѤȿǤΤȤƤ롥19θسǤ̤äͤȤʪʲˤƤΤ褦ʲʹѤޤƤʤĤޤꡤθؼԤʤΤ٤ƤǤϤʤˤϥοʲɸ֤ʤ⡤θؤαѤ˺ݤƤϡ˴Ѥ˴ѤǻȿǤΤǤꡤǤϥθѲѤȤäƤ褤
ΰ̣Ǥ evolution ؼԤɽȤСAugust Schleicher (1821--68) Ǥ롥Schleicher Hegel (1770--1831) αƶϰʲνȯãƤȹͤ (McMahon 320)
a. The physical evolution of man.
b. The evolution of language.
c. History.
a b c ȡֿפƤc ˻äƤޤȡɤͤޤʳǤ뤫顤Τ߽ФʤäơȤϡפʤȤͤǤ롥ޤơߤϤ٤ƤΰӤɤäƤȤΤSchleicher λۤä
ͤ180ٰۤʤ뤬Ʊ褦˲ʹѤƸѲߤΤ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) Ǥ롥Jespersen ϰˤ٤äŽĤΩ줫顤ޤñ㲽Ρֿפȸ (see #1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]), #432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]))
#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1]) McMahon ѤʸϤǤŦƤȤꡤߡ¿˸ؼԤϡ1ΰ̣Ǥ evolution ȤƤʤΰ̣ϡǤ˸ػŪʤΤȤʤäƤ롥
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ؼԤǤʤ̤¿ο͡ˤϡѲȤȤ館ꡤդȤߤʤߤ롥ʲʹѤäƲ᤹봷ԤθˤĤƤϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) #1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) ˤ
θؼԡä˸ؼԤϡϤΤ褦ʲʹѤȤ̵طˡѲΤȤƤꡤʾǤʲǤʤȼĥ롥ΩˤĤƤϡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) #1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) ǾҲ𤷤θŪΩФƤ1 McMahon (324) ˸ĤΤǡѤƤ
The modern view, at least of historical linguists if not the general public, is simply that languages change; we may try to describe and explain the processes of change, and we may set up a complementary typology which will include a classification of languages as isolating, agglutinating or inflecting; but this morphological typology has no special status and certainly does not represent an evolutionary scale. In general, we have no right to attack change as decay or to exalt it as progress. It is true . . . that individual changes may aid or impair communication to a limited extent, but there is no justification for seeing change as cumulative progress or decline: modern languages, attested extinct ones, and even reconstructed ones are all at much the same level of structural complexity or communicative efficiency. We cannot argue that some languages, or stages of languages, are better than others . . . .
ǤϡѲΤȤä˿Ȥ褦ʲʹѤȼäܻؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤġѲˤĤƤϡ¤줿٤ˤƥߥ˥νˤʤä˸ˤʤäꤹ뤳Ȥ⤢ȽҤ٤Ƥܤͤ롥ϡ#2513. Samuels "linguistic evolution" ([2016-03-14-1]) ǰѤ Samuels (1) "every language is of approximately equal value for the purposes for which it has evolved" Ρ֤褽פȤɽȸƱƤ褦˻פ롥
ѲѲȤڤäƤڤΥʤѲˤˤϡλĬΰܤѤռػŪʴäܶᤷƤʤФʤʤ
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ɸϡ#2513. Samuels "linguistic evolution" ([2016-03-14-1]) ǰټ夲ƹͤƤߤʤ Samuels ܤ̾ "linguistic change" ǤϤʤ "linguistic evolution" ѤΤSamuels ˤȤäơξԤΰ㤤ϲʤΤ20Ⱦ顤٤ϲäƤοʲȤƤ뤬Samuels ѸȤ뤳ȤϡߤθѲͤΩĤٶǤˤĤƵ뵡ơʤ褦˻פΤǡʲ Samuels ƤȻפ "linguistic evolution" Υå
εǤϡ Samuels ˤȤäƤ "linguistic evolution" ַѾ֤ȸߤɽȤȿΤζѹդݤȤȤͻι⤤֡פǤꡤָѲ˴ؤŪȤϡѲƯŪϳؤؤƤѸפȤߤʤŪʤȤ館ѤäƤʤ䤹뤿˰ʲΤ褦ʿޤƤߤ
language-internal and external factors
conservatism or 'inertia' the pressures that work
towards clearer communication
the inherited forms the expressive needs of the present
(= the old) == equilibrium == (= the new)
a considerable margin of tolerance
ʲϡǯ˾褦ˤʤäƤѲ˴ѤǤꡤ˸ؤˤ1ĤĬήȤʤäƤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1])#2260. ʲβ ([2015-07-05-1]) ۤ evolution γƵǴϢ夲Ƥ
Samuels (1) "linguistic evolution" ƸѲ椷Ԥ1ͤθŵŪƬ "linguistic change" ǤϤʤ "linguistic evolution" ȤѸȥѤͳˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ롥
The title of this book ('Linguistic Evolution') was chosen in preference to 'Linguistic Change' although it is about linguistic change. This is because its purpose is to attempt an examination of the large complex of different factors involved, and the title 'Linguistic Change' might have entailed an oversimplification.
Ѳˤʣװʣ˴ͿƤ (multiple causation of language change)ʣޤñ㲽Ƥ "change" ȤưȤȤȤΤ褦ΰѤ³ơSamuels (1) "linguistic evolution" ȤѸ줬䤹ȤǧƤꡤդ¥Ƥ롥"evolution" ֿ⡤ʡפȤƻŪʴްդĤȤ뤫
Nevertheless 'evolution' is itself open to the misunderstanding that some sort of progress is implied, that a clearer or more effective means of communication has been achieved as a result of it. That meaning of 'evolution' is not intended here. We are not concerned here with the prehistoric origins of human language, and, as has often been pointed out, there is today no such thing as a 'primitive' language, every language is of approximately equal value for the purposes for which it has evolved, whether it belongs to an advanced or a primitive culture.
ǤϡSamuels Τ "linguistic evolution" ȤϤʤΤϡѾ֤ȸߤɽȤȿΤζѹդݤȤȤͻι⤤֤ȤȤΤ褦
. . . it would appear, on the one hand, that both externally and internally in language development an equilibrium must be maintained between the old and the new, between the inherited forms and the expressive needs of the present; but at the same time, that the margin of tolerance and choice in the maintenance of that equilibrium is probably fairly wide, except, that is, for certain especial points of pressure that vary in each era. It is in that sense that 'evolution' is intended here.
Samuels ˤȤäơʤơߤ¿θʲԤˤȤäơˡ"linguistic evolution" ȤϡѲ˴ؤŪȤϡѲƯŪϳؤؤƤѸǤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1]) Ǿ줿Samuels ϸѲȤװͤǤδŪΩȤơIntralinguistic Extralinguistic ͤƤꡤԤϤ Intrasystemic Extrasystemic ʬ롥Samuels (7) ˤطޤѤƼȡʲ̤Ǥ롥
Intralinguistic Intrasystemic
Extrasystemic 1 (linguistic sense only)
Extralinguistic Extrasystemic 2 (non-linguistic sense, here not used)
Ѳϸν̿Ȥ⤤ۤŪʤΤǤꡤźȤ줿Ϥʤ줯餤ߤƤʤ⡤θޤ餫ȤƤʤΤԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥⤽⡤ְ̣פȼʤʱˤѲȤΤϤɤȤʤΤạ̈ѲȤΤ䤹Ѳ뤳ȤïȤΤؤκǤ̥ŪǤ롥
ѲθˤĤƤϡŤ͡⤬ƤAlgeo and Pyles (34--35) ȤơĤɽŪʤ Ҳ𤷤褦
ޤ2ĤθABܿAüԤBԴ˽ȤAȯħBػۤȤȤ롥СˡظȯħƳ륱ϡظ첾 (substratum_theory) ȸƤФ롥դˡظȯħظ˻ۤ졤Ū˸Ԥ˲Ѳˤ "superstratum theory" ȸƤФ롥
ʤ٤ߤηֳ֤Ȥʤ褦ĴƯΤǤϤʤȤ "phonological space" ʲ֡ˤδ⤢롥ܸΤ褦첻Ȥ [i, e] 첻Ȥ [u, o, ɑ] 첻ηϤϡ褯ѹդμ줿֤ǤꡤŪѲˤѹդμƤʤ֤ϡѹդܻؤѲ䤹⤷ʤ
Ʊ (assimilation) ۲ (dissimilation)æ (elision) (intrusion)ۤˡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) Ǽ褦ʳƼβظˤϡ "ease of articulation" ĴưפˤȤưŤ褦˻פ롥Ť龧ƤǤϤ뤬⤷줬ѲͣθȤС٤Ƥθ줬Ĵ䤹νؤȵ夷ƤޤȤˤʤäơϡĤꤦ븶1ĤˤʤȤ롥
üԤΰռٴͿβѲ⤢롥#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) Ǹ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥƿ줿褦ˡcomptroller ֻҲ [mptr] ȯ褦ˤʤäȤˤϰ spelling_pronunciation äȤˤʤ롥ޤ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡchaise longue chaise lounge Ȥȯ褦ˤʤäΤϡָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ˤΤǤ롥
ҿȯؤΰռ뤳Ȥˤä꽤 (hypercorrection) ⡤Ѳ1װȹͤ롥talkin' somethin' Τ褦 g æȯ¤ޤפޤꡤ g ͽʤĶǤ g [ɪŋ] ȯ褦ʥǤ롥㤨 chicken Virgin Islands 줾 chicking, Virging Islands ʤɤȯѲ롥Ϣơrajah, cashmere, kosher ʤɤλˡͽʤä /ʒ/ 褦ˤʤä̲ (overgeneralization) ⤢롥
͡ʲ⤬ƤƤñȤDzѲԤȤϤǤʤʣװͿƤ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥɬפ
Ѳθ˸¤餺Ū˸Ѳθ˴ؤƤϡ#442. Ѳθ([2010-07-13-1]) Ȥ줿
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
ε#2438. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ (2) ([2015-12-30-1]) ǡ첻ܤαѸֻˤˤյˤĤƹͻκɾߤǤϡ첻ܤαѸ첻˾ΰյϲ첻ܤϡʤ1Ū˲ѲǤ뤫顤δΰյɾǽפǤ롥
Ѥ Brinton and Arnovick (313) 첻ܤβ˾ΰյˤĤƾܤΤƤ롥
[The Great Vowel Shift] eliminated the distinction between long and short vowels that had characterized both the Old and Middle English phonological systems. The long vowels were replaced by either diphthongs or tense vowels, which contrasted with the lax short vowels. Thus, the vowel system underwent a significant change from one based on distinctions of quantity (e.g. OE god 'deity' vs gōd ('good') to one based on distinctions of quality. While modern English does have long and short vowels (e.g. sea vs ceased), this distinction is now merely an allophonic difference, completely predictable by the voicing qualities or number of consonants that follow the vowel.
첻ܤȤơѸ첻ηϤ̤˴ŤΤ˴ŤΤؤƤ뤲ȤλŦϡŪĽפƶǤ롥緶ˤСҲγ̿ž褦ѿȤ֤ǤϤʤ첻̤ζ̤Ż뤹ܸΤ褦ʸüԤˤȤäơѸβγؽϰפʤ첻ܤǤΰüȤȤˤʤ롥ܸüԤˤȤäƤϡ첻ܰ첻ηϤΤۤߤ䤹ä˰㤤ʤ
벻Ѳθβ˾˰֤ŤŪɾȤߤϡޤǤԤƤ㤨С첻Ѳ˴ؤƤϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1])#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1])#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬϡ ([2015-01-07-1]) ƤȤǤ롥
Τ褦Ūɾ켫Τϡä˸ؤˤƲ̣ΤʤΤΤ褦ɾطʤˤϡή (drift) Ū (teleology) ȤäѲѤε̣⸫줹롥첻ܤ̤ơ˵ (historiography) ȤĤߤˤĤƺƹͤ뵡Ȥʤä
2015ǯ hellog ɡ꤬Ȥޤ2016ǯꤤޤ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ѸˤǤϡ̾졤ư졤ƻΤ褦ʼ礿ʻˤơ -e ؿʿˤüƤäȤаޤ롥-e ξü®٤ (cf speed_of_change, schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡʻ֤Ǻä̾ưζˤƤϾüŪᤫäƻˤüϤä٤Chaucer ɽѸǤ⽽ʬݤƤ (Minkova 312) ϡʤƻѲޤ -e ٤ޤǾüΤˤĤƹͤ
Minkova ηꤷƤСäñηƻμѲޤˤ -e ϡݻ䤹ΧưŤäȤȤǤ롥㤨Сthe goode man Τ褦ʡ괧ܷƻ̾פȤ칽¤ˤƤϡñƻ˶ -e դȤˤäơ嶯嶯ιΧ (eurhythmy) ݤ䤹Ĥޤꡤ֤ȱΧפˡŪ -e ŪפȤ줿Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
դ٤2Ĥ롥1ĤϡűѸѸŪᤵƤ -e eurhythmy ݤĤ٤üȤ줿ȤΤǤꡤ-e eurhythmy 餿˳٤ŪˤʤĶ줿櫓ǤϤʤȤȤeurhythmy θ̤ϡѶŪȤöŪʸ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥
2ܤˡ-e ݻȤ eurhythmy θ̤Ĺ³15--16ʹߤˤϷ̤ȤƸüζϤĬή˶ʤäȤ¤롥λ¤ϡeurhythmy Ф뵿ǰ뤫⤷ʤeurhythmy θ̤켫ΤˤäϤꤷȤϡʬˤ뤳Ȥeurhythmy ϡŪ˱ѸȤηϤ˹夯ѤƤװǤǧƤ褤ηǺѤƤ¾νװȤδطˤŪ˵ǽƤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥äơ15--16˷ƻޤ -e ṳ̈Ȥ "dysrhythmy" ȤƤ⡤ eurhythmy ưŤ¾νװκϤäΤȹͤФ褯λ˴ؤ eurhythmy ⼫ΤѤɬפϤʤMinkova (322--23) ϡƻ -e ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . the claim laid on rules of eurhythmy in English can be weakened and ultimately overruled by other factors such as the expansion of segmental phonological rules of final schwa deletion, a process which depends on and is augmented by the weak metrical position of the deletable syllable. The 15th century reversal of the strength of the eurhythmy rules relative to other rules is not surprising. Extremely powerful morphological analogy within the adjectives, analogy with the demorphologization of the -e in the other word classes, as well as sweeping changes in the syntactic structure of the language led to what may appear to be a tendency to 'dysrhythmy' in the prosodic organization of some adjectival phrases in Modern English. . . . The entire history of schwa is, indeed, the result of a complex interaction of factors, and this is only an instance of the varying force of application of these factors.
ѸˤˤƻˤĤƤϡ#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])#688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1]) ۤilame (= Inflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English) γƵȡ
ʤ伫Ȥ⤳ˤĤʸ2ܤۤɽƤޤ[1] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Levelling of Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science 73 (2012): 255--73. [2] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Decreasing Relevance of Number, Case, and Definiteness to Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus."إ硼įơ٥硼20ǯǰʸԡˡǡ2014ǯ273--99ǡˡ
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." ''Papers from the 5th International
ѸˤǤϡ̾졤ư졤ƻΤ褦ʼ礿ʻˤơ -e ؿʿˤüƤäȤаޤ롥-e ξü®٤ (cf speed_of_change, schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡʻ֤Ǻä̾ưζˤƤϾüŪᤫäƻˤüϤä٤Chaucer ɽѸǤ⽽ʬݤƤ (Minkova 312) ϡʤƻѲޤ -e ٤ޤǾüΤˤĤƹͤ
Minkova ηꤷƤСäñηƻμѲޤˤ -e ϡݻ䤹ΧưŤäȤȤǤ롥㤨Сthe goode man Τ褦ʡ괧ܷƻ̾פȤ칽¤ˤƤϡñƻ˶ -e դȤˤäơ嶯嶯ιΧ (eurhythmy) ݤ䤹Ĥޤꡤ֤ȱΧפˡŪ -e ŪפȤ줿Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
դ٤2Ĥ롥1ĤϡűѸѸŪᤵƤ -e eurhythmy ݤĤ٤üȤ줿ȤΤǤꡤ-e eurhythmy 餿˳٤ŪˤʤĶ줿櫓ǤϤʤȤȤeurhythmy θ̤ϡѶŪȤöŪʸ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥
2ܤˡ-e ݻȤ eurhythmy θ̤Ĺ³15--16ʹߤˤϷ̤ȤƸüζϤĬή˶ʤäȤ¤롥λ¤ϡeurhythmy Ф뵿ǰ뤫⤷ʤeurhythmy θ̤켫ΤˤäϤꤷȤϡʬˤ뤳Ȥeurhythmy ϡŪ˱ѸȤηϤ˹夯ѤƤװǤǧƤ褤ηǺѤƤ¾νװȤδطˤŪ˵ǽƤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥äơ15--16˷ƻޤ -e ṳ̈Ȥ "dysrhythmy" ȤƤ⡤ eurhythmy ưŤ¾νװκϤäΤȹͤФ褯λ˴ؤ eurhythmy ⼫ΤѤɬפϤʤMinkova (322--23) ϡƻ -e ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . the claim laid on rules of eurhythmy in English can be weakened and ultimately overruled by other factors such as the expansion of segmental phonological rules of final schwa deletion, a process which depends on and is augmented by the weak metrical position of the deletable syllable. The 15th century reversal of the strength of the eurhythmy rules relative to other rules is not surprising. Extremely powerful morphological analogy within the adjectives, analogy with the demorphologization of the -e in the other word classes, as well as sweeping changes in the syntactic structure of the language led to what may appear to be a tendency to 'dysrhythmy' in the prosodic organization of some adjectival phrases in Modern English. . . . The entire history of schwa is, indeed, the result of a complex interaction of factors, and this is only an instance of the varying force of application of these factors.
ѸˤˤƻˤĤƤϡ#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])#688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1]) ۤilame (= Inflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English) γƵȡ
ʤ伫Ȥ⤳ˤĤʸ2ܤۤɽƤޤ[1] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Levelling of Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science 73 (2012): 255--73. [2] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Decreasing Relevance of Number, Case, and Definiteness to Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus."إ硼įơ٥硼20ǯǰʸԡˡǡ2014ǯ273--99ǡˡ
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." ''Papers from the 5th International
³ơGould and Vrba γŬ (exaptation) ꡥGould and Vrba (11--13) ϡʲˤ볰ŬȤѸȳǰν4ۤɻŦƤ롥
(1) Ŭϡ "preadaptation" տ魯Ū (teleology) ŪʴްդʧƤ롥 "preadaptation" ϡѸηϤˤƤ "preaptation" ȸƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤλ¤ˤƹͤ줿 "exaptation" ΰʤ "potential, but unrealized, exaptations" (11) ȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(2) 1˳Ŭ2ŬѤȤ"Feathers, in their basic design, are exaptations for flight, but once this new effect was added to the function of thermoregulation as an important source of fitness, feathers underwent a suite of secondary adaptations (sometimes called post-adaptations) to enhance their utility in flight" (11). Ŭˤäޤ줿θ塤ŬѤβФƤ˵ǽŪˤʤäƤ椯ȤȤϡ̤ΤȤǤ롥
(3) Ŭλ̵¤Ǥꡤ٤ࡥ"[T]he enormous pool of nonaptations must be the wellspring and reservoir of most evolutionary flexibility. We need to recognize the central role of 'cooptability for fitness' as the primary evolutionary significance of ubiquitous nonaptation in organisms" (12). Ϣơ"[A]ll exaptations originate randomly with respect to their effects" (12) Ǥ롥
(4) Ŭ⤿餷ϡnonaptation ä⤷ʤ adaptation ä⤷ʤ"Exaptations . . . are not fashioned for their current role and reflect no attendant process beyond cooptation . . .; they were built in the past either as nonaptive by-products or as adaptations for different roles."
Gould and Vrba (13) ϡȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
We suspect . . . that the subjects of nonaptation and cooptability are of paramount importance in evolution. . . . The flexibility of evolution lies in the range of raw material presented to processes of selection.
ϡ#2155. Ѳȡ̵٤δӡס ([2015-03-22-1]) ǰѤ Lass θѲˤ "The joys of idleness" ľ̤ͤǤ롥
Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow